Experiment 1: Errors, Uncertainties, and Measurements

Monica Policina, Marie Pamela Celestine Pua Phee,

Maria Charmella Relopez, Anna Paula San Pedro

Department of Biological Sciences

College of Science, University of Santo Tomas
España, Manila Philippines

Abstract uncertainty, and a measured value is only

All quantities of measurements
consist of two parts: the reported value
itself, visible from the device, and the
doubtful or uncertain quantity of the
measurement.
Measurements are subject to error,
which leads to the uncertainty of the result.
Error does not only mean just outright
mistakes. Gross errors sometimes happen
and usually yield results that are sufficiently
unexpected.
Accuracy is the goal we aim for in
scientific measurements.
1. Introduction
The purpose of measurement is to
provide information about a quantity. No
measurement is exact. When a quantity is
measured, the result depends on the
measuring system, the measurement
procedure, the skill of the person, and the
environment.
Measurement uncertainty is a non-
negative parameter characterizing the
distribution of the values attributed to a
measured quantity (Webster's all-in-one
dictionary & thesaurus). The uncertainty
shows the doubtful knowledge of the
quantity. All measurements are subjected to
complete if it is associated by a statement of
the uncertainty given. The measuring system
may provide measured values that are not
far from the true value.
There are two types of measurement
error: a systematic error and a random error.
A systematic error is an error that is
constant or depends in a specific manner on
some other quantity. Readings will
consistently be either too high or too low.
On the other hand, a random error occurs
when a repeated measurement provides a
value far from the previous value measured.
The error is random when the next
measurement cannot be predicted from the
previous measurements. Its effect can be
reduced by conducting repeated
experimental trials, since there is an equal
probability of them being high or low each
time a reading is taken.
Accuracy refers to the closeness of
the measured values that is dependent to the
zero standard or its true value. Precision
expresses the degree of reproducibility, or
arrangement between repeated
measurements. It describes the closeness of
the acquired data points that is independent
from the true value.
In this experiment, the group should be
able to accomplish the following: (1) to
study errors and how they propagate in
simple experiment, (2) to determine the
average deviation of a set of experimental
values, (3) to determine the mean of a set of
experimental values as well as set of average
deviation of the mean, (4) to familiarize the
students with the vernier caliper, micrometer
caliper, and foot rule, (5) to compare the
accuracy of these measuring devices, (6) and
to determine the density of an object given
its mass and dimensions.
2. Theory
Generally, numbers or quantities are
categorized into two: exact and measured
numbers. Exact numbers are those that have
a definite value. Some examples of exact
numbers are the following: 1 inch = 2.54
cm, 1 foot = 12 inches, or 12 eggs in a
dozen, etc. On the other hand, measured
numbers are estimated amount, or numbers
obtained from a measuring instrument. [2]
And every measurement has some
uncertainty with it. There is no perfect
accurate measurement. This uncertainty
arises due to some following factors: from
the measuring instrument itself, the person
conducting the measurement, the method of
taking the measurement and from the
characteristics of the object being measured.
[3] Whenever a measurement is made, the
number of significant figures is important.
Every recorded measurement has a certain
number of significant digits. [4] Calculations
done on these measurements must follow the
rules for significant digits. Moreover, the
significance of a digit has to do with
whether it represents a true measurement or
not. Any digit that is actually measured or
estimated will be considered significant.
There are rules in determining the
significance of a digit. First, digits from 1-9
are significant. Second, zeroes between two
other significant digits are considered to be
significant. Third, one or more additional
zeroes to the right of both the decimal place
and another significant digit are significant.
Lastly, zeroes used solely for spacing the
decimal point, called the placeholders, are
not significant.
In propagation of errors, when
measuring quantities, it is evident that by
some means, it is recorded with
uncertainties. In calculating the uncertainty,
it must propagate to the uncertainty of the
value. Assume we measure two values A
and B using an apparatus. We know these
values are uncertain. By physical reasoning,
testing, repeated measurements, or
specifications of the manufacturer, we
estimate the magnitude of their
uncertainties. u{A} is the absolute error in
A, and u{B} is the absolute error in B. The
relative errors are u{A}/A and u{B}/B.
Least count of any precision
instrument is defined as the smallest
measurement that can be acquired from it.
For a micrometer caliper, it is measured in
the following manner:
The Vernier principle is the
measurement of a continuous variable,
example a length, results in a decimal
fraction. Some digits are read off the
labeling of the scale, but the last fractional
digit must be estimated. The main scale
divides the unit interval in ten equal parts,
the Vernier scale uses a division into nine
parts or a multiple thereof. Both scales
together will give us a tenfold increase in
resolution.
The data needed to be determined in
the experiment are the mean diameter, the
deviation, the average deviation, the average
deviation of the mean diameter, the % error
of the mean diameter, volume of the sphere,
density, and the % error for density.
The mean diameter is described as
the summation of the trials divided by the
number of trials, n.
The deviation, given by the symbol d
can be calculated by subtracting each
measurement of diameter from the mean
diameter.
The average deviation (a.d.) is the
summation of the deviations d divided by
the number of trials, n.
The average deviation of the mean
diameter (A.D.) is the average deviation
divided by the square root of the number of
trials, n.
The % error of diameter is the
average deviation of the diameter (A.D.)
divided by the mean diameter, multiplied by
100.
The volume of the sphere is
computed using the formula:
where r is the mean radius, which is
obtained from the half of the mean diameter.
The density of the sphere is the mass
(g) of the weighted sphere divided by the
computed volume (cm3) as shown in the
formula below.
Lastly, the percent error for the density is
calculated by the using the formula below:
where EV is the experimental value and TV
is the theoretical value or absolute value.
3. Methodology
In this experiment the materials used
were vernier caliper, micrometer caliper,
foot rule, electronical gram balance and
sphere of known composition. The first step
was to inspect the measuring devices for any
error, if any was found it must be added or
subtracted from the measurement. The
second step, the least count of the vernier
caliper, micrometer caliper and the foot rule
was determined. As for the third step, ten
independent measurements for the diameter
of the sphere was made by a foot rule, it was
done by taking measurements at different
points along the circumference of the
sphere. The mean diameter of the sphere,
and the deviation (d) of each measurement
of diameter from the mean diameter was
calculated. The calculation of the average
deviation (a.d) or the sum of the deviations
(d) by the number of (n) of observation
which in this experiment is 10, was
followed. Then, the average deviation (A.D.) Mean 1.50 cm
of the mean diameter was computed Diameter
followed by the % error for the diameter by Average 0.03 cm
considering A.D. as the error and the mean Deviation
diameter as the standard value. Lastly, the (a.d.)
volume of the sphere was computed. After Average 6.32x10-3 cm
the computations, the sphere was weighed Deviation of
using the electronic gram balance. The the Mean
density of the sphere using the values (A.D)
obtained from the calculated volume of the %Error of 0.42 %
sphere and the weight was calculated. The % Diameter
error was computed. The third step until the Volume 1.77 cm3
last step was repeated using the vernier (𝑐𝑚3 )
caliper and micrometer caliper. For the last Mass (g) 16.25 g
activity, the students were asked to measure
their thumbs. Experimental 9.20 g/ cm3
Value of
𝑔
Density (𝑐𝑚3 )
4. Results and Discussion Accepted 7.60 g/ cm3
Value of
𝑔
Tables 1, 2, and 3 shows the Density (𝑐𝑚3 )
diameter of the sphere and the succeeding %Error for 20.79 %
calculations of the Foot Rule, Vernier Density
Caliper, and Micrometer Caliper,
respectively.

Table 1. Calculations of the Sphere Table 2. Calculations of the Sphere

Obtained Using the Foot Rule Obtained Using the Vernier Caliper
Diameter of Sphere (cm)
Trials Foot Rule Diameter of Sphere (cm)
Measurements Deviation Trials Foot Rule
1 0 Measurements Deviation
1.50 cm
1 1.365 cm 0.0155
2 1.40 cm 0.1
2 1.390 cm 0.0095
3 1.50 cm 0
3 1.380 cm 0.0005
4 1.50 cm 0
4 1.390 cm 0.0095
5 1.60 cm 0.1
5 1.380 cm 0.0005
6 1.50 cm 0
6 1.370 cm 0.0105
7 1.50 cm 0
7 1.380 cm 0.0005
8 1.50 cm 0
8 1.390 cm 0.0095
9 1.50 cm 0
9 1.380 cm 0.0005
10 1.50 cm 0
 10 1.380 cm 0.0005 10 1.540 cm 0.001
Mean 1.381 cm Mean 1.541 cm
Diameter Diameter
Average 0.006 cm Average 7x10-4 cm
Deviation Deviation
(a.d.) (a.d.)
Average 1.897x10-3 cm Average 2.21x10-4 cm
Deviation of Deviation of
the Mean the Mean
(A.D) (A.D)
%Error of 0.587 % %Error of 0.019 %
Diameter Diameter
Volume 1.378 cm3 Volume 1.96 cm3
(𝑐𝑚3 ) (𝑐𝑚3 )
Mass (g) 16.25 g Mass (g) 16.25 g
Experimental 11.796 g/ cm3 Experimental 8.48 g/ cm3
Value of Value of
𝑔 𝑔
Density (𝑐𝑚3 ) Density (𝑐𝑚3 )
Accepted 7.60 g/ cm3 Accepted 7.60 g/ cm3
Value of Value of
𝑔 𝑔
Density (𝑐𝑚3 ) Density (𝑐𝑚3 )
%Error for 55.207 % %Error for 11.58 %
Density Density

Table 3. Calculations of the Sphere In Table 1 measurements obtained in

Obtained Using the Micrometer Caliper foot rule are precise and almost consistent in
all the trials. It is said to be precise because
the values are close to one another
Diameter of Sphere (cm)
regardless of the true value. However, it
Trials Foot Rule
does not mean that the measurements are
Measurements Deviation
accurate. Based from the results, the
1 1.542 cm 0.001 percentage error of the diameter is 0.42%.
2 1.540 cm 0.001 The possible reason for these repetitious
measurements can be attributed to
3 1.541 cm 0
systematic error. Mishandling of the
4 1.539 cm 0.002 measuring device can be also a factor that
contributed to this type of error.
5 1.541 cm 0
Table 2 shows that the measurements
6 1.542 cm 0.001 from the vernier caliper are more precise
7 1.542 cm 0.001 than accurate, showing little deviation from
the standard value.
8 1.541 cm 0
The measurements in the micrometer
9 1.540 cm 0.001 caliper for Table 3 are also precise, and
showing consistency in the trials. This is
apparent because the first three digits
(1.54..) are always constant and the
remaining digits are nearly the same or there
is only a small deviation in the values. Since
there is uncertainty in the last digits of these
measurements, there should be a value that
will represent the average of these
magnitudes and it is known as the Mean
Diameter. To calculate for the mean
diameter, it is simply getting the average of
the set of measurements. Based from the
results, the calculated mean diameter for the
vernier caliper is 1.3805 cm and for the
micrometer is 0.0007 cm. The computed
percentage error of diameter for vernier
caliper and micrometer is 0.059% and
0.019%, respectively.
Among the three measuring devices,
the one with the least % error of diameter
was the micrometer caliper. This may be
explained by the fact that the micrometer
caliper has the lowest least count among the
three (0.001 cm), which gives a more
accurate measurement of the sphere. The
foot rule and the vernier caliper can only
measure the sphere at a least count of 0.1
and 0.005 cm, respectively. Possible sources
of error include instrumental error and
systematic errors. The vernier caliper used
did not have a lock screw, which was an
important part in securing the sphere and
getting the accurate measurement.
Furthermore, mishandlings of the measuring
device can be a source of error. To improve
the results of the experiment, ample time
must be provided for the students to be adept
in using the measuring devices as well as
equipping the students with devices in
perfect condition.
The density of the sphere was
determined through the mass and volume of
the sphere using the three devices. In
comparison with the accepted value of
density of the sphere, which was 7.60 g/
cm3, its % error was calculated and the
following results were obtained: 20.79% for
the foot rule, 55.207% for the vernier
caliper, and 11.58% for the micrometer
caliper. The results are consistent with the
experimental values of density. The
micrometer caliper obtained the lowest %
error for density.
Table 4 shows the measurement of
each group member’s thumb as a
consideration for a standard of
measurement.
Table 4. Width of thumb (in) of each
member
Group 1 2 3 4
Member
Width of 0.80 0.50 0.70 0.50
thumb (in)
Based from the results, the
measurements from each member are
different from one another, as the thumb
comes in different sizes. This variation in
measurements makes it difficult to assign a
standard width of thumb and use it as a basis
for an inch.
5. Conclusion
It was shown in the experiment that
the three measuring device have different
accuracy which was measured through their
percentage error. Micrometer, having the
least percentage of error, is the most
accurate among the three followed by the
foot rule and vernier caliper respectively. As
for the measuring of the thumb, results
showed that the size varies from every
person thus, disproving the “Rule of
Thumb”
 The errors that occurred in the
6. Application experiment are inefficiency of the measuring
device due to its incomplete parts and
6.1. Which among the three inconsistent placement of the ball being
measuring devices give you the least % measured.
error? Is the accuracy of a measurement
affected by the least count of the measuring 6.3. Sketch
device? a) A vernier caliper that reads
3.48 cm
The measuring device that gave the
least % error was the micrometer caliper
(0.019%), compared to the foot rule and
Vernier caliper, with % errors 0.42% and
0.137%, respectively. An important factor
that affects the accuracy of the measuring
device is its least count. The Vernier caliper
used in the experiment had a least count of
0.005 cm, while the micrometer caliper had
a least count of 0.001 cm. This would
support the result of the micrometer caliper
having the least % error, given that the
device would yield a more accurate result
due to the lower least count.
b) A micrometer caliper that
6.2 What do you mean by error? reads 7.05 mm.
What are the types of errors? What are the
errors you encountered in this experiment?

Error is the measure of the deviation

of a calculated value from the true value.
There are two types of errors: systematic
and random errors. Systematic error usually
come from the measuring devices. This may
occur because of mishandling of the
measuring instrument, inefficiency of the
machine in its data handling system due to
damage. These errors are difficult to detect
and unlike random error, it cannot be
reduced by increasing the number of
observation. Random errors are caused by 6.4. A student weigh himself using a
unknown changes in the experiment. These bathroom scale calibrated in kilograms. He
changes occur as the result of variations in reported his weight in pounds. What is the
the measurement techniques. It can be percentage error in his reported weight if he
reduced by calculating the average the uses this conversion: 1 kg= 2.2 pounds? The
number of the observations. standard kilogram is equal to 2.2046 pounds.
 To calculate the percentage error,
the formula is: Omit the data = 14.23 g:

6.5. In an experiment on
determination of mass of a sample, your
group consisting of 5 students obtained the
following results: 14.34 g, 14.32 g, 12.33 g,
14.30 g and 14.23 g. Find the mean, a.d.
And A.D. Suppose that your group is
required to make only four determination for
the mass of the sample. If you are the leader
of the group, which data will you omit?
Recalculate the mean, a.d. and A.D. without
this data. Which results will you prefer?

Accuracy is important in this

experiment. The data omitted was 14.23 g,
which deviates the most from the rest of the
data. Since the data with only four
determinations is more accurate, the results
are much preferred compared to the data
with 5 determinations.

6.6 Give other parts of the body that

are being used for measurement even today.
What are some properties to be a standard of
measurement?
Some units of measurements are
based on the parts of the body and they are
called non-standard measurements. Some of
these units of measures are cubit, fathom,
hand, and span, Cubit was used by
Egyptians to measure various objects. One
cubit is approximately 18-22 inches long. It
extends from the elbow to the middle finger.
Fathom is equivalent to 6 feet or 72 inches.
It is used to measure water depth. It is also
the term commonly used by miner to
describe an area equal to six square feet.
Hand is a measurement of four inches. This
is still used to measure the height of horses.
Lastly, span is the distance between the
thumb and little finger of an extended hand.
It is equivalent to nine inches.
To be considered as a standard of
measurement, the important measurement
properties are precision, accuracy,
sensitivity and error of management. It
should be also reproducible as possible and
must not vary from person to person.

7. References

[1]Webster's all-in-one dictionary &

thesaurus.(n.d.). Soringfield, M.A.:
Federal Street Press.

[2]CHEMTUTOR NUMBERS. (n.d.).

Retrieved February 01, 2017, from
http://www.chemtutor.com/numbr.ht
m

[3]Jewett, J. W. (1993). Physics begins with

an M ...: mysteries, magic and myth.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

[4]Error Analysis and Significant Figures.

(n.d.). Retrieved February 01, 2017,
from
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/to
ols/data_analysis/errors_sigfigs.html

[5]Cutnell, J. D., & Johnson, K. W. (2013).

Introduction to Physics (9th ed.).
Hoboken: Wiley.