 (iii) Its temperature(Kelvin)

Gas, Boyle’s Law,  (iv) The amount of the gas (i.e., mass or number of
moles/mol).

and Ideal Gas General Gas Equation(PV=nRt) n= no. of moles

R=0.0825 L atm 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏 𝒌−𝟏

Law
Problem #1: Determine the volume of occupied by
2.34 grams of carbon dioxide gas at STP.
Solution:
1.) Rearrange PV = nRT to this:
Matter- occupies space and possesses rest mass,
V = nRT / P
especially as distinct from energy
2.) Substitute:
GAS V = [ (2.34 g / 44.0 g mol¯1) (0.08206 L atm mol¯1 K¯1)
(273.0 K) ] / 1.00 atm
Arrangement of Particle- random arrangement or
V = 1.19 L
irregular pattern

BOYLE’S LAW IN RESPIRATION

Spacing- widely spaced ( diffusable and compressible)

Motion- constantly in random motion, gas molecules The relationship between gas pressure and volume

frequently collide with each other and at the same helps to explain the mechanics of breathing. Boyle’s

time also collide with the container Law is the gas law which states that in a closed space,
pressure and volume are inversely related. As volume
Collison of Gas- Elastic (Perfectly elastic) no energy decreases, pressure increases and vice versa. When
loss discussing the detailed mechanics of breathing, it is
important to keep this inverse relationship in mind.
Kinetic energy-
a. Temperature b. Pressure

Motion

a. Translational b. Rotational
c. Vibrational

Volume of the gas = Volume of the container

IDEAL GAS

a hypothetical gas whose molecules occupy negligible

space and have no interactions, and that consequently
obeys the gas laws exactly.

 i) The volume (𝒎𝟑 , 𝑳, 𝒎𝒍, 𝒄𝒎𝟑 )

 (ii) Its pressure(1 atm=760 mmhg=1 Torr)

 When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held
Boyle’s and constant, the Kelvin temperature and the volume will
𝑉1 𝑉
be directly related. FORMULA: = 𝑇2
𝑇1 2

Charle’s Law Ex. A container holds 50.0 mL of nitrogen at 25° C and

a pressure of 736 mm Hg. What will be its volume if
the temperature increases by 35° C?
Exhalation-During exhalation, the diaphragm also relaxes,
moving higher into the thoracic cavity. This increases the
P1 = 736 mm Hg P2 = 736 mm Hg

pressure within the thoracic cavity relative to the V1 = 50.0 mL V2 = ?

environment. Air rushes out of the lungs due to the pressure T1 = 25° C + 273 = 298 K
gradient between the thoracic cavity and the atmosphere. T2 = 25° C + 35° C + 273 = 333 K
V1/ T1 = V2/T2
BOYLE’S LAW V2 = V1 x T2/T1
V2 = 50.0 mL x 333 K/298 K = 55.9 mL N2
Boyle's law (also called Mariotte's law and the Boyle-
Mariotte law) is a law about ideal gases.The law can be
stated as follows: For a fixed amount of an ideal
gas kept at a fixed temperature, P (pressure)
and V (volume) are inversely proportional.In other
words, the volume of a constant mass of ideal gas at a
constant temperature is inversely proportional to its
pressure. FORMULA: 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏= 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐

Ex. A container holds 500. mL of CO2 at 20.° C and

742 torr. What will be the volume of the CO2 if the
pressure is increased to 795 torr?

P1 = 742 torr P2 = 795 torr V1 = 500. mL

V2 = ?
T1 = 20.° C + 273 = 293 K
T2 = 20.° C + 273 = 293 K
P1V1 = P2V2
V2 = P1V1/P2
V2 = 742 torr x 500. mL/795 torr = 467 mL CO2

CHARLE’S LAW

Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes) is an

experimental gas law that describes how gases tend to
expand when heated. A modern statement of
Charles's law is:
 1. Gases are made up of particles with no
Combined Gas, defined volume but with a defined mass. In
other words their volume is miniscule

Gay lussac’s Law

compared to the distance between
themselves and other molecules.

2. Gas particles undergo no intermolecular

and Kinetic attractions or repulsions. This assumption

implies that the particles possess no potential
energy and thus their total energy is simply

Molecular Theory 3.
equal to their kinetic energies.

Gas particles are in continuous, random

COMBINED GAS LAW motion.

4. Collisions between gas particles are

The combined gas law makes use of the relationships
completely elastic. In other words, there is no
shared by pressure, volume, and temperature: the
net loss or gain of kinetic energy when
variables found in other gas laws, such as Boyle's law,
particles collide.
Charles' law and Gay-Lussac's law. Let's review the
basic principles of these three laws. 5. The average kinetic energy is the same for all

Formula:
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏
=
𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 gases at a given temperature, regardless of
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
the identity of the gas. Furthermore, this
Ex. A sample of sulfur dioxide occupies a volume of kinetic energy is proportional to the absolute
652 mL at 40.° C and 720 mm Hg. What volume will temperature of the gas.
the sulfur dioxide occupy at STP?
GAY LUSSAC’S LAW
P1 = 720 mm P2 = 760 mm V1 = 652 mL V2 = ? The law of combining volumes states that, when

T1 = 40.° C + 273 = 313 K gases react together to form other gases, and
when all volumes are measured at the same
T2 = 0° C + 273 = 273 K 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
temperature and pressure. Formula: =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
Ex. A 30.0 L sample of nitrogen inside a rigid, metal
V2 = P1V1/T1 x T2/P2 container at 20.0 °C is placed inside an oven whose

V2 = 720 mm x 652 mL x 273 K/(313 K x 760 mm) = temperature is 50.0 °C. The pressure inside the

540 mL SO2 container at 20.0 °C was at 3.00 atm. What is the

pressure of the nitrogen after its temperature is
KINETIC MOLECULAR
increased to 50.0 °C?
An increase in the number of gas particles in the Solution:
container increases the frequency of collisions with the
P1 P2 3.00 x
walls and therefore the pressure of the gas. The last Solution technique: cross-
––– = ––– ––– = ––– multiply and divide.
postulate of the kinetic molecular theory states that
the average kinetic energy of a gas particle depends T1 T2 293 323
only on the temperature of the gas. x = 3.31 atm
 formula. For instance, galactose and glucose are
Biomolecules- both aldohexoses, but have different physical
structures and chemical properties.

Carbohydrates 2. Disachharides (also called a double sugar or biose[1])

is the sugar formed when
two monosaccharides (simple sugars) are joined
A biomolecule or biological molecule is a loosely used
by glycosidic linkage. Like monosaccharides,
term for molecules or more commonly ions that are
disaccharides are soluble in water. Three common
present in organisms. Biomolecules include
examples are sucrose, lactose,and maltose.
large macromolecules (or polyanions) such
Disaccharides are one of the four chemical groupings
as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, as
of carbohydrates (monosaccharides,
well as small molecules such as
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides).
primary metabolites, secondary metabolites,
The most common types of disaccharides—
and natural products.
sucrose, lactose, and maltose—have

CARBOHYDRATES twelve carbon atoms, with the general formula

C12H22O11. The differences in these disaccharides are
Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring due to atomic arrangements within the molecule.
in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, 3.Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate molecul
and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in es composed of long chains of monosaccharide units
the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be bound together by glycosidic linkages, and
broken down to release energy in the animal body. on hydrolysis give the
constituent monosaccharides or oligosaccharides.
Classifications
They range in structure from linear to highly branched.
1. Monosaccharides also called simple sugars, are the
Examples include storage polysaccharides such
most basic units of carbohydrates. They are
as starch and glycogen, and structural polysaccharides
fundamental units of carbohydrates and cannot be
such as cellulose and chitin.
further hydrolyzed to simpler compounds. The general
formula is C
nH2nOn. They are the simplest form of sugar and are
usually colorless, water-soluble, and crystalline solids.
Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste. Examples
of monosaccharides
include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose)
and galactose. Monosaccharides are the building
blocks of disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose)
and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch).
Further, each carbon atom that supports
a hydroxyl group (so, all of the carbons except for the
primary and terminal carbon) is chiral, giving rise to a
number of isomeric forms, all with the same chemical

Biomolecules –
Lipids
In biology, a lipid is a substance of biological origin
that is soluble in nonpolar solvents.[3] It comprises a
group of naturally occurring molecules that
include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such
as vitamins A, D, E, and K)
monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides,
and phospholipids. The main biological functions of
lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as
structural components of cell membranes.[4][5] Lipids
have applications in the cosmetic and
food industries as well as in nanotechnology.
Categories of Lipids
Fatty acids-or fatty acid residues when they are part of
a lipid, are a diverse group of molecules synthesized
by chain-elongation of an acetyl-CoA primer
with malonyl-CoA or methylmalonyl-CoA groups in a
process called fatty acid synthesis.
Glycerolipids-are composed of mono-, di-, and tri-
substituted glycerols,[28] the best-known being the
fatty acid triesters of glycerol, called triglycerides. The
word "triacylglycerol" is sometimes used
synonymously with "triglyceride".
Sterol lipids-such as cholesterol and its derivatives, are
an important component of membrane lipids,[43] along
with the glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelins.
The steroids, all derived from the same fused four-ring
core structure, have different biological roles
as hormones and signaling molecules.
Prenol lipids -are synthesized from the five-carbon-
unit precursors isopentenyl
diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate that are
produced mainly via the mevalonic acid (MVA)
pathway.
Saccharolipids- describe compounds in which fatty
acids are linked directly to a sugar backbone, forming
structures that are compatible with membrane
bilayers.
Polyketides are synthesized by polymerization
of acetyl and propionyl subunits by classic enzymes as
well as iterative and multimodular enzymes that share
mechanistic features with the fatty acid synthases.
Biological functions
1.Membranes-Eukaryotic cells feature
compartmentalized membrane-
bound organelles that carry out different
biological functions.
2. Energy storage-Triglycerides, stored in adipose
tissue, are a major form of energy storage both in
animals and plants.
3. Signaling-In recent years, evidence has emerged
showing that lipid signaling is a vital part of the cell
signaling.
4. Other functions-The "fat-soluble" vitamins
(A, D, E and K) which are isoprene-based lipids – are
essential nutrients stored in the liver and fatty tissues,
with a diverse range of functions. Acyl-carnitines are
involved in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids
in and out of mitochondria, where they undergo beta
oxidation. Polyprenols and their phosphorylated
derivatives also play important transport roles, in this
case the transport of oligosaccharides across
membranes. Polyprenol phosphate sugars and
polyprenol diphosphate sugars function in extra-
cytoplasmic glycosylation reactions, in extracellular
polysaccharide biosynthesis (for
instance, peptidoglycan polymerization in bacteria),
and in eukaryotic protein N-glycosylation.
Cardiolipins are a subclass of glycerophospholipids
containing four acyl chains and three glycerol groups /

Biomolecules-
nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or small biomolecules,
essential to all known forms of life. They are composed
of nucleotides, which are monomersmade of three
components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group
and a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is a simple ribose,
the polymer is RNA(ribonucleic acid); if the sugar is
derived from ribose as deoxyribose, the polymer
is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Types
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid
containing the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known living
organisms. The DNA segments carrying this genetic
information are called genes. Likewise, other DNA
sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in
regulating the use of this genetic information. Along
with RNA and proteins, DNA is one of the three major
macromolecules that are essential for all known forms
of life. 2.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) functions in converting genetic
information from genes into the amino acid sequences
of proteins. The three universal types of RNA include
transfer RNA (tRNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), and
ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Messenger RNA acts to carry
genetic sequence information between DNA and
ribosomes, directing protein synthesis. Ribosomal
RNA is a major component of the ribosome, and
catalyzes peptide bond
formation. 3.
Artificial nucleic acid analogues have been designed
and synthesized by chemists, and include peptide
nucleic acid, morpholino- and locked nucleic
acid, glycol nucleic acid, and threose nucleic acid.
Each of these is distinguished from naturally occurring
DNA or RNA by changes to the backbone of the
molecules.
Molecular composition and size
Nucleic acids are generally very large molecules.
Indeed, DNA molecules are probably the largest
individual molecules known. Well-studied biological
nucleic acid molecules range in size from 21
nucleotides (small interfering RNA) to large
chromosomes (human chromosome 1 is a single
molecule that contains 247 million base pairs[16]).
In most cases, naturally occurring DNA molecules
are double-stranded and RNA molecules are single-
stranded.[17] There are numerous exceptions,
however—some viruses have genomes made
of double-stranded RNA and other viruses
have single-stranded DNA genomes,[18] and, in some
circumstances, nucleic acid structures
with three or four strands can form.[19]
Nucleic acids are linear polymers (chains) of
nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three
components:
a purine or pyrimidine nucleobase (sometimes
termed nitrogenous base or simply base),
a pentosesugar, and a phosphate group. The
substructure consisting of a nucleobase plus sugar is
termed a nucleoside. Nucleic acid types differ in the
structure of the sugar in their nucleotides–DNA
contains 2'-deoxyribose while RNA
contains ribose (where the only difference is the
presence of a hydroxyl group). Also, the nucleobases
found in the two nucleic acid types are
different: adenine, cytosine, and guanineare found in
both RNA and DNA, while thymine occurs in DNA
and uracil occurs in RNA.

Chemical Reaction
Evidences of Chemical Reaction:
1.A color change,
2.Formation of gas
3.Precipitate a gas,
4.Temperature changes
5.Production of light
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the
transformation of one set of chemical substances to
another.[1] Classically, chemical reactions encompass
changes that only involve the positions of electrons in
the forming and breaking of chemical
bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei
(no change to the elements present), and can often be
described by a chemical equation. Nuclear chemistry is
a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical
reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where
both electronic and nuclear changes can occur.The
substance (or substances) initially involved in a
chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents.
Chemical reactions are usually characterized by
a chemical change, and they yield one or
more products, which usually have properties
information on the precise course of action is part of
the reaction mechanism. Chemical reactions are
described with chemical equations, which symbolically
present the starting materials, end products, and
sometimes intermediate products and reaction
conditions.
Chemical equations- are used to graphically illustrate
chemical reactions. They consist
of chemical or structural formulas of the reactants on
the left and those of the products on the right. They
are separated by an arrow (→) which indicates the
direction and type of the reaction; the arrow is read as
the word "yields".[7] The tip of the arrow points in the
direction in which the reaction proceeds. A double
arrow (⇌) pointing in opposite directions is
used for equilibrium reactions. Equations
should be balanced according to
the stoichiometry, the number of atoms of
each species should be the same on both
sides of the equation. This is achieved by
scaling the number of involved molecules
and in a schematic example below
H2 + O2 → H 2O
Reaction types
Four basic types
Synthesis
In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple
substances combine to form a more complex
substance. These reactions are in the general
form:
Decomposition
A decomposition reaction is when a more
complex substance breaks down into its more
simple parts. It is thus the opposite of a
synthesis reaction, and can be written as[18][19]
Single replacement
In a single replacement reaction, a single
uncombined element replaces another in a
compound; in other words, one element
trades places with another element in a
compound[18] These reactions come in the
general form of:
Double replacement
In a double replacement reaction, the anions
and cations of two compounds switch places
and form two entirely different
compounds.[18] These reactions are in the
general form:[19]

Balancing
ChemicalEquations
and Collision
Theory
This example illustrates the fundamental aspects of
any chemical equation:
1. The substances undergoing reaction are
called reactants, and their formulas are placed
on the left side of the equation.
2. The substances generated by the reaction are
called products, and their formulas are placed on
the right sight of the equation.
3. Plus signs (+) separate individual reactant and
product formulas, and an arrow (⟶) separates
the reactant and product (left and right) sides of
the equation.
4. The relative numbers of reactant and product
species are represented by coefficients(numbers
placed immediately to the left of each formula).
A coefficient of 1 is typically omitted.
The chemical equation described in section 4.1
is balanced, meaning that equal numbers of atoms
for each element involved in the reaction are
represented on the reactant and product sides. This is
a requirement the equation must satisfy to be
consistent with the law of conservation of matter. It
may be confirmed by simply summing the numbers
of atoms on either side of the arrow and comparing
these sums to ensure they are equal. Note that the
number of atoms for a given element is calculated by
multiplying the coefficient of any formula containing
that element by the element’s subscript in the
formula. If an element appears in more than one
formula on a given side of the equation, the number
of atoms represented in each must be computed and
then added together. For example, both product
species in the example reaction, CO2 and H2O,
contain the element oxygen, and so the number of
oxygen atoms on the product side of the equation is
COLLISION THEORY
The collision theory explains that gas-phase chemical
reactions occur when molecules collide with sufficient
kinetic energy. The collision theory is based on
the kinetic theory of gases; therefore only dealing with
gas-phase chemical reactions are dealt with. Ideal gas
assumptions are applied. Furthermore, we also are
assuming:
1. All molecules are traveling through space in a
straight line.
2. All molecules are rigid spheres.
3. The reactions concerned are between only
two molecules.
4. The molecules need to collide.
Ultimately, the collision theory of gases gives the rate
constant for bimolecular gas-phase reactions; it is equal
to the rate of successful collisions. The rate of successful
collisions is proportional to the fraction of successful
collisions multiplied by the overall collision frequency.