14 Principles of Management (HENRY FAYOL)

1. Division of Labor
a. Henri Fayol has stressed on the specialization of jobs.
b. He recommended that work of all kinds must be divided & subdivided and allotted to various persons
according to their expertise in a particular area.
c. Subdivision of work makes it simpler and results in efficiency.
d. It also helps the individual in acquiring speed, accuracy in his performance.
e. Specialization leads to efficiency & economy in spheres of business.
2. Party of Authority & Responsibility
a. Authority & responsibility are co-existing.
b. If authority is given to a person, he should also be made responsible.
c. In a same way, if anyone is made responsible for any job, he should also have concerned authority.
d. Authority refers to the right of superiors to get exactness from their sub-ordinates whereas responsibility
means obligation for the performance of the job assigned.
e. There should be a balance between the two i.e. they must go hand in hand.
f. Authority without responsibility leads to irresponsible behavior whereas responsibility without authority
makes the person ineffective.
3. Principle of One Boss
a. A sub-ordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only one boss at a time.
b. In other words, a sub-ordinate should not receive instructions from more than one person because -

- It undermines authority
- Weakens discipline
- Divides loyalty
- Creates confusion
- Delays and chaos
- Escaping responsibilities
- Duplication of work
- Overlapping of efforts

c. Therefore, dual sub-ordination should be avoided unless and until it is absolutely essential.
d. Unity of command provides the enterprise a disciplined, stable & orderly existence.
e. It creates harmonious relationship between superiors and sub-ordinates.
4. Unity of Direction
a. Fayol advocates one head one plan which means that there should be one plan for a group of activities
having similar objectives.
b. Related activities should be grouped together. There should be one plan of action for them and they
should be under the charge of a particular manager.
c. According to this principle, efforts of all the members of the organization should be directed towards
common goal.
d. Without unity of direction, unity of action cannot be achieved.
e. In fact, unity of command is not possible without unity of direction.

Therefore it is obvious that they are different from each other but they are dependent on each other i.e. unity of direction
is a pre-requisite for unity of command. But it does not automatically comes from the unity of direction.

5. Equity
a. Equity means combination of fairness, kindness & justice.
b. The employees should be treated with kindness & equity if devotion is expected of them.
c. It implies that managers should be fair and impartial while dealing with the subordinates.
d. They should give similar treatment to people of similar position.
e. They should not discriminate with respect to age, caste, sex, religion, relation etc.
f. Equity is essential to create and maintain cordial relations between the managers and sub-ordinate.
g. But equity does not mean total absence of harshness.
h. Fayol was of opinion that, “at times force and harshness might become necessary for the sake of equity”.
6. Order
a. This principle is concerned with proper & systematic arrangement of things and people.
b. Arrangement of things is called material order and placement of people is called social order.
c. Material order- There should be safe, appropriate and specific place for every article and every place to be
effectively used for specific activity and commodity.
d. Social order- Selection and appointment of most suitable person on the suitable job. There should be a
specific place for every one and everyone should have a specific place so that they can easily be contacted
whenever need arises.
7. Discipline
a. According to Fayol, “Discipline means sincerity, obedience, respect of authority & observance of rules
and regulations of the enterprise”.
 b. This principle applies that subordinate should respect their superiors and obey their order.
c. It is an important requisite for smooth running of the enterprise.
d. Discipline is not only required on path of subordinates but also on the part of management.
e. Discipline can be enforced if -

- There are good superiors at all levels.

- There are clear & fair agreements with workers.
- Sanctions (punishments) are judiciously applied.

8. Initiative
a. Workers should be encouraged to take initiative in the work assigned to them.
b. It means eagerness to initiate actions without being asked to do so.
c. Fayol advised that management should provide opportunity to its employees to suggest ideas,
experiences& new method of work.
d. It helps in developing an atmosphere of trust and understanding.
e. People then enjoy working in the organization because it adds to their zeal and energy.
f. To suggest improvement in formulation & implementation of place.
g. They can be encouraged with the help of monetary & non-monetary incentives.
9. Fair Remuneration
a. The quantum and method of remuneration to be paid to the workers should be fair, reasonable,
satisfactory & rewarding of the efforts.
b. As far as possible it should accord satisfaction to both employer and the employees.
c. Wages should be determined on the basis of cost of living, work assigned, financial position of the
business, wage rate prevailing etc.
d. Logical & appropriate wage rates and methods of their payment reduce tension & differences between
workers & management creates harmonious relationship and pleasing atmosphere of work.
e. Fayol also recommended provision of other benefits such as free education, medical & residential
facilities to workers.
10. Stability of Tenure
a. Fayol emphasized that employees should not be moved frequently from one job position to another i.e.
the period of service in a job should be fixed.
b. Therefore employees should be appointed after keeping in view principles of recruitment & selection but
once they are appointed their services should be served.
c. According to Fayol. “Time is required for an employee to get used to a new work & succeed to doing it
well but if he is removed before that he will not be able to render worthwhile services”.
d. As a result, the time, effort and money spent on training the worker will go waste.
e. Stability of job creates team spirit and a sense of belongingness among workers which ultimately increase
the quality as well as quantity of work.
11. Scalar Chain
a. Fayol defines scalar chain as ’The chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest”.
b. Every orders, instructions, messages, requests, explanation etc. has to pass through Scalar chain.
c. But, for the sake of convenience & urgency, this path can be cut shirt and this short cut is known as Gang
Plank.
d. A Gang Plank is a temporary arrangement between two different points to facilitate quick & easy
communication as explained below:

In the figure given, if D has to communicate with G he will first send the communication upwards with
the help of C, B to A and then downwards with the help of E and F to G which will take quite some time
and by that time, it may not be worth therefore a gang plank has been developed between the two.

e. Gang Plank clarifies that management principles are not rigid rather they are very flexible. They can be
moulded and modified as per the requirements of situations
12. Sub-Ordination of Individual Interest to General Interest
a. An organization is much bigger than the individual it constitutes therefore interest of the undertaking
should prevail in all circumstances.
b. As far as possible, reconciliation should be achieved between individual and group interests.
c. But in case of conflict, individual must sacrifice for bigger interests.
d. In order to achieve this attitude, it is essential that –
 - Employees should be honest & sincere.
- Proper & regular supervision of work.
- Reconciliation of mutual differences and clashes by mutual agreement. For example, for change of
location of plant, for change of profit sharing ratio, etc.

13. Espirit De’ Corps (can be achieved through unity of command)

a. It refers to team spirit i.e. harmony in the work groups and mutual understanding among the members.
b. Spirit De’ Corps inspires workers to work harder.
c. Fayol cautioned the managers against dividing the employees into competing groups because it might
damage the moral of the workers and interest of the undertaking in the long run.
d. To inculcate Espirit De’ Corps following steps should be undertaken -
 There should be proper co-ordination of work at all levels
 Subordinates should be encouraged to develop informal relations among themselves.
 Efforts should be made to create enthusiasm and keenness among subordinates so that they can
work to the maximum ability.
 Efficient employees should be rewarded and those who are not up to the mark should be given a
chance to improve their performance.
 Subordinates should be made conscious of that whatever they are doing is of great importance to
the business & society.
e. He also cautioned against the more use of Britain communication to the subordinates i.e. face to face
communication should be developed. The managers should infuse team spirit & belongingness. There
should be no place for misunderstanding. People then enjoy working in the organization & offer their best
towards the organization.
14. Centralization & De-Centralization
a. Centralization means concentration of authority at the top level. In other words, centralization is a
situation in which top management retains most of the decision making authority.
b. Decentralization means disposal of decision making authority to all the levels of the organization. In other
words, sharing authority downwards is decentralization.
c. According to Fayol, “Degree of centralization or decentralization depends on no. of factors like size of
business, experience of superiors, dependability & ability of subordinates etc.
d. Anything which increases the role of subordinate is decentralization & anything which decreases it is
centralization.
e. Fayol suggested that absolute centralization or decentralization is not feasible. An organization should
strike to achieve a lot between the two.

Fayol's Six Functions of Management - Fayol's six primary functions of management, which go hand in hand with the
Principles, are as follows:

1. Forecasting.
2. Planning. Planning (Prevoyance)
3. Organizing.
4. Commanding.
5. Coordinating.
6. Controlling.

What is a 'Code Of Ethics'

A code of ethics is a guide of principles designed to help professionals conduct business honestly and with integrity. A
code of ethics document may outline the mission and values of the business or organization, how professionals are
supposed to approach problems, the ethical principles based on the organization's core values and the standards to which
the professional is held

CODE OF ETHICS FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS

Pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (e), Article 11, of R.A. No. 7836, otherwise known as the Philippine Teachers
Professionalization Act of 1994 and paragraph (a), section 6, P.D. No. 223, as amended, the Board for Professional
Teachers hereby adopt the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers.

Article I: Scope and Limitations

Section 1. The Philippine Constitution provides that all educational institution shall offer quality education for all
competent teachers. Committed to its full realization, the provision of this Code shall apply, therefore, to all teachers in
schools in the Philippines.
Section 2. This Code covers all public and private school teachers in all educational institutions at the preschool, primary,
elementary, and secondary levels whether academic, vocational, special, technical, or non formal. The term “teacher”shall
include industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing supervisory and /or administrative functions
in all school at the aforesaid levels, whether on full time or part time basis.
-
Article II: The Teacher and the State
Section 1. The schools are the nurseries of the future citizens of the state; each teacher is a trustee of the cultural and
educational heritage of the nation and is under obligation to transmit to learners such heritage as well as to elevate
national morality, promote national pride, cultivate love of country, instil allegiance to the constitution and for all duly
constituted authorities, and promote obedience to the laws of the state.
Section 2. Every teacher or school official shall actively help carry out the declared policies of the state, and shall take an
oath to this effect.
Section 3. In the interest of the State and of the Filipino people as much as of his own, every teacher shall be physically,
mentally and morally fit.
Section 4. Every teacher shall possess and actualize a full commitment and devotion to duty.
Section 5. A teacher shall not engage in the promotion of any political, religious, or other partisan interest, and shall not,
directly or indirectly, solicit, require, collect, or receive any money or service or other valuable material from any person
or entity for such purposes.
Section 6. Every teacher shall vote and shall exercise all other constitutional rights and responsibility.
Section 7. A teacher shall not use his position or official authority or influence to coerce any
other person to follow any political course of action.
Section 8. Every teacher shall enjoy academic freedom and shall have privilege of expounding the product of his
researches and investigations; provided that, if the results are inimical to the declared policies of the State, they shall be
brought to the proper authorities for appropriateremedial action.

Article III: The Teacher and the Community

Section 1. A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the youth; he shall, therefore, render the best
service by providing an environment conducive to such learning and growth.
Section 2. Every teacher shall provide leadership and initiative to actively participate in community movements for moral,
social, educational, economic and civic betterment.
Section 3. Every teacher shall merit reasonable social recognition for which purpose he shall behave with honour and
dignity at all times and refrain from such activities as gambling, smoking, drunkenness, and other excesses, much less
illicit relations.
Section 4. Every teacher shall live for and with the community and shall, therefore, study and understand local customs
and traditions in order to have sympathetic attitude, therefore, refrain from disparaging the community.
Section 5. Every teacher shall help the school keep the people in the community informed
about the school’s work and accomplishments as well as its needs and problems.
Section 6. Every teacher is intellectual leader in the community, especially in the barangay, and shall welcome the
opportunity to provide such leadership when needed, to extend counselling services, as appropriate, and to actively be
involved in matters affecting the welfare of the people.
Section 7. Every teacher shall maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official relations
with other professionals, with government officials, and with the people, individually or collectively.
Section 8. A teacher possesses freedom to attend church and worships as appropriate, but shall not use his positions and
influence to proselyte others.

Article IV: A Teacher and the Profession

Section 1. Every teacher shall actively insure that teaching is the noblest profession, and shall manifest genuine
enthusiasm and pride in teaching as a noble calling.
Section 2
Every teacher shall uphold the highest possible standards of quality education, shall make the best preparations for the
career of teaching, and shall be at his best at all times and in the practice of his profession.
Section 3. Every teacher shall participate in the Continuing Professional Education (CPE) program of the Professional
Regulation Commission, and shall pursue such other studies as will improve his efficiency, enhance the prestige of the
profession, and strengthen his competence,virtues, and productivity in order to be nationally and internationally
competitive.
Section 4. Every teacher shall help, if duly authorized, to seek support from the school, but shall not make improper
misrepresentations through personal advertisements and other questionable means.
Section 5. Every teacher shall use the teaching profession in a manner that makes it dignified means for earning a decent
living.

Article V: The Teachers and the Profession

Section 1. Teachers shall, at all times, be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, mutual
confidence, and faith in one another, self sacrifice for the common good; and full cooperation
with colleagues. When the best interest of the learners, the school, or the profession is at stake in any controversy,
teachers shall support one another.
Section 2. A teacher is not entitled to claim credit or work not of his own, and shall give due credit for the work of others
which he may use.
Section 3. Before leaving hisposition, a teacher shall organize for whoever assumes the position such records and other
data as are necessary to carry on the work.
Section 4. A teacher shall hold inviolate all confidential information concerning associates and the school, and shall
not divulge to anyone documents which has not been officially released, or remove records from files without permission.
Section 5. It shall be the responsibility of every teacher to seek correctives for what may appear to be an unprofessional
and unethical conduct of any associate. However, this may be done only if there is incontrovertible evidence for such
conduct.
Section 6. A teacher may submit to the proper authorities any justifiable criticism against anassociate, preferably in
writing, without violating the right of the individual concerned.
Section 7. A teacher may apply for a vacant position for which he is qualified; provided that he respects the system of
selection on the basis of merit and competence; provided, further, that all qualified candidates are given the opportunity to
be considered.

Article VI: The Teacher and Higher Authorities in the Profession

Section 1. Every teacher shall make it his duty to make an honest effort to understand and support the legitimate policies
of the school and the administration regardless of personal feeling or private opinion and shall faithfully carry them out.
Section 2. A teacher shall not make any false accusations or charges against superiors, especially under anonymity.
However, if there are valid charges, he should present such under oath to competent authority.
Section 3. A teacher shall transact all of ficial business through channels except when special conditions warrant a
different procedure, such as when special conditions are advocated but are opposed by immediate superiors, in which
case, the teacher shall appeal directly to the appropriate higher authority.
Section 4. Every teacher, individually or as part of a group, has a right to seek redress against injustice to the
administration and to extent possible, shall raise grievances within acceptable democratic possesses. In doing so, they
shall avoid jeopardizing the interest and the welfare of learners whose right to learn must be respected.
Section 5. Every teacher has a right to invoke the principle that appointments, promotions, and transfer of teachers are
made only on the basis of merit and needed in the interest of the service.
Section 6. A teacher who accepts a position assumes a contractual obligation to live up to his contract, assuming full
knowledge of employment terms and conditions.

Article VII: School Officials, Teachers, and Other Personnel

Section 1. All school officials shall at all times show professional courtesy, helpfulness and sympathy towards teachers
and other personnel, such practices being standards of effective school supervision, dignified administration, responsible
leadership and enlightened directions.
Section 2. School officials, teachers, and other school personnel shall consider it their cooperative responsibility to
formulate policies or introduce important changes in the system at all levels.
Section 3. School officials shall encourage and attend the professional growth of all teachers under them such as
recommending them for promotion, giving them due recognition for meritorious performance, and allowing them to
participate in conferences in training programs.
Section 4. No school officials shall dismiss or recommend for dismissal a teacher or other subordinates except for cause.
Section 5. School authorities concern shall ensure that public school teachers are employed in accordance with pertinent
civil service rules, and private school teachers are issued contracts specifying the terms and conditions of their work;
provided that they are given, if qualified, subsequent permanent tenure, in accordance with existing laws.

Article VIII: The Teachers and Learners

Section 1. A teacher has a right and duty to determine the academic marks and the promotions of learners in the subjector
grades he handles, provided that such determination shall be in accordance with generally accepted procedures of
evaluation and measurement. In case of any complaint, teachers concerned shall immediately take appropriate actions,
observing due process.
Section 2. A teacher shall recognize that the interest and welfare of learners are of first and foremost concern, and shall
deal justifiably and impartially with each of them.
Section 3. Under no circumstance shall a teacher be prejudiced or discriminate against a learner.
Section 4. A teacher shall not accept favours or gifts from learners, their parents or others in their behalf in exchange for
requested concessions, especially if undeserved.
Section 5. A teacher shall not accept, directly or indirectly, any remuneration from tutorials other what is authorized for
such service.
Section 6. A teacher shall base the evaluation of the learner’s work only in merit and quality of academic performance.
Section 7. In a situation where mutual at traction and subsequent love develop between teacher and learner, the teacher
shall exercise utmost professional discretion to avoid scandal, gossip and preferential treatment of the learner.
Section 8. A teacher shall not inflict corporal punishment on offending learners nor make
deductions from their scholastic ratings as a punishment for acts which are clearly not manifestation of poor scholarship.
Section 9. A teacher shall ensure that conditions contribute to the maximum development of learners are adequate, and
shall extend needed assistance in preventing or solving learner’sproblems and difficulties.

Article IX: The Teachers and Parents

Section 1. Every teacher shall establish and maintain cordial relations with parents, and shall conduct himself to merit
their confidence and respect.
Section 2. Every teacher shall inform parents, through proper authorities, of the progress and deficiencies of learner under
him, exercising utmost candour and tact in pointing out the learner's deficiencies and in seeking parent’s cooperation for
the prop er guidance and improvement of the learners.
Section 3. A teacher shall hear parent’s complaints with sympathy and understanding, and shall discourage unfair
criticism.
Article X: The Teacher and Business
Section 1. A teacher has the right to engage , directly or indirectly, in legitimate income generation; provided that it does
not relate to or adversely affect his work as a teacher.
Section 2. A teacher shall maintain a good reputation with respect to the financial matters such as in the settleme nt of his
debts and loans in arranging satisfactorily his private financial affairs.
Section 3. No teacher shall act, directly or indirectly, as agent of, or be financially interested in, any commercial venture
which furnish textbooks and other school commodities in the purchase and disposal of which he can exercise official
influence, except only when his assignment inherently, related to such purchase and disposal; provided they shall be in
accordance with the existing regulations; provided, further , that members of duly recognized teachers
cooperatives may participate in the distribution and sale of such commodities.

Article XI: The Teacher as a Person

Section 1. A teacher is, above all, a human being endowed with life for which it is the highest obligation to live with
dignity at all times whether in school, in the home, or elsewhere.
Section 2. A teacher shall place premium upon self discipline as the primary principle of personal behaviour in all
relationships with others and in all situations.
Section 3. A teacher shall maintain at all times a dignified personality which could serve as a model worthy of emulation
by learners, peers and all others.
Section 4. A teacher shall always recognize the Almighty God as guide of his own destiny and of the destinies of men and
nations.

Article XII: Disciplinary Actions

Section 1. Any violation of any provision of this code shall be sufficient ground for the imposition against the erring
teacher of the disciplinary action consisting of revocation of his Certification of Registration and License as a Professional
Teacher, suspension from the practice of teaching profession, or reprimand or cancellation of his temporary/special permit
under causes specified in Sec. 23, Article III or R.A. No. 7836 , and under Rule 31, Article VIII, of the Rules and
Regulations Implementing R.A. 7836.

THEORIES IN TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESSES

1. Behavioral Theory (Behaviorism)

- Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or potential
behavioral change. John B. Watson (1878-1958) was the first to study how the process of learning affects our
behavior, and he formed the school of thought known as Behaviorism.

View of Learning -From a behaviorist perspective, the transmission of information from teacher to learner is essentially
the transmission of the response appropriate to a certain stimulus.

Implications for Teaching -Behaviorist teaching methods tend to rely on so-called “skill and drill” exercises to
provide the consistent repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of response patterns. Other methods include
question (stimulus) and answer (response) frameworks in which questions are of gradually increasing difficulty; guided
practice; and regular reviews of material.

2. Cognitive Learning Theory

- Believe that higher order thinking skills is a result of far more complex processing than stimulus-response
sequences. Focus mental- process that are responsible for behavior.

View of Learning- Because knowledge is actively constructed, learning is presented as a process of active discovery.
The role of the instructor is not to drill knowledge into students through consistent repetition, or to goad them into
learning through carefully employed rewards and punishments.

Implications for Teaching- Jean Piaget allow for the use of “skill and drill” exercises in the memorization of facts,
formulate, and lists, they place greater importance on strategies that help students to actively assimilate and accommodate
new material. He described the four sequential stages in cognitive development. (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
and formal operations).

3. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)

- In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviourist learning theories of classical
conditioning and operant conditioning.
View of Learning - The level of actual development is the level of development that the learner has already reached,
and is the level at which the learner is capable of solving problems independently. The level of potential development
(the “zone of proximal development”) is the level of development that the learner is capable of reaching under the
guidance of teachers or in collaboration with peers.

Implications for Teaching

- Collaborative learning methods require learners to develop teamwork skills and to see individual learning as
essentially related to the success of group learning.
4. Humanistic Theory
- Humanistic "theories" of learning tend to be highly value-driven and hence more like prescriptions (about what
ought to happen) rather than descriptions (of what does happen). The "natural desire" of everyone to learn,
whether this natural desire is to learn whatever it is you are teaching, however, is not clear.
View of Learning - The teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects.
Implications for Teaching - It follows from this, they maintain, that learners need to be empowered and to have
control over the learning process. So the teacher relinquishes a great deal of authority and becomes a facilitator.

5. Theory of Multiple Intelligences

- The theory of multiple intelligences is a theory of intelligence that differentiates it into specific (primarily
sensory) 'modalities', rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. This model was
proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
View of Learning- Howard Gardner claims that all human beings have multiple intelligences. Despite its popularity,
this claim is heavily criticized. These multiple intelligences can be nurtured and strengthened, or ignored and weakened.
He believes each individual has nine intelligences. ( Verbal linguistic, mathematical logical, musical, bodily- kinesthetic,
intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist, existential, visual)
Implications for Teaching - It has been embraced by a range of educational theorists and, significantly, applied by
teachers and policymakers to the problems of schooling. A number of schools in North America have looked to structure
curricula according to the intelligences, and to design classrooms and even whole schools to reflect the understandings

6. Psychodynamic Theory
- In psychology, a psychodynamic theory is a view that explains personality in terms of conscious and unconscious
forces, such as unconscious desires and beliefs. Sigmund Freud proposed a psychodynamic theory according to
which personality consists of the id (responsible for instincts and pleasure-seeking), the superego (which
attempts to obey the rules of parents and society), and the ego (which mediates between them according to the
demands of reality).
View of Learning - Our behavior and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood
experiences.
Implications for Teaching - The psychodynamic perspective asserts that in childhood certain incidents may occur that
produce behaviors in adulthood. As children, defense mechanisms are utilized, then as adults behaviors manifest as a
result.

What is Administrative Law? It covers a wide and varied area of practice, encompassing many different types of
governmental legal procedures and regulations, and is not easily defined. Much of government and its public programs
operate largely through various agencies on different levels: federal, state, county, and city. These agencies are also
known as boards, commissions, departments, and divisions.

They generally have their own specific rules and regulations, which are not usually found in the statutes, with stringent
procedures individuals must follow to obtain assistance from the agency and to file claims, grievances and appeals. Legal
rulings by Administrative Law Judges (ALJ’s) have governing authority the same as most precedent law. Administrative
law attorneys can offer assistance when maneuvering through these complicated proceedings.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

1.NATURALISM

also called as materialisim

- according to naturalist, “education should be according to the nature of the child.”
- Proponent: Jean Jacques Rousseau
 “A child is a child and not an adult in the making"-
 Child- centered education
 - Naturalists people learn more through direct experience that is by doing
Four Stages In Education

 Infancy

 Childhood

 Adolescence

 Youth

IDEALISM
- The word “ idealism” signifies two terms: ‘idea’ and ‘ideal’.
- Proponent: Plato – he conceived of ideas as the basis of his philosophy.
- It is an old philosophy.
- To the idealist the reality is spiritual in nature rather than physical, mental rather than material. Ideas are
eternal and unchanging
Types of Idealism
 Subjective Idealism (Berkeley)
 Transcendental Idealism (Immanuel Kant)
 Objective Idealism (Plato)
 Absolute Idealism (Hegel)

EXISTENTIALISM

 It is subjective.
 Human possess free will and stand in an absurd and meaningless world or universe.
 No “universal” guidelines for most decisions.
 Individuals have to take responsibility for their own actions and shape their own destinies.

REALISM

- Also called as “objectivism”

- Education should be based on essential and practical knowledge that exists independent of the knower
- The method of teaching should change according to the requirement of the child
- Focus on mastery of facts and basic skills
- Herbert Spencer was a naturalist as a realist
- Aristotle “Father of Realism”

PRAGMATISM

- According to James, the term pragmatism is defined from the Greek word “programa” which means
action or practice.
- It suggest an emphasis upon the practicalities of life and the practicable is the real.
Proponent : Charles Pierce

CONSTRUCTIVISM

- Process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.

- Encouraging students to use active techniques.
- Jerome Bruner – “Learning is an active process in which learners construct based upon their current/past
knowledge.”

How Constructivism Impacts Learning

 Curriculum
 Instruction
 Assessment
RECONSTRUCTIONISM

- It is society – centered philosophy.

- Two major premises:
- society is in need of constant reconstruction or change
- such social change involves a reconstruction of education and the use of education in reconstructing the
society

PROGRESSIVISM
 Dewey - school as a “miniature democratic society”
 Education should be a process of ongoing growth
 Hands-on learning rather than memorization
- Teaching the ‘whole side’

PERENNIALISM

- The most conservative, traditional or flexible philosophy.

- The ideas are relevant and meaningful
- Focuses on knowledge and the meaning of knowledge
- Teacher-centered

ESSENTIALISM

- Focuses on intellectual disciplines

- According to essentialists, the school curriculum should be geared to the fundamentals or essentials.
- Formulated by William Bagley and later developed by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Hyman Rickover

TRADITIONALISM

- Also known as ‘back to basics’ or ‘conventional education’

- Refers to long established customs that society traditionally used in school
- Develop by counter revolutionists
TRADITIONAL:
- School is a preparation for life
- Learners are passive absorbers of information and authority
- Teachers are sources of information and authority
- Parents are outsiders and uninvolved
- Community is separate from school, except for funding
- Decision-making is centrally based and administrative delivered
- Program is determined by external criteria, particularly test results
- Learning is linear, with factual accumulation and skill mastery
- Knowledge is absorbed lectures, worksheets, texts.

1. Elton Mayo's Hawthorne Experiments - The Studies. The Hawthorne Studies (or experiments) were
conducted from 1927 to 1932 at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works in Chicago, where Harvard Business
School professor Elton Mayo examined productivity and work conditions. Specifically, Mayo wanted to find out
what effect fatigue and monotony had on job productivity and how to control them through such variables as rest
breaks, work hours, temperature and humidity. In the process, he stumbled upon a principle of human motivation
that would help to revolutionize the theory and practice of management.

2. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people. He believed that people possess
a set of motivation systems unrelated to rewards or unconscious desires. Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated
to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fulfill the next one, and so on.

The earliest and most widespread version of Maslow's (1943, 1954) hierarchy of needs includes five motivational needs,
often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.

The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:

1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.

3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, affection and love, - from work group, family, friends, romantic
relationships.

4. Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, respect from others.

5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory - Frederick Herzberg was a psychologist interested in the correlation between employee
attitude and workplace motivation. He wanted to find out what made people feel satisfied and unsatisfied when it came to
the workplace. After spending countless hours interviewing employees about what made them feel both good and bad
about their jobs, Herzberg developed a theory of workplace motivation called the two-factor theory. The two-factor theory
is based on the assumption that there are two sets of factors that influence motivation in the workplace by either
enhancing employee satisfaction or hindering it.

Understanding McClelland's Theory - In the early 1940s, Abraham Maslow created his theory of needs . This
identified the basic needs that human beings have, in order of their importance: physiological needs, safety needs, and the
needs for belonging, self-esteem and "self-actualization".

Bureaucracies are all around us. This form of organization, which is comprised of non-elected
officials who implement rules, is not only common in the public sector but in the business world as well. Examples of
bureaucracies in the public sector include the Social Security Administration, Environmental Protection Agency and
public universities. Among the oldest bureaucratic structures in the country is the United States military.

One of the most important thinkers in modern organizational theory, Max Weber (1864-1920), is the
'father of the bureaucratic management theory.' Weber was a German sociologist and political economist that viewed
bureaucracy in a positive light, believing it to be more rational and efficient than its historical predecessors.

Weber's theory of bureaucratic management also has two essential elements. First,
it entails structuring an organization into a hierarchy. Secondly, the organization and its members are governed by clearly
defined rational-legal decision-making rules. Each element helps an organization to achieve its goals.

An organizational hierarchy is the arrangement of the organization by level of authority in reference to the levels above
and below it. For example, a vice-president of marketing is below the company's president, at the same level as the
company's vice president of sales, and above the supervisor of the company's social media department. Each level answers
to the level above it, with the ultimate leader of the organization at the top. The easiest way to understand the term
rational-legal decision-making rules is to think of it as a set of explicit and objective policies and procedures that
governs how an organization functions. Examples of rational-legal decision-making rules include human resources rules
and policies or the regulations governing who is entitled to unemployment insurance.

1. A formal hierarchical structure - Each level controls the level below and is controlled by the level above. A formal
hierarchy is the basis of central planning and centralized decision making.

2. Management by rules - Controlling by rules allows decisions made at high levels to be executed consistently by all
lower levels.

3. Organization by functional specialty - Work is to be done by specialists, and people are organized into units based on
the type of work they do or skills they have.

4. An "up-focused" or "in-focused" mission - If the mission is described as "up-focused," then the organization's
purpose is to serve the stockholders, the board, or whatever agency empowered it. If the mission is to serve the
organization itself, and those within it, e.g., to produce high profits, to gain market share, or to produce a cash stream, then
the mission is described as "in-focused."

5. Purposely impersonal - The idea is to treat all employees equally and customers equally, and not be influenced by
individual differences.

6. Employment based on technical qualifications(There may also be protection from arbitrary dismissal.) The
bureaucratic form, according to Parkinson, has another attribute.

7. Predisposition to grow in staff "above the line." - Weber failed to notice this, but C. Northcote Parkinson found it so
common that he made it the basis of his humorous "Parkinson's law." Parkinson demonstrated that the management and
professional staff tends to grow at predictable rates, almost without regard to what the line organization is doing. The
bureaucratic form is so common that most people accept it as the normal way of organizing almost any endeavor. People
in bureaucratic organizations generally blame the ugly side effects of bureaucracy on management, or the founders, or the
owners, without awareness that the real cause is the organizing form.

Bureaucracies have four key characteristics that make their resemblance to beehives all the more apparent.

 - Bureaucracies have a firm chain of command. Every worker has his or her own place in the
chain, and everyone's work is overseen by someone on the next level up. Power flows down from the top of the
hierarchy and diminishes as it approaches the bottom. Just think of the beehive. The queen bee stands at the top,
and each worker bee or drone has its own place in the hive's chain of command.

 - Everyone in a bureaucracy has a specific job to do and often becomes an expert at it. Bees have
specific jobs, too, collecting pollen, making honey, or populating the hive.

 - In a bureaucracy, nearly every task is broken down into its component parts, and different
people work on different parts of the task. Together they get the job done, just like bees in a hive who divide their
labor for maximum efficiency.

 - These so-called standard operating procedures are the clear, written instructions for
each specialized job at every level of the hierarchy. Workers who follow them can be sure that they are on the
same page as their colleagues and are doing their jobs properly. According to beekeepers, bees, too, have a
sophisticated system of communication that keeps their hives running smoothly.

NOTE: In order to change bureaucratic leadership and management, you’ll need to change your culture.