Industrial Process Control Course PDF

Helwan University
Faculty of Engineering
Helwan
Prepared by
Dr. Mohiy Bahgat
2012
Industrial Process Control
Course Contents
Chapter1:Components and characteristics of industrial
processes
1.1. What is a process?
1.2. What does a control system do?
1.3. Why is control necessary?
1.4. Why is control possible?
1.5. How it can be done?
1.6. Where it can be implemented?
1.7. What are the control engineer’s interests?
1.8. How can the process control be documented?
1.9. Control strategies.
1.10. Components of industrial processes.
1.11. Exercises.
Chapter 2: Mathematical modeling of industrial

processes
2.1. Modeling Procedure.
2.2. Linearization.
2.3. Numerical Solution of ODE.
2.4. Model Analysis of Processes.
2.5. Exercises.
Chapter 3: Measurement of control system parameters

3.1. Temperature Sensors.
3.2. Position sensors.
3.3. Speed Sensors.
Dr. M. Bahgat Page 2

3.4. Pressure Sensors.

3.5. Force Sensors (strain gauges).
3.6. Fluid Sensors.
3.7. Flow Measurements.
3.8. Exercises
Chapter 4: Industrial controllers

4.1. On-off
4.2. P, I, D, PI, PD, PID
4.3. Temperature control
4.4. Pressure control
4.5. Flow rate control
4.6. Level control
Chapter 5: Forward control, Sequential control &

Multi-circuit
5.1. Feedback Control.
5.2. Multivariable Control.
5.3. Feed Forward Control.
5.4. Feed Forward plus Feedback Control.
5.5. Cascade Control.
5.6. Batch Control.
5.7. Ratio Control.
5.8. Selective Control.
5.9. Fuzzy Control.
Chapter 6: Introduction to process automation

6.1. Introduction.
6.2. PLC Operation Scan.

6.3. PLC Addressing.

6.4. Relay Ladder Logics (RLL).
6.5. Exercises.
Chapter 7: Application to process automation using

PLCs
7.1. Signal Lamp Simple Process.
7.2. Machine Safety Process.
7.3. Central Heating Process.
7.4. Automatic Mixing Process.
7.5. Automatic Packing Process.
References

Chapter (1)
Components and
Characteristics of
Industrial Processes

Chapter (1)
Components and Characteristics
of Industrial Processes
Process control is an engineering discipline that deals with architectures,
mechanisms, and algorithms for controlling the output of a specific
process. This can be simple as making the temperature in a room kept
constant or as complex as manufacturing an integrated circuit.
For example, heating up the temperature in a room is a process that has

the specific, desired outcome to reach and maintain a defined temperature
kept constant over time. Here, the temperature is the controlled variable,
at the same time, it is the input variable since it is measured by a
thermometer and used to decide whether to heat or not. The desired
temperature is called the set-point. The state of the heater, for example,
the setting of the valve allowing hot water to flow through it; is called
the manipulated variable since it is subject to control actions.
A commonly used control device called a programmable logic controller,

or a PLC is used to read a set of digital and analog inputs, apply a set of
logic statements, and generate a set of analog and digital outputs. Using
the previous heating example, the room temperature would be an input to
the PLC. The logical statements would compare the set-point to the input
temperature and determine whether more or less heating was necessary to
keep the temperature constant. A PLC output would then either open or
close the hot water valve, an incremental amount, depending on whether
more or less hot water was needed.
Larger more complex systems can be controlled by a Distributed Control

System (DCS) or SCADA system.

To make a good introduction to the process control, we should answer

some questions such as :
1. What is a process?
2. What does a control system do?
3. Why is control necessary?
4. Why is control possible?
5. How it can be done?
6. Where it can be implemented?
7. What are the control engineer’s interests?
8. How can the process control be documented?
9. What are control strategies?
1.1. What is a process control?

Process control is an engineering discipline that deals with
architectures, mechanisms, and algorithms for controlling the output of
a specific process. This can be as simple as making the temperature in
a room kept constant or as complex as manufacturing an integrated
circuit.
In practice, the industrial processes are different in behavior,

architecture and characteristics. So, they can be characterized as one or
more of the following forms :
1. Discrete processes.
2. Batch processes.
3. Continuous processes.
4. Hybrid processes.

 Discrete process : it can be found in many manufacturing,

motion and packaging applications. Robotic assembly, such as that
found in automotive production, can be characterized as discrete
process control. Most discrete manufacturing involves the
production of discrete pieces of product, such as metal stamping.
Fig (1.1) – Robot arm control in a discrete process.
 Batch process : where some applications require that specific

quantities of raw materials be combined in specific ways for
particular durations to produce an intermediate or end result. One
example is the production of adhesives and glues, which normally
require the mixing of raw materials in a heated vessel for a period
of time to form a quantity of end product. Other important
examples are the production of food, beverages and medicine.
Batch processes are generally used to produce a relatively low to
intermediate quantity of product per year (a few pounds to millions
of pounds).

Fig (1.2) – Batching processes.
 Continuous process : often, a physical system is represented

though variables those are smooth and uninterrupted in time. The
control of the water temperature in a heating jacket, for example, is
a form of continuous process control. Some important continuous
processes are the production of fuels, chemicals and plastics.
Continuous processes, in manufacturing, are used to produce very
large quantities of product per year, millions to billions of pounds.
Fig (1.3) – Continuous reject process.

 Hybrid processes : Applications having elements of discrete,

batch and continuous process control are often called hybrid
applications.
Fig (1.4) – Product line processes as a hybrid process.
1.2. What does a control system do?

A control system normally performs three main steps :
1. Measurement process for the variable to be controlled, or
collecting data from the controlled plant. This is done by sensors
or data acquisition cards.
2. Comparison between the measured variable and a reference

value, doing some calculations to get the change in the variable,
or data processing for the collected data. This is done by
comparators, or through running of an algorithm or program.
3. Making a final decision in order to maintain the sensed variable

within a desired range, or sending some control signals to the
controlled plant. This is done via the system actuators or final
control elements.

The following sample of examples illustrates the process manual control

steps and the corresponding automatic process control scheme.
 Level process control :
Fig (1.5) – Manual level process control steps.
Fig (1).6 – Automatic level process control system.

 Heating process control :
Fig (1.7) – Manual heating process control steps.
Fig (1.8) – Automatic heating control system
So, the final goal of the control is to maintain or adapt desired conditions
in a physical system or an industrial process by adjusting selected
variables in that system. This can be done by making a use of an output
signal of the system to influence an input signal of the same system,
which called feedback control.

1.3. Why is control necessary?

The control and dynamic operation is an important factor in an
industrial process design. In other words, the industrial processes need
some degree of control for two main reasons :
1. The first one is to maintain the controlled conditions or

variables in a physical system or an industrial process at the
desired values when small or large disturbances occur.
2. The second reason is to respond to changes in the desired

values by adjusting the selected variables in the process. The
response is based on the analysis of the process operation and
objectives.
Finally, the process control will assure the following issues :

a. Safety.
b. Environmental protection.
c. Equipment protection.
d. Smooth plant operation.
e. Product quality.
f. Profit optimization.
g. Monitoring and diagnosis.
These issues are usually translated into values of the system or process
variables such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, liquid level, speed of
a motor or conveyor, displacement … and so forth which are to be
controlled.

1.4. Why is control possible?

If the plant or the industrial process equipment is not properly
designed, the control system will perform poorly, inadequately or
might be impossible. Therefore, when designing an industrial process
or a plant, several considerations must be accounted such as :
a. Providing adequate equipment : which means including

adequate rapidly responded sensors for the process variable
and appropriate final control elements so that the control
actions can be taken in real time? Moreover, such sensors and
final control elements should be shielded and protected
against the surrounding effects due to the process operation.
b. Expected changes in the plant variables : which concerns

about the anticipation of the expected changes in the process
disturbances or the desired values of the controlling variables
and providing or adding adequate equipment during the plant
design? So, the adequate design calculations must be based on
the expected changes.
c. Adding a percentage extra capacity for the equipment
sizing : this is to allow the plant equipment to respond to all
expected disturbances or system variables by merely adding a
percentage extra capacity in accordance to the anticipated
changes.
If the previous considerations are not correct, or the plant design is not
accurate, the control may not be possible and the plant operation
through manipulating the final control elements may not be achieved.

1.5. How can control be done?

1. In simple process control, it can be done using the human
feedback.
2. In complex processes the feedback actions are automated by

sensing, calculating, manipulating the controlled variables by
communicated parts of the control system. Currently, most
automatic control is implemented using electronic equipment at
some levels of current or voltage to represent the values to be
communicated.
3. So, one can say that, the process control is done automatically
using instrumentation and computation that perform all the
features of feedback control without requiring or allowing the
human intervention.
1.6. Where can control be implemented?

In order to operate an industrial process on a minute-to-minute basis, a
lot of information from much of the process has to be available at a
central location which known as the control room or control center.
Such control scheme is generally known as SCADA system where :
 Sensors and control elements are located in the process.

 Signals which are mostly electronic or communications with the
control center to be viewed to the operator.
 Distances between the process and the control center ranges

from few hundred feet to a mile or more.
 In some processes, small control panels are used nearby the

equipment to allow access to them.

Fig (1.9) – Local and centralized control equipment
1.7. What are the control engineers’ interests?

The main interests of the process control engineers are :
a. Process design : where the process must be designed such
that being with rapid response and minimal disturbances.
b. Measurements : where the sensors has to be selected with
rapid response and high accuracy.
c. Final elements : where the final control elements must be
provided and handled so that the manipulated variables can be
adjusted by the control calculation.
d. Control structure : where the basic issues in designing the
controller must be considered such as which control element
should be manipulated to control which measurement.
e. Control calculations : where equations are used to handle the
measurements and the desired values in calculating the
manipulated variables.

1.8. How can the process control be documented?

The process control can be documented in many forms :
a. Equipment specifications and sizing.
b. Operating manuals.
c. Technical experiments and control equations.
d. Engineering drawings.
e. ROMs for storing the control algorithms.
f. Additional EPROMs.
Fig (1.10) – Stirred-tank with composite control
Fig (1.11) – Flow controller

The process drawings include some symbols such as :
 A analyzer.
 F flow rate.
 L level of liquid or solids in a vessel.
 P pressure.
 T temperature.
and so on … … …
1.9. What are the control strategies?

The following diagram displays a sample of the most commonly used
control strategies. Of course, the control strategy is different from one
process to another in accordance to its topology, complexity and
objectives.
Control Strategies
Classical Modern
Control Control
Industrial
Controllers
+ Adaptive Optimal Robust A.I
PLCs Control Control Control Control
Computer Control

1.10. Components of industrial process

The industrial processes comprise several types of components :
1. Process : which in general can consist of a complex
assembly related to some manufacturing sequence. The
process involves some variables needed to be controlled in
order to accomplish the desired goal of it. So, one can say that
the process may be single variable process or multivariable
process according to the number of variables to be controlled.
2. Measuring elements (sensors) : which represents

the devise that transforms or converts the measured variables
into some forms required by the other elements in the process
control operation. Signal conditioning may be required to
complete the measurement function in some cases.
3. Error detectors (comparators) : which is a physical

part of the controlling circuit that determines the difference
between the actual variable and the set-point value before
taking any control action.
4. Controllers (industrial or computer) : which

performs the action should be taken in accordance to the
determined error and regulates or compensates the controlled
variable to bring it to the desired set-point or reference value.
5. Final control elements (actuators) : which is the

device that exerts a direct influence on the process or provides
the required changes in the controlled variable to bring it to
the set-point.

1.11. Exercises :

Chapter (2)
Mathematical
Modeling of

Chapter (2)
Mathematical Modeling of
2.1. Modeling Procedure :
The general steps for building a mathematical model of a process can
be summarized as follows :
1. Define goals :
a. Specific design decisions, which means that the goal should be
specific and clear.
b. Numerical values, where the goal is sometimes being

represented by numerical values.
c. Functional relationship, where in some cases the system’s

behavior is the goal.
d. Required accuracy, the model accuracy should also be

included in the goal definition.
2. Prepare information :
The information needed to be prepared are :
a. Sketch process and identify the system : identifying the
process, the key variables and the system boundaries.
b. Identify variables of interest : the data regarding the physical
process components and the external inputs to the process.
c. State assumptions and data : the assumptions on which the
model will be built on.

3. Formulate the model:

When formulating a model of an industrial process, the first step is to
select the variables whose behavior is predicted and then deriving the
equations based on the conservation balance in mass and energy in
addition to the accumulation as follows :
a. Formulate the conservation balances (Energy balance Eqns.)
b. Formulate the constitutive equations.
c. Combine equations and collect terms.
d. Check degrees of freedom.
e. Convert to the dimensionless form.
Material Balance :
Accumulation of mass = (Mass)in – (Mass)out
Energy Balance :
Accumulation of energy = (H + PE +KE)in
– (H + PE + KE)out + Q – Ws
where :
H : enthalpy = E + pv
PE : potential energy
KE : kinetic energy
Ws : work done by the process on the surroundings
Q : heat transferred to the process from the surroundings.
Q = h . A . ∆T
E : internal energy
pv : flow work

Fig (2.1) – Energy balance in a process.
4. Determine the solution :

Determining the process model solution is very important. This can
be made either analytically or numerically. The analytical solution
under some approximations is usually sought first. If such solution
results in unacceptable errors, numerical solutions are then sought.
Despite they are not exact but errors can be made less. The
analytical solution steps are :
 Calculate the required specific numerical values.
 Determine the important functional relationships among the

process model, variables and system behavior.
 Make a sensitivity study of the results associated with data

changes.

5. Analyze the results :

a. The first step of result analysis is to evaluate whether the
solution is correct or not, this can be done by ensuring the
following :
 The results satisfy initial and final conditions.
 Obey the process bounds.
 Contains negligible errors associated with numerical

solutions.
 Obey the process semi-quantitative expectations such

as output change sign.
b. The second step of result analysis is to analyze the process

behavior, this can be done by :
 Determining the numerical results quantitavelly to help

in making decisions regarding the equipment operation
and sizing.
 Plotting the results.
 Observing the process characteristic behavior like

oscillations in case of max or min oscillations.
 Evaluate sensitivity, which means studying the process

behavior associated with change in data or important
variables.
 Relate results to data and assumptions.
 Answer “ what if ” questions.

6. Validate the model :

The model validation involves determining whether the results
obtained in the previous steps are truly representing the physical
process.
This can be done by comparing the obtained results with some
experimental results taken from the process at different operating
points to assure the model validity in representing the process. In
other words, the steps of model validity are :
a. Select key values for validation.
b. Compare with experimental results.
c. Compare with results from more complex model.
The previous procedure can be divided into two main sections :

a. Model development steps (steps 1 to 3).
b. Model solution and simulation (steps 4 to 6).
Example (1) : For the mixing tank shown in figure :
Fig (2.2) – Mixing process configuration.

1. The goal is to determine the dynamic response due to a step

change in the inlet concentration. In other words, determining the
time needed for the outlet reaches 90% of change in concentration
after the step change in the inlet.
2. The information :
a. The process is the tank with its fluid in it, its design and shape
and the speed of making the fluid uniform.
b. Assumptions : well-mixed vessel, density is the same for A and
solvent S in addition the flow in is constant.
c. Data : F0 = 0.085 m3/min , CAinit = 0.925 mole/m3 , ∆CA0 =
0.925 mole/m3 and CA0 = 1.85 mole/m3 after the step. The
system is initially at steady state.
3. The model formulation :

Since the problem involves concentration, hence using the material
balance equation we can get :
Accumulation of mass = Mass in – Mass out
(ρV)(t+∆t) – (ρV)(t) = Fo ρ.∆t – F1 ρ.∆t
Dividing by ∆t and taking the limit as ∆t 0
d(V ) dV
   F0 -  F1
dt dt
Assuming that the level in the tank is almost constant, which means
that the flows in and out are equal, i.e : Fo = F1 = F
or : dV/dt = Fo – F1 = 0 , i.e : V = constant (1)

Applying the same material balance for component A :
Accumulation of comp A = Comp Ain – Comp Aout

(M WA V CA)(t+∆t) – (M WA V CA)(t) = ( M WA F CAo
– M WA F CA )∆t
Dividing by ∆t and taking the limit as ∆t 0
dCA (2)
M WA V  M WA F (C A0 - C A )
dt
Applying the same material balance for component S :
dCs
M Ws V  M Ws F (C s0 - C s )
dt
Accordingly :
 The process variables are :

CA and F1
 The external variables are :
F0 and CA0
 The process model is represented by equations (1) & (2) .

As it can been seen from eqn.(2) the process model is a linear 1 st order
ordinary differential equation that can be transformed to the separable
form using an integral factor as follows :
dCA
M WA V  M WA F (C A0 - C A )
dt
dCA
V  F (C A0 - C A )
dt
dCA 1 1
 C A  C A0
dt   , with V/F = τ = time constant
(∫ (1/τ)dt τ
Use the integrating factor I.F = e = et/
dCA 1 C
e t/ (  C A )  A0 e t/
dt  
t/ dCA de t/ d(e t/ C A ) C

e  CA   A0 e t/
dt dt dt 

C A0e t/ C
 d(C )  e
t/ t/
A e dt  A0 dt
 
C A0  t/
C A e t/  e K

C A  C A0  K e-t/
Using the initial conditions, we get : K = CAinit – CA0

C A  C A0  (C Ainit - C A0 ) . e-t/
C A - C Ainit  [C A0 - (C A0 )init ] (1 - e- t/ )
Substituting with the given numerical values :
C A - 0.925  [C A0 - 0.925] (1 - e-t/24.7 )

(3)
Two aspects of the process dynamic response have to be considered :
 The speed of response which is characterized by the time

constant τ.
 The steady state gain which is :

 output  C A
Kp   1
 input  C A0
1. Result analysis :
The solution of the process model described in eqn. (3) is an
exponential curve as displayed in the Fig (2.3). The process response
from the change beginning to the end is affected by the time constant
(τ), where the large time constant the slow process response and vice
versa. According to the goal, it is needed to know the time taken to get
90% of the change in outlet concentration. This time can be calculated
from eqn. (3).

Fig (2.3) - Dynamic response of the process.
6. Validation :
By performing an experiment on a stirred tank as described in the
controlled process and taking samples of the outlet material,
analyzing the obtained samples and drawing the data points, one can
get the shown Fig (2.4). By visual evaluation, one can say the model
is valid in representing the process.
Fig (2.4) – Model validation of the process.

Example (2) : for the On-Off room heating process

shown in figure :
Fig (2.5) – On-Off room heating process configuration.
1. The goal : is to determine the dynamic response of the room

temperature. Also, ensure that the furnace does not switch on or off
more than once per 3 minutes.
a. The process is the air inside the room. The important variables
are the room temperature and the furnace on-off status.
b. Assumptions : the air in the room is well mixed, no transfer of
material to or from the room, the heat transferred depends only
on the temperature difference between the room and the outside
environment, no heat is transferred from the floor to the ceiling
and effects of kinetic and potential energies are negligible.
c. Data : the heat capacity of the air CV = 0.17 cal/g Cº, the overall
heat transfer coefficient UA = 45 x 103 cal/Cº hr, the size of the

room is 5 m by 5 m by 3 m high, the furnace heating capacity Qh

is 0 (of) or 1.5 x 103 cal/hr (on), the furnace switches inst. At 17
Cº (on) and at 23 Cº (off), the initial room temp. is 20 Cº, and the
outside temp. is 10 Cº.

Since the process is defined as the air inside the room, hence using the
energy balance equation one can get :
dE/dt = KE + PE + Q – Ws
KE = PE = Ws = 0 from assumptions
dE/dt = Q ………………..…… (1)
but dE/dt = ρ V CV dT/dt
and Q = - UA (T – Ta) + Qh
and Qh is represented by :
0 when T > 23 Cº
Qh = 1.5 x 106 when T < 17 Cº
unchanged when T < 23 Cº
Finally, the process model is :

dT
 V CV  - UA ( T - Ta )  Qh ………….. (2)
dt
Accordingly :
T and Qh
Ta
 The process parameters are :
UA , CV , V and ρ


Rearranging eqn. (2) gives the process model which is a linear 1st
order ordinary differential equation that can be transformed to the
separable form using an integral factor as follows :
dT 1 UA Ta  Qh V  Cv
 T , with  
dt  V  Cv UA
(∫ (1/τ)dt τ
dT 1 UA Ta  Qh
e t/ (  T )  e t/ .
dt  V  Cv
dT det/ d(e t/ . T ) UA Ta  Qh

e t/ .  T.   e t/ .
dt dt dt V  Cv
UA Ta  Qh
 d(e e
t/ t/
. T)  . dt
V  Cv
UA Ta  Qh
 d(e 
t/
. T)  e t/ dt
V  Cv
UA Ta  Qh t/
e t/ . T  . e K
V  Cv
UA Ta  Qh
T  .  K . e-t/
V  Cv
Using the initial conditions, we get :
T - Tinit  ( Tfinal - Tinit ) ( 1 - e-t/ ) …….. (3)
where : t = time from step in Qh

τ = time constant = 0.34 hr
Tfinal = final value of T as t ∞ = Ta + Qh / UA
= 10 Cº when Qh = 0
= 43.3 Cº when Qh = 1.5 x 106
Tinit = the value of T when a step in Qh occurs.

Fig (2.6) - Dynamic response of the process.
From the previous figure (2.6), it can noticed that the room
temperature decreases until it reaches 17 Cº, the furnace will start
heating and the temperature increases until it reaches 23 Cº. This
process will be repeated with the heater On and Off periodically.
2.2. Linearization
If the developed process model is linear, analytical solutions can be
obtained easily. Most of the physical system models are nonlinear. The
analytical solutions of the nonlinear models are not available, thus the
numerical simulations are sought. Instead of obtaining non-
understandable solutions for the nonlinear models by numerical
simulations, approximate linearized solutions can be used for
representing realistic processes.

A model is to be linear if it satisfies the properties of additivity,

proportionality and superposition which mean that when it is
subjected to a sum of inputs, a sum of outputs will result. For
example, if there is a system with an input of :
x3(t) = x1(t) + x2(t)
it should result in an output of :
y3(t) = y1(t) + y2(t)
 A system satisfies the property of superposition, if a sum of scaled

inputs results in a sum of scaled outputs. i.e :
f(Ax + By) = f(Ax) + f(By) = A . f(x) + B . f(y)
 If the system has the following performance equation :

f(x) = k . X½
f(Ax1 + Bx2) = k . (Ax1 + Bx2)½
≠ k . (Ax1)½ + k . (Bx2)½
Thus the above system in not linear, it is nonlinear system, and so on.
To illustrate the dynamic behavior of a process, consider the following

example stirred tank heat exchanger when being subjected to a change in
the feed temperature and cooling fluid flow rate.
Fig (2.7) - Stirred tank heat exchanger

Fig (2.8) - Process response due Fig (2.9) - Process response due to
to a change in feed temperature a change in cooling fluid flow rate
Fig (2.10) - The total process response due to a change in both feed
temperature and cooling fluid flow rate
According to the dynamic behavior of the process, one can say that this
process is linear because it obeys the superposition principle. In general a
nonlinear process model can be linearized and approximated by a linear
model using Taylor series expansion. For example, a process nonlinear
model with one variable can be linearized around its S.S point as :
dF 1 dF
F(x )  F(x s )  (x  x s )  (x  x s )2  R
dx x s 2 dx x s

A process nonlinear model with two variables can be linearized around its
S.S point as follows :
F
F( x 1 , x 2 )  F( x 1s , x 2 s )  (x1  x1s )
x 1 x1s , x2 s
F 1  2F
 (x 2  x 2 s )  ( x 1  x 1s )2
x 2 x1s , x2 s
2 x 21
x1s , x2 s
1  2F 1  2F
 ( x 2  x 2 s )2 
2 x 22 2 x 1 x 2 x1s , x2 s
x1s , x2 s
( x 1  x 1s )( x 2  x 2 s )  R
Fig (2.11) - Comparison between linear and exact nonlinear models.
Function examples :
1. F(x) = x½ ≈ xs½ + ½ xs-½ (x – xs)
x xs 1
2. F(x) =   (x  x s )
1ax 1  a xs 2 (1  a x s )2

Example (3) : for the tank draining process shown in

figure :
Fig (2.12) – Tank draining process configuration.
1. The goal : is to determine the model of this tank process. Also,

evaluate the accuracies of the linearized model at small (10 m3/hr) and
large (60 m3/hr) step changes in the inlet flow rate.
a. The process is the liquid in the tank. The important variables are
the level and the flow out.
b. Assumptions : the density is constant, the cross sectional area of
the tank A does not change with height, the system is at quasi-
steady state because the pipe dynamics is fast with respect to that
of the tank level, the pressure is constant at inlet and outlet,
c. Data : the initial steady state conditions are : Flows F0 = F1 =
100 m3/hr, Level L = 7 m, the cross sectional area A = 7 m2 .


Since the process is defined as the liquid in the tank and the level
depends on the total amount of liquid, thus using the material balance
equation one can get ::
dL
A   Fo -  F1 …………………. (1)
dt
Another equation is required, one can relate the outlet flow to the head
as follows :
F1  k F1 (Pa - L - Pa )0.5  k F1 L0.5

……. (2)
Finally, combining the two eqns., the process model will be :
dL
A  Fo - k F1 L0.5 …………………. (3)
dt
This model has a nonlinear term which can be linearized as :
L0.5  L0.5
s  0.5 L-0.5
s (L - L s ) …………... (4)
Replacing the nonlinear term in Eqn.(3) and Subtracting the S.S
conditions and putting the input as a constant step : F’o = ∆Fo , one can
get the final process model as :
dL'
A = ΔFo - (0.5k F1L s-0.5 ) L' …..
dt (5)
Accordingly :
L’
∆Fo
 The process parameters are :
A and kF1


Rearranging eqn. (5) gives the process model which is a linear order
ordinary differential equation that can be transformed to the separable
form using an integral factor as follows :
dL' 1 1 A
 L'  Fo , with  
dt  A 0.5 k F1 L-s0.5
(∫ (1/τ)dt τ
dL' 1 1
e t/ (  L' )  e t/ . Fo
dt  A
dL' det/ d(e t/ L' ) 1

e t/  L'   e t/ Fo
dt dt dt A
1
 d(e e
t/ t/
L' )  Fo dt
A
Fo
 d(e 
t/
L' )  e t/ dt
A
 Fo t/
e t/ L'  e K
A
 Fo
L'   K . e-t/
A
  Fo
Using the initial conditions, we get : K
A
 Fo
L'  ( 1 - e-t/ )
A
 1
L'  Fo K p ( 1 - e -t/ ) with K p  
A 0.5k F1Ls0.5
where : t = time from step in Fo
τ = time constant = 0.98 hr
kp = 0.14 hr/m2

Fig (2.13) - Process response to a small change in inlet flow rate.
Fig (2.14) - Process response to a large change in inlet flow rate.

From the previous figures (2.13) and (2.14), it can be noticed that the
solution of the linearized model is quite accurate with the small
change in the inlet flow rate.
On the other hand, it is inaccurate with the large change in the inlet
flow rate and it gives impossible negative level at S.S.
The general trend is the linearized model is more accurate with small
changes than with the large ones.
2.3. Numerical Solutions of O.D.E

As seen before, most of the practical modeling of process and process
control would result in nonlinear models. The nonlinear algebraic and
differential models cannot be solved analytically. Such models are
solved using different methods of numerical solutions.
The numerical solutions do not give expressions as before, but they
give points close to the exact solutions of the process models. The
concept of the numerical methods is to use initial values and an
approximation of the derivatives over a step of integration, and hence
calculate the variables after that step. Most of the numerical methods
for solving differential equations consider the Taylor series expansion
and make approximations by choosing specified terms of the series.
The most commonly used methods are :
1. Euler’s method : which considers the first two terms of the

Taylor series :
yi+1 = yi + f(yi , t).∆t

2. Heun’s method : which considers the first three terms of the

Taylor series :
k1 = f(yi , t).∆t
yi+1 = yi + f(yi+k1/2 , t+∆t/2).∆t
3. Runge-Kutta fourth order method : which considers the

first four terms of the Taylor series?
yi+1= yi+∆t/6 (k1+2k2+2k3+k4)

where :
k1 = f (y i , t i )
t.k 1 t
k2 = f (y i  , ti  )
2 2
t.k 2 t
k3 = f (y i  , ti  )
2 2
t.k 3 t
k4 = f (y i  2 , t i  2 )
 The selection of the step size ∆t is very important in reaching the

approximate solution of the process model using the numerical
solutions.
 In Euler’s method the error is proportional to the step size ∆t,

however, in Runge-Kutta method the error is proportional to
(∆t)4.
 In most engineering applications, the appropriate step size is

∆t = 0.01 sec.

2.4. Model Analysis of Processes

The process model which comprises a linear differential equation can
be solved by analytical solution. On the other hand, the process model
which comprises a set of linear differential equations with constant
coefficients can be solved by Laplace transform method.
A control system involves several simultaneous processes and control
calculations can be modeled using input and output variables with the
aid of block diagrams and transfer functions. The process behavior to
sine inputs can be carried out easily using the frequency response
method to illustrate the influence of input frequency.
When a process is subjected to a step disturbance, it is required to
determine whether its behavior is stable or not.
2.4.1. Laplace transform

The Laplace transform is a very powerful method for engineers to
analyze the process control and control systems. It converts the constant
coefficient differential equations to algebraic equations which can be
solved easily. It replaces the time domain by a frequency domain or
complex domain. The Laplace transform is defined as :

 f(t).e
-st
L(f (t ))  F(s)  dt
0
 The Laplace transform is linear operator, i.e :

L[a.f1(t) + b.f2(t)] = a.L[f1(t)] + b.L[f2(t)]
 Inverse Laplace can be achieves as :

L-1[F(s)] = f(t) for t ≥0
 Laplace transform for a constant :

C C
L(C) =  C e dt  - e
- st - st

0
s s

 Laplace transform for an exponential :


1 -(s - a)t 1
L(eat) =  e e dt  a - s e
at - st

0
s-a
 Laplace transform for a step function :

A; t  0
x (t )  
0 t0
 
X(s)   x(t).e -st
dt   A.e-st dt
0 0
A -st 
A
X (s)  - e 
s 0 s
 The Laplace Transform properties can be summarized as follows :
Property Example
Linearity L[a.f (t) + b.g(t)] = a.F(s) + b.G(s)
Time Change 1 s
L [f (at )]  F( )
a a
Time – axis displacement L( f (t − T )) = e−sT F(s)
S – axis displacement L(eat f (t)) = F(s − a)
Initial Value Theorem

Limt 0 f (t )  Lims s F(s)
Final Value Theorem

Limt  f (t )  Lims0 s F(s)

 Tables of Laplace transform and its inverse transform are available

for most commonly used functions as follows :
Function f(t) Laplace F(s)
δ unit impulse 1
U(t) unit step or constant 1/s
A; t  0 A/s
u(t )  
0 t0
 At; t  0
r (t )   A / s2
0 t0
tn n! / sn+1
eat 1 / (s-a)
1 t / 
e 1 / (τs+1)

sin (ωt) ω / (s2 + ω2)
cos (ωt) s / (s2 + ω2)
f (t  a) t  a
f (t )  
0 ta e  as F(s)
df(t )
s F(s)
dt
dn f (t )
sn F(s)
dtn
 f (t ) dt F(s) / s
0

2.4.2. Partial Fractions

In order to get the time response for any plant or process, the dynamical
model of such plant should be solved. When the model in derived in
Laplace domain, the inverse Laplace can be utilized as follows :
N(s) C1 C2
Y(s)     .....
D(s) H1 (s) H2 (s)
Taking the inverse Laplace for both sides, one can get :
1 1
Y(t)  C1 L-1 [ ]  C2 L-1 [ ]  ....
H1 (s) H2 (s)
where Ci are constants and Hi(s) are the factors of the characteristic
polynomial D(s) = 0.
 If H(s) is a 1st order term, then :

N(s) A B
Y(s)     .....
D(s) H1 (s) H2 (s)
 If H(s) is a 2nd order term, then :

N(s) A s  B C
Y(s)     .....
D(s) H1 (s) H2 (s)
 If there are repeated factors :
M(s) C1 C2 Cn  1
Y(s)     ..... 
(s  a)n
(s  a) (s  a)2
(s  a)n  1
Example (4) : For the stirred-tank mixing model in deviation

variables is :
dC'A
V  F (C 'A0 - C'A )
dt
using Laplace transform :
V s C’A(s) = F [ C’AO(s) – C’A(s) ]
τ s C’A(s) + C’A(s) = C’AO(s)

C’A(s) ( τ s + 1) = C’AO(s)
Considering a step change in the inlet concentration, i.e :
C’A0(s) = ∆CA0/s
1
C'A (s)  C A0
s (s  1)
1 
C'A (s)  C A0 (  )
s s  1
Using the inverse Laplace, one can get :
C'A (t)  C A0 (1 - e-t/ )
Example (5) : Consider an industrial process having a model

in deviation variables as:
1 
y" (t)  2 y' (t)  y(t)  G.x(t)
20 20
Using Laplace transform :
1 2 
2
s Y(s)  2 2 sY(s)  Y(s)  G.x(s)
0 0
G . 20
Y(s)  2 . x(s)
s  2 s  20
Take the input x(t) as a step function, then its Laplace transform will
A
be : X(s)  and the output final equation is :
s
GA . 20
Y(s) 
s.[s 2  2 s  20 ]
By then, we have four conditions described as follows :
1. if α > ωo the process characteristic equation will have two real

distinct roots as : r1,2  -   2 - 2

GA . 20
Y(s) 
s (s  r1 ) (s  r2 )
GA k1 k2
  
s (s  r1 ) (s  r2 )
Finally, the process output y(t) will be :

y(t )  G.A  k 1er1t  k 2er2t
This condition is called the over damping condition where the
output response does not have any oscillations as shown :
Fig (2.15) - Output response of an over

damped controlled process.
2. if α = ωo the process characteristic equation will have two real

equal roots as : r1,2  r  -
GA . 20
Y(s) 
s (s  r )2
GA k1 k2
  
s (s  r ) (s  r )2

y(t )  G.A  (k 1  k 2 ) et
This condition is called the critically damped where the output
also does not have oscillations as shown :

Fig (2.16) - Output response of an critically

3. if α < ωo the process characteristic equation will have two

complex conjugate roots as : r1,2  -   j 2  2
GA . 20
Y(s) 
s (s  r1 ) (s  r2 )
GA k1 k2
  
s (s  r1 ) (s  r2 )
y(t )  G.A  k e t sin(d t  )
This condition is called the under damped where the output has
decayed oscillations as shown :
Fig (2.17) - Output response of an under


4. if α = 0 the process characteristic equation will have two

complex conjugate roots as : r1 ,2  r   j
GA . 20
Y(s) 
s (s  j) (s  j)
GA k1 k2
  
s (s  j) (s  j)
y(t )  G.A  k cos(0 t)
This condition is called the oscillatory condition where the output

will have continuous oscillations as shown :
Fig (2.18) - Output response of an oscillatory process.
2.4.3. Transfer Function

The process transfer function is defined as the Laplace transform of the
output Y(s) divided by the Laplace transform of the input X(s).
Y (s )
Transfer Function = T.F = G(s) = X(s)

Basic definitions :
 Order : the system order is the highest power of s in the

denominator of the T.F.
 Pole : it is a root of the denominator of the T.F or a root of the
system characteristic equation.
 Zero : it is a root of the numerator of the T.F.
 Steady state gain : it is the ratio ∆Y/∆X at steady state or

yss/xin and usually denoted by K.
Example : For a system or a process whose T.F is :

Y (s) 6 s - 45.83
 2
X(s) s  1.789s  35.8
 The system is 2nd order

 The poles are : s = - 8.95 ± j 5.92
 The zero is : s = 7.64
 The S.S gain is : K = 45.83/35.8 = 1.28
2.4.4. Block diagram

The block diagram method is a powerful graphical representation for
the system or process individual components based on their T.F. It has
some advantages :
1. It retains individual systems and allows model simplification

and changes.
2. It provides a visual representation of the relationships

between the system components.
3. It gives insight into the effect of components on the overall

system performance.

Fig (2.19) - Block diagram for a general control system.
Fig (2.20) - Physical process control.

Fig (2.21) - Block diagram of the process control.
Fig (2.22) - On–Off control of a heating or cooling process.

Fig (2.23) - Analog control of the heating process.
Fig (2.24) - Digital control of the heating process.

Fig (2.25) - PLC control of the heating process.
3 – 15 psi
Temp.
sensor
4 – 20 mA
Flow
valve
4 – 20 mA
Level 3 – 15 psi
sensor
L 4 – 20 mA
Flow Flow
valve sensor
3 – 15 psi
Flow
valve
Steam
Fig (2.26) – Multi-loop industrial process control system.

Block diagram Notations :

There are some standard symbols to be used in developing the block
diagram of any system plant or process. The following is a sample of
such symbols :
X3(s) = x1(s) + x2(s) X3(s) = x1(s) = x2(s)
G(s) = Y(s) / X(s)
Fig (2.27) – Block diagram notations.
Block diagram Algebra :
1. Series or Cascaded Blocks :
Y1(s) = G1(s) . X1(s)
Y1(s) = X2(s)
Y2(s) = G2(s) . X2(s) = G2(s) . Y1(s)

= G2(s) . G1(s) . X1(s)
= G(s) . X1(s)
G(s) = G1(s) . G2(s)
2. Parallel Blocks :
Y1(s) = G1(s) . X(s)
Y2(s) = G2(s) . X(s)
Yt(s) = Y1(s) + Y2(s) = G1(s) . X(s) + G2(s) . X(s)
Yt(s) = ( G2(s) + G1(s) ) . X(s)
= G(s) . X(s)
G(s) = G1(s) + G2(s)

3. Feedback System Blocks :
E(s)  B(s)  R(s)
C(s)
 C(s).H(s)  R(s)
G(s)
1 G(s)H(s)
C(s) (  )  R(s)
G(s) G(s)
1  G(s)H(s)
C(s) ( )  R(s)
G(s)
C(s) G(s)
Gt (s)  
R(s) 1  G(s) H(s)
Example(6):
Apply the block diagram reduction rules to obtain the overall transfer
function Y(s) / X(s).


Fig (2.28) – Block diagram reduction example.
2.4.5. Frequency response :

The frequency response is very important when studying the system
dynamic behavior associated with sinusoidal input at different
frequencies. A stable linear system subjected to a sinusoidal input X’(t)
will, at steady state, have a sinusoidal output Y’(t) of the same

frequency as the input. But the amplitude and phase of output will be
different from those of the input. The relationship between input and
output can be characterized by :
Output magnitude
Amplituderatio =
Input magnitude
Y ' ( t) max
= = G(jω)
X' ( t) max
= Re(G(j ω)) 2 + Im(G(j ω)) 2
Pahseangle = φ = ∠G(jω)
Im(G(j ω))
= tan-1
Re(G(j ω))

Example (7) : For the mixing process shown in Fig (2.29) :
Fig (2.29) – The mixing process.

The model of the stirred tank was written before as :
dCA
V  F (C A0 - C A )
dt
Since the inlet will be used as a sinusoidal input, i.e : C A0 = A sin(ωt) ,
one can rewrite the system model as :
dCA
V  F. A sin(t) - F . C A
dt
Using τ = V/F and taking the Laplace transform, the system model
becomes as :

 s C A (s)  A . - C A (s)
s  2
2

C A (s) (1   s)  A .
s  2
2
A . /
C A (s) 
1
(s  ) (s 2  2 )

k1 k2 k3
  
1 (s  j) (s  j)
(s  )

Using the partial fraction method, the system model becomes as :

k1 k2 k3
C A (s)   
1 (s  j) (s  j)
(s  )

where :
A
k1 
1  2 2
A 1
k2  e j
j2 1   2 2
A 1
k3  e j
j2 1   2 2
  tan1 ( )
Finally, the system model becomes as :
C A (t)  k 1 e-t/  k 2 e j(t  )  k 3 e-j(t  )
which can be rewritten in the form :

A A
C A (t)  2 2
e-t/  sin(t  )
1   1  2 2
Note that the input was : CA0(t) = A sin(ωt)

2.5. Exercises :

Chapter (3)
Measurement of
Control System
Parameters

Chapter (3)
Measurement of Control
System Parameters
Industry and industrial processes use a variety of sensors to control its
operations; the most familiar devices include thermocouples, pressure
gauges, encoders and others …, which measure a single variable at a single
point in the process. As manufacturing processes have become more
complex, additional types of information and measurements are required.
Some of industrial processes now need measurements of film thickness,
particle size, solids concentration, and contamination detection. Most of
the used sensors operate on relatively simple principles that are based on
the interaction between matter and sound, light, or electric fields. These
devices or sensors are used in process control to measure some parameters
and the resulting data is used to control the process. In addition, such
measurements enable better process understanding, which often drives
process improvement such as improving the productivity or achieving the
uniformity of a product. Figure (3.1) displays that the process
measurements are very important and representing the basic step leading to
several aspects which finally maximize the process profit and process
improvement. There is often more than one type of sensors that will
function adequately in a given application. For instance:
1. Temperature Sensors.
2. Position Sensors.
3. Pressure Sensors.
4. Force Sensors.
5. Fluid (Flow rate) Sensors.

Fig (3.1) - Process measurement as a crucial step to plant

operation and profitability.
The choice of a sensor always depends on the specific details of the

application, so it is imperative to understand the operation and limitations
of each measuring or sensing device. Clearly, other factors such as cost or
vendor issues have to be considered, but from a purely technical point of
view the best choice of sensor for a given application ultimately depends
on the details of the measurement process.
The performance of any process sensor, new or old, can be summarized as

follows :
● The sensor must be completely reliable under continuous operation

and ideally require no preventive maintenance.
● The sensor should be installed in such a way that it can be replaced
quickly in case it does eventually malfunction.
● The sensor is easy to use and does not require a complicated
calibration sequence.
● The data it provides should be directly related to the physical
properties of interest. For example, a sensor that purports to measure
viscosity but in reality is also sensitive to changes in pressure is of

limited usefulness.
● The data it provides should be easily interpreted. For example,
sensors that measure scalar quantities such as temperature or flow
rate generally output a signal that is proportional to these quantities.
If the sensor interface is digital, the readout should be provided in the
correct units.
● The sensor should be compatible with other sensors and with the
existing distributed control system.
● The sensor must provide an immediate pay-off relative to its cost of
purchase and installation, which is usually many times more than the
purchase price.
3.1. Temperature sensors :

Temperature is a basic measurement used throughout many processes. It
is a measure of the thermal energy in a body, which is the relative
hotness or coldness of a medium and normally measured in degrees
using one of the following scales; traditional Fahrenheit scale (Fº),
Celsius which is originally called centigrade scale (Cº) or the absolute
Kelvin scale (Kº) as standard units of measurement. Temperature
sensors are used in the process control that concerns with temperature
regulation. It depends on the electrical methods of measuring
temperature. The basic types of temperature sensors are :
1. Bimetallic temperature sensor.

2. Resistance –Temperature Detectors (RTD) sensors.
3. Thermistors or semiconductor usage in measuring temperature.
4. Thermocouples.

3.1.1. Bimetallic temperature sensors :

The bimetallic temperature sensors have some advantages of simplicity
and low cost, on the other hand, its main disadvantages are the
existence of hysteresis, inaccuracy and the slow time response. Such
sensors are used in numerous applications, particularly where an
ON/OFF cyclic operation is needed rather than smooth or continuous
control.
The sensor basic operation is built on the thermal linear expansion

which is the change in dimensions of a material due to temperature
changes. The change in dimensions of a material is due to its
coefficient of thermal expansion that is expressed as the change in
linear dimension (γ) per degree temperature change.
L = Lo ( 1 + γ . Δt )
where : L = the final length.
Lo = the initial length.
Δt = T – To = temperature difference.
γ = the linear thermal expansion coefficient.
The bimetallic sensor consists of two materials with grossly different

thermal expansion coefficients bounded together. When the sensor is
being subjected to heating, the different expansion rates of the two
materials will cause the sensor assembly to be curved as shown in
Fig(3.2). This effect can be used to close switch contacts or to actuate
an ON/OFF mechanism when the temperature increases to some
appropriate set-point.

γ1
γ2 < γ1
at To
Fig (3.2) – Bimetallic strip sensor.
3.1.2. Resistance temperature sensors :
One of the most important methods for electrical measurement of

temperature is based on the electrical resistance change of a conducting
material. So, the principle of measuring or sensing temperature is to
place a conducting material with sensitive change of resistance with
respect to temperature in contact with the environment whose
temperature is to be measured or sensed. By then the device will take
the temperature of the environment. Thus a measure of the conducting
material resistance will indicate the temperature of the sensor and the
environment. The resistance of a conductor varies according to the
following factors :
 The resistance is directly proportional to the conductor length :
Rαl
 The resistance is inverse proportional to the conductor cross
section area :
R α 1/a
 The resistance depends on the type of the conductor material :
R=ρ.l /a
 The resistance is affected by the surrounding resistance such that :

RT = RTo ( 1 + α . Δt )
where : RT = the conductor resistance at a temperature T.
RTo = the conductor resistance at a temperature To.
Δt = T – To = temperature difference.
α = the linear change coefficient in resistance with

respect to temperature.
The resistance-temperature detector (RTD) is a temperature sensor

whose operation is based on the resistance variation of a metal
conductor with temperature. Metal used in such a sensor vary from
platinum which is quit sensitive and expensive to nickel which is more
sensitive and less expensive.
The sensitivity of the RTD sensor depends on the value of the linear
change coefficient in resistance with respect to temperature (α).
Typical values of such coefficient for different materials are :
α = 0.004 /Cº for platinum.
α = 0.005 /Cº for nickel.
In general the RTD has a time response ranges between 0.5 to 5

seconds or more. This slow response is due to the slow thermal
conductivity in bringing the sensor into thermal equilibrium with the
surrounding environment.
The RTD sensor construction is basically in the form of a wire wound

as a coil to achieve small size, improved thermal conductivity and
decreased time response. This coil is protected by a sheath or a tube.
The resistance of the coil will be monitored as a function of
temperature. Fig (3.3) shows the internal construction of an RTD.

Fig (3.3) – Internal construction of a typical RTD.
This design has a platinum element surrounded by a porcelain

insulator. The insulator prevents a short circuit between the wire and
the metal sheath. A nickel-iron-chromium alloy is normally used in
manufacturing the RTD sheath. When placed in a liquid or gas
medium, the sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the medium and
the change in temperature will cause the platinum wire to heat or cool,
resulting in a proportional change in resistance. This device is normally
used in a bridge circuit. Fig (3.4) shows an RTD protective well and
terminal head, which can be used for temperatures up to 1100°C.
Fig (3.4) – RTD protection and terminal head.

Since the variation of the RTD resistance is relatively small, the RTD
is usually used a branch of a bridge as shown in Fig (3.5) :
Fig (3.5) – RTD sensor with signal conditioning.
The effective range of RTD sensors basically depends on the type of

the effective element wire. For example :
Platinum RTD has the range of : - 100 to 650 Cº
Nickel RTD has the range of : - 180 to 300 Cº
3.1.3. Thermistor sensors :

The thermistor represents another class of temperature sensor that
measures temperature through changes of material resistance. The
characteristics of such devices are very different from those of the
RTDs and depend on the behavior of semiconductor resistance with
temperature.
So, one can say that the word thermistor comes from a contraction of
thermal resistor. The resistance of a thermistor is a function of the
ambient temperature.

The change in resistance ΔR of the thermistor is proportional to the

change in temperature ΔT when using a first-order approximation over
limited temperature ranges where (α) is the characteristic temperature
coefficient of the thermistor.
The thermistor construction may take several forms including discs,

beads and rods varying in size from a bead 1 mm in diameter to a disc
of several cm in diameter and thick. This can provide a wide range of
resistance values at any particular temperature.
The effective range of thermistor sensors depends on the

semiconductor material used in constructing the thermistor. The
thermistor practical range is : - 80 to 300 Cº.
3.1.4. Thermocouple sensors :

The thermocouple is a device that converts thermal energy into
electrical energy. A thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar
metal wires joined at one end. The most important factor to be
considered when selecting a pair of materials is the thermoelectric
difference between the two materials. A significant difference between
the two materials will result in better thermocouple performance.
Figure (3.6) displays the constructions of a typical thermocouple. The

leads of the thermocouple are encased in a rigid metal sheath. The
measuring junction is normally formed at the bottom of the
thermocouple housing. Magnesium oxide surrounds the thermocouple
wires to prevent vibration that could damage the fine wires and to
enhance heat transfer between the measuring junction and the medium
surrounding the thermocouple.

Fig (3.6) - Internal construction of a typical thermocouple.
Other materials may be used in addition to those shown in figure, for

example: Chromel-Constantan is excellent for temperatures up to 2000
F° and Tungsten-Rhenium is used for temperatures up to 5000 F°.
When a thermocouple is subjected to changes in temperature, it will

cause an electric current to flow in the attached circuit. The amount of
produced current depends on the temperature difference between the
measurement and reference junction; the characteristics of the two
metals used; and the characteristics of the attached circuit. Fig (3.7)
illustrates a simple thermocouple circuit.
Fig (3.7) - Simple thermocouple circuit.

Fig (3.8) - Thermocouple circuit with temperature

control and signal conditioning.
Heating the measuring junction of the thermocouple produces a voltage

which is greater than the voltage across the reference junction. The
difference between the two voltages is proportional to the difference in
temperature and can be measured on the voltmeter (in milli-volts) or
amplified and then sent to operate a control circuit.
3.2. Position sensors :

The measurement of displacement, position, or location is important in
the process industries. The requirements of measuring such variables
and the used sensors are varied in the industries. For examples :
 Location and position on conveyor systems.

 Orientation of steel plates in a rolling mill.
 Liquid or solid level monitoring, … … etc
The most commonly used sensors for displacement, position or
location are :
3.2.1. Potentiometers :
The simplest type of displacement sensor involves the action of
moving the wiper of a potentiometer. This device converts the linear or

angular motion into a changing in resistance that may converted

directly into a voltage and/or current signals as shown in Fig (3.9).
Motion
r Wiper
Vout Vin
Fig (3.9) – Linear potentiometer displacement sensor.
The output voltage of the sensor can be calculated from the following
formula :
r
Vout  . Vin
R
3.2.2. Capacitive sensor :

The basic operation of a capacitive sensor can be derived from the
capacitance equation of the parallel plate capacitor :
 o r A
C
where :
d
εo is the air permittivity = 8.85 pF/m

εr is the dielectric constant.
A is the plate common area.
d is the plate separation.
The capacitance of the capacitor can be changed by varying the

distance between the plates (d), or by varying the shared area of the
plates (A) as shown in Fig (3.10).

Capacity C
Capacity C
Fig (3.10) – Variation of capacitance with the distance

or the area between the plates
An A.C bridge or other active electronic circuit is employed to convert

the capacity change to a current or voltage signal.
3.2.3. Inductive sensor :

The inductance type transducer consists of three parts : a coil, a
movable magnetic core, and a position sensing element. The element is
attached to the core, and, as position varies, the element causes the core
to move inside the coil. An A.C voltage is applied to the coil, and, as
the core moves, the inductance of the coil changes. The current through
the coil will increase as the inductance decreases.
3.2.4. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) :

The LVDT is an important displacement sensor in industrial
environment with an operation depending on the inductive sensor
principle and utilizing single core and two coils wound on a single tube
as illustrated in Fig (3.11). The primary coil is wound around the
center of the tube. The secondary coil is divided with one half wound
around each end of the tube.

Each end is wound in the opposite direction, which causes the voltages
induced to oppose one another. A core, positioned by a displacement
element, is movable within the tube. When the core is in the lower
position, the lower half of the secondary coil provides the output.
When the core is in the upper position, the upper half of the secondary
coil provides the output. The magnitude and direction of the output
depends on the amount the core is displaced from its center position.
When the core is in the mid-position, there is no secondary output.
Fig (3.10) – Construction of the LVDT sensor.

Fig (3.11) – Using the LVDT sensor to produce a bipolar D.C

voltage that varies with core displacement.
3.3. Speed sensors :

The linear speed or position of a translational moving mechanism such
as a conveyor system can be measured or monitored for the purpose of
control by means of a linear optical encoder.
On the other hand, the angular speed or the angular position of a
rotational mechanism such as a motor can be measured or monitored
for the purpose of control by means of either a tachometer or a digital
encoder.
3.3.1. Tachometer as a speed sensor :

The tachometer is a permanent magnet D.C generator, when driven
mechanically; it generates an output voltage that is proportional to
shaft speed.
Since : E αΦ.N
For permanent magnet machine : Φ = constant

Hence : E αN
Therefore, the tachometer will generate an output voltage proportional
to shaft speed as displayed in Fig (3.12).
The other main requirements for a tachometer are :

1. The output voltage should be smooth over the operating range.
2. The output should be stabilized against temperature variations.
Fig (3.12) – Tachometer output characteristics.
Small permanent magnet D.C tachometers are frequently used in servo

systems as speed sensing devices. These systems usually incorporate
thermistor temperature compensation and make use of a silver
commutator and silver loaded brushes to improve commutation
reliability at low speeds and at the low currents, which are typical of
this application. The tachometer is mounted on the motor shaft and
enclosed within the motor housing as illustrated in Fig (3.13).
Fig (3.13) - Motor with integrated tachometer.

3.3.2. Optical Encoder sensor :

In servo control systems, where mechanical position is required to be
controlled, some form of position sensing device is needed. For
accurate position control, the most commonly used device is the optical
encoder. Optical encoders are devices that convert a mechanical
position or speed into a representative electrical signal by means of a
patterned disk or scale, a light source and photosensitive elements.
Their principle of operation is achieved by moving disk between the
light source and the photosensitive element. The light source may be a
light emitting diode or an incandescent lamp, and the detector is
usually a phototransistor or more commonly a photo-voltaic diode.
When light passes through the transparent areas or the holes of the disk
an output is seen from the detector. There are two forms of the
encoders namely :
 Absolute encoders.
 Incremental encoders.
An incremental encoder : which generates a pulse for a given
increment of the shaft rotation in case of rotary encoder, or a pulse for
a given linear distance travelled in case of linear encoder. Furthermore,
the total distance travelled or shaft angular rotation is determined by
counting the encoder output pulses or with proper interface electronics,
position and speed information can be derived. Rotary encoders are
available as housed units with shaft and ball-bearings or as modular
encoders which are usually mounted on a host shaft at the end of a
motor. The disk count is defined as the number of dark/light line-pairs
that occur per revolution in terms of cycles/revolution or c/r.

Fig (3.14) – Incremental encoders and the resulting signal.
The disadvantage of incremental encoders is the loss of position data at

power-down. This is not a problem if the system can be re-initialized
on power up by searching for the index and re-setting the position
counters.
An absolute encoder : has a number of output channels, such

that every shaft position may be described by its own unique code. The
higher the resolution the more output channels are required. With this
type of encoders, position information is instantly available as a digital
word on power-up. The disk of an absolute encoder is patterned with a
number of discrete tracks, corresponding to the word-length. Fig (3.15)
illustrates a 3 bit and a 4 bit encoder pattern whose output is reflected

in binary or Gray code. The advantage of this pattern is that from

position to position only one bit changes its state.
(a) – 3 bit absolute encoder disk pattern.
(b) – 4 bit absolute encoder disk pattern.
Fig (3.15) – Absolute encoders and the resulting signal patterns.
3.4. Pressure sensors :

The measurement and control of liquid or gas pressure is one of the
most common in most of the industrial processes. The pressure
measurements are very important in order to keep the material under
safe operation.

The pressure may be either static pressure where the fluid is not
moving or dynamic pressure where the fluid is moving and exerting a
pressure on the surroundings.
Pressure sensors are available in different designs depending on the

pressure to be measured or controlled.
3.4.1. Bellow type sensor :

The metallic bellows pressure sensors are used when it is needed to
sensing low pressures and providing power for activating recording
and indicating mechanisms. Such sensors are most accurate when
measuring pressures from 0.5 to 75 psi. However, when used in
conjunction with a heavy range spring, they can be used to measure
pressures of over 1000 psi. Figure (3.16) shows a basic construction of
the metallic bellows pressure sensing element.
Fig (3.16) - Basic construction of the metallic bellow sensor.
The system pressure is applied to the internal volume of the bellows

where by varying the inlet pressure to the instrument, the bellows will
expand or contract. The moving end of the bellows is connected to a
mechanical linkage assembly.

As the bellows and linkage assembly moves, either an electrical signal

is generated or a direct pressure indication is provided. The relation
between increments of load and deflection is linear in the range of the
elastic limit of the bellows. This relationship exists only when the
bellows is under compression. So, it is necessary to construct the
bellows such that all of the travel occurs on the compression side of the
point of equilibrium.
3.4.2. Bourdon Tube Pressure sensor :

The bourdon tube pressure instrument is one of the oldest pressure
sensing instruments in use today. The bourdon tube consists of a thin-
walled tube that is flattened diametrically on opposite sides to produce
a cross-sectional area elliptical in shape, having two long flat sides and
two short round sides. The tube is bent lengthwise into an arc of a
circle from 270 to 300 degrees.
The pressure is applied to the inside of the tube causing distention of

the flat sections and tends to restore its original round cross-section.
This change in cross-section causes the tube to straighten slightly.
Since the tube is permanently fastened at one end, the tip of the tube
traces a curve that is the result of the change in angular position with
respect to the center. The movement of the tip of the tube can then be
used to position a pointer or to develop an equivalent electrical signal
to indicate the value of the applied internal pressure.
Figure (3.17) illustrates the basic construction of bourdon tube pressure

sensor when replacing the pointers by an electronic circuit.

Fig (3.17) - Basic construction of the bourdon pressure sensor.
3.5. Force sensors (Strain gauge) :

One of the most important force sensors or transducers is the strain
gauge. Figure (3.18) illustrates a simple strain gauge where it is used
for measuring the external force or pressure applied to a fine wire. The
fine wire is usually arranged in the form of a grid or a folded wire.
Fig (3.18) - Basic construction of the strain gauge.

The pressure change causes a resistance change due to the distortion of

the wire. The value of the pressure can be found by measuring the
change in resistance of the wire grid.
Since : R=ρ.l /a
where :
R = resistance of the wire grid in ohms.
ρ = resistivity constant for the particular type of wire grid.
l = length of wire grid.
a = cross sectional area of wire grid.
Therefore, as the wire grid is distorted by elastic deformation, its
length is increased, and its cross-sectional area decreases. These
changes cause an increase in the resistance of the wire of the strain
gauge. This change in resistance is used as the variable resistance in a
bridge circuit that provides an electrical signal for indication of force
or the pressure. Figure (3.19) illustrates a strain gauge pressure
transducer.
Fig (3.19) - The strain gauge as a force sensor.

Fig (3.20) – Using four strain gauges as a bridge force sensor.
Fig (3.21) - The strain gauge as a pressure sensor.
In Fig (3.21), an increase in pressure at the inlet of the bellows causes the
bellows to expand and moving a flexible beam to which a strain gauge
has been attached. The movement of the beam causes the resistance of the
strain gauge to change. The temperature compensating gauge
compensates the heat produced by current flowing through the fine wire
of the strain gauge. Strain gauges, which are nothing more than resistors,
are used with bridge circuits as shown in Fig (3.22).

Fig (3.22) - Strain gauge in a bridge circuit.
Alternating current is provided by an exciter that is used in place of a

battery to eliminate the need for a galvanometer. When a change in
resistance in the strain gauge causes an unbalanced condition, an error
signal enters the amplifier and actuates the balancing motor which moves
the slider along the slide wire, restoring the bridge to the balanced
condition; the slider’s position is noted on a scale marked in units of
pressure.
3.6. Fluid sensors :

Liquid level measuring devices are classified into two groups :
a) Direct method. b) Inferred method.
An example of the direct method is the dipstick in the car which
measures the height of the oil in the oil pan. On the other hand, an
example of the inferred method is a pressure gauge at the bottom of a
tank which measures the hydrostatic head pressure from the height of
the liquid.

The level sensors can be classified as follows :

1. Mechanical sensors
 Float methods
 Buoyancy method
 Vibrating level systems

2. Hydrostatic pressure methods
 Differential pressure level detectors
 Bubbler systems
3. Electrical methods
 Conductivity probes
 Capacitance probes
 Optical level switches
 Ultrasonic level detectors
 Microwave level systems
 Nuclear level systems
3.6.1. Floats level sensor :

The basic float arm indicator comprises very simply a float connected
to a pivoted arm that drives pointer or a switch. The unit can be made
for either side or top entry. The main disadvantage of such a sensor is
the presence of the moving parts in the liquid which causes corrosion
and seizing to such parts. Methods of providing indication are by using
linkage to a pointer, a potentiometer and magnetic or inductive
switches as displayed in Fig (3.23).

Fig (3.23) – The float level sensor.
3.6.2. Buoyancy level sensor :

These devices use Archimedes’s principle where the mechanical level
indicator consists of the immersion body with calibrated measuring
spring which transmits the change of level to the mechanical or
electrical indicator according to the following equation :
π r2 (Δ h - Δ L ) ρ g = k . Δ L
Fig (3.23) – The buoyancy level sensor.

3.6.3. Ultrasonic level measurement :

The measuring equipment consists of the following elements:
A transmitter : which periodically sends an ultrasonic

pulse to the surface of the liquid
A receiver : which receives and amplifies the returning

pulse.
A time interval counter : which measures the time

elapsing between the transmission of a pulse and receiption of
the corresponding pulse echo.
 The travelling distance can be calculated as :

L=c.t/2
And consequently, the head can be as :
h = Lmax – L = Lmax – c . t / 2
where :
c = sonar pulse velocity (m/sec).
t = time in sec.
L = travelling distance (m).

Fig (3.24) – The ultrasonic level sensor.
a) Solid or liquid above b) Liquid material below

surface measurement surface measurement
Fig (3.25) – The ultrasonic level measurements.

3.7. Flow measurement :

Flow measurement is an important process measurement to be
considered in operating a facility’s fluid systems. For efficient and
economic operation of these fluid systems, flow measurement is
necessary.
On the other hand, continuously operating manufacturing processes

involve the movement of raw materials, products and waste throughout
the process. Automobiles through an assembly line in addition to the
previous functions all can be considered as flow processes. The method
of measuring and sensing the flow varies in accordance to the industry.
The most commonly conditions
3.8. Sensor Placement :

A number of factors must be considered before a specific means of
measuring the process variable (PV) can be selected for a particular
loop :
 The normal range over which the PV may vary, and if there are any
extremes to this range.
 The accuracy, precision and sensitivity required for the

measurement.
 The required dynamics of the sensor.
 The required reliability.
 The costs involved, including installation and operating costs as

well as purchase costs.

 The installation requirements and problems such as :
 Size and shape restraints.

 Remote transmission.
 Corrosive fluids.
 Explosive mixtures, etc ... … …
 The rules to be applied in sensors placement are :
 As the importance of the data being watched increases, the

importance of the sensor increases where the most important
data should be monitored first and then the less important
comes later and so on.
 As the importance of the data being watched increases, the

sensitivity of the sensor increases which means that the
sensor near the important data needs to be the most sensitive
whilst the other outside becomes less sensitive and so on.
 Tuning the sensors is an ongoing process where each sensor

will need to be adjusted to selectively watch and ignore
network traffic and should be different because of the data it is
protecting and what kind of traffic it is watching.

3.9. Exercises

Chapter (4)
Industrial
Controllers

Chapter (4)
Industrial Controllers
4.1. Control Objectives :
The main objectives of the control system are :
1. Stability : the controlled variables do not grow without
limits.
2. Accuracy : the controlled variables reach the desired
values with minimal error.
3. Speed of response : the controlled variables reach the
desired values within a suitable time.
4. Cost : the cost of the control process should not be high.
4.2. Control loops

There are two main types of control loops :
1. Open loop control systems : the general form of such
system is :
Fig (4.1) – The block diagram of open loop control system.
Properties :

 The control signal comes from a separate system and do not

affected by the controlled variable.
 The controller is designed according to the system history.

 The controller input is the system reference input.
 All the timer based systems are open loop control systems such
as :
 A/C machines without thermostat
 Automatic washing machines
 Toasters.
 Such systems are simple and cheep.
2. Closed loop control systems : the general form of such

system is :
Fig (4.2) – The block diagram of closed loop control system.

4.3. Types of controllers

1. Two Position Controller
2. Proportional Controller
3. Integral Controller
4. Differential Controller
5. PI – Controller
6. PD – Controller
7. PID-Controller
4.3.1.Two position control
The oldest strategy for control is to use a switch giving simple

ON/Off control which is a discontinuous form of control action and
also known as two position controller. The technique is primitive,
cheap and effective method of control if a fairly large fluctuation of
the process variable is acceptable. A perfect ON/Off controller is ON
when the measurement is below the setpoint and the manipulated
variable is at its maximum value, however, above the setpoint, the
controller is Off and the MV is a minimum.
ON/Off control is widely used in both industrial and domestic

applications and most people are familiar with the technique as it is
commonly used in home heating systems and domestic water heaters.
There is usually a dead zone due to mechanical delays in the process,
this is often introduced to reduce the frequency of operation and
wear on the components. The time equation of such a controller can
be written in the form:
P ; t  0
p(t )  
0 t0

Fig (4.3) – The characteristic curve and block diagram

for the two position controller.
● Although it is simple with low cost, it is subjected to chattering

which might destroy the devices. It can be used with feedback
systems.
4.3.2. Proportional controller

This principal of control is employed where the automatic controller
needs to correct the controller output (CO) with an action
proportional to ERR. The correction starts from a CO value at the
beginning of the automatic control action. Although this indicates
that the setpoint (SP) can be time variable, in most process control it
is kept constant for long periods of time. For a proportional
controller the output is proportional to the error signal.
 It is commonly used in industries

 Time equation : p(t )  K p e(t)
Fig (4.4) – The characteristic curve and block diagram

for the proportional controller with Kp as the
slope of the line.
P(s)  K p . E(s)
 The T.F of the controller is : P(s)
Gc (s)   Kp
E(s)
 The electronic circuit of the controller
Kp = -R2/R1
Fig (4.5) – Electronic circuit and gain of the proportional controller.
● Its advantages are : simplicity and fast response.

● Drawback is : it does not eliminate the steady state error ess.

4.3.3. Integral controller

Integral control describes a controller in which the output rate of
change is dependent on the magnitude of the input. Specifically, a
smaller amplitude input causes a slower rate of change of the output.
This controller is called an integral controller because it
approximates the mathematical function of integration. The integral
control method is also known as reset control.
● It is commonly used in industries to eliminate the steady state

error.

● Time equation is : p(t )  K I  e(t) dt , where KI is the integral
0
constant.
● The controller block diagram is :
 The controller T.F is : P(s)  K I . E(s)

s
P(s) K I
Gc (s )  
E(s) s
● The electronic circuit is :
KI = -1/R C
Fig (4.6) – Electronic circuit and gain of the integral controller.

● The major advantage of integral controllers is that they have the

unique ability to return the controlled variable back to the exact
setpoint following a disturbance (i.e, eliminating ess).
● Disadvantages of the integral control mode are that it responds
relatively slowly to an error signal and that it can initially allow a
large deviation at the instant the error is produced which might lead
to system instability and cyclic operation.
● For this reason, the integral control mode is not normally used
alone, but is combined with another control mode.
4.3.4. Derivative Controller

The only purpose of derivative control is to add stability to a closed
loop control system. The magnitude of derivative control D-control is
proportional to the rate of change or speed of the PV. Since the rate of
change of noise can be large, using D-control as a means of enhancing
the stability of a control loop is done at the expense of amplifying
noise. It is always used in combination with P-control or PI-control
which result in a PD-control or PID-control.
● It cannot be used individually in industries, but it is usually used

with other controllers.
d e(t)
● Time equation is : p(t )  K D , where KD is the
dt
differentiation constant.
● The controller block diagram is :

● The controller T.F is :

P(s)  K D . s . E(s)
P(s)
Gc (s )   KD . s
E(s)
● The electronic circuit is :
KD = - R C
Fig (4.7) – Electronic circuit and gain of the derivative controller.
● The important advantage of the derivative controller is that it has a

fast response; on the other hand it does not eliminate the steady
state error in addition to amplifying the disturbances.
● In practice the output will be changed to +8 times the value of the
change of the ERR value and the output will decrease at a rate of
63.2% in every derivative time unit, as displayed below:

4.3.5. Proportional-Integral controller
 It is commonly used in industries to eliminate the steady state error.


 Time equation is : p(t )  K p .e(t )  K I  e(t) dt , where Kp is the

0
proportional constant and KI is the integral constant.
 The block diagram of the PI controller is :
Fig (4.8) – PI-controller block diagram.
 The PI-controller transfer function is : E(s)

P(s )  K p .E(s)  K I .
s
P(s) K
Gc (s )   Kp  I
E(s) s
Fig (4.9) – The PI - controller electronic circuit.

4.3.6. Proportional-Derivative controller
 It is commonly used in industries.

d e(t)
 Time equation is : p(t )  K p .e(t )  K D
dt
, where Kp is the
proportional constant and KD is the derivative constant.
 The block diagram of the PD controller is :
Fig (4.10) – PD-controller block diagram.
 The PD-controller transfer function is :

P(s)  K p .E(s)  K D . s E(s)
P(s)
Gc (s)   Kp  KD. s
E(s)
Fig (4.11) – The PD - controller electronic circuit.

4.3.7. Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller (PID)

 It is commonly used in industries and can be considered as the most
powerful controller.
d e(t)
 Time equation is : p(t)  K e(t)  K  e(t)dt  K
p I D
dt
, where Kp
is the proportional constant, KI is the integral and KD is the
derivative constant.
 The block diagram of the PID controller is :
Fig (4.12) – PID-controller block diagram.
 The PID-controller transfer function is :

E(s)
P(s)  K pE(s)  K I  K DsE(s)
s
P(s) K
Gc (s)   Kp  I  KD s
E(s) s
Fig (4.13) – The PID - controller electronic circuit.

4.3.8. Control Algorithm :

A control algorithm is a mathematical expression of a control function
to be used with a computerized controlled process or among a modern
discrete controlled process. Control algorithms can be used to calculate
the requirements of much more complex control loops. In such more
complex control loops, questions such as :
 How far should the valve be opened or closed in response to a

given change in setpoint?
 How long the valve should be held in the new position after the
process variable moves back toward setpoint?
All and such questions need to be answered.
4.4. Exercise

Chapter (5)
Feedback, Forward,
Sequential & Multi-
circuit Control

Chapter (5)
Feedback, Forward, Sequential
& Multi-circuit Control
Control loops can be divided in accordance to the controlled variables
into two main categories :
 Single variable loops. ● Multi-variable loops.
On the other hand, control loops can be classified in accordance to the

type of control into the following categories :
 Feedback control. ● Feed forward control
5.1. Feedback Control :

A feedback loop measures a process variable and sends the
measurement to a controller for comparison to a set-point. If the
process variable is not at set-point, control action is taken to return the
process variable to the set-point.
Feedback loops are commonly used in the process control industry.

The advantage of a feedback loop is that it directly controls the desired
process variable. The disadvantage of feedback loops is that the
process variable must leave set-point for action to be taken. The
following are some applications of feedback control in industrial
processes taking into consideration that each application has its own
characteristics.
5.1.1. Temperature control loops :

Because of the time required to change the temperature of a process
fluid, temperature loops tend to be relatively slow. So, in addition feed
forward control strategies are often used to increase the speed of the

temperature loop response. RTDs or thermocouples are typical

temperature sensors. Temperature transmitters and controllers are used,
although it is not uncommon to see temperature sensors wired directly
to the input interface of a controller. The final control element for a
temperature loop is usually the fuel valve to a burner or a valve to
some kind of heat exchanger. Sometimes cool process fluid is added to
the mix to maintain temperature. Figure (5.1) illustrates a feedback
loop in which a transmitter measures the temperature of a fluid and, if
necessary, opens or closes a hot steam valve to adjust the fluid’s
temperature.
Fig (5.1) – Feedback temperature control loop.
5.1.2. Pressure control loops :

Pressure control loops vary in speed of response which means that they
can respond to changes in load or to control action slowly or quickly.
The speed required in a pressure control loop may be dictated by the
volume of the process fluid. High-volume systems such as large natural

gas storage facilities tend to change more slowly than low-volume

systems.
Fig (5.2) – Feedback pressure control loop.
5.1.3. Flow control loops :

Generally, flow control loops are regarded as fast loops that respond to
changes quickly. Therefore, flow control equipment must have fast
sampling and response times. Because flow transmitters tend to be
rather sensitive devices, they can produce rapid fluctuations or noise in
the control signal.
To compensate for such noise, many flow transmitters have a damping

function that filters out noise. Sometimes filters are added between the
transmitter and the control system. Because the temperature of the
process fluid affects its density, temperature measurements are often
taken with flow measurements and compensation for temperature is
accounted for in the flow calculation.
Figure (5.3) illustrates the practical usage of flow sensor, transmitter,

controller, and a valve or pump in flow control loops.

Fig (5.3) – Feedback flow control loop.
5.1.4. Level control loops :

The speed of changes in a level control loop largely depends on the
size and shape of the process vessel which means that larger vessels
take longer to fill than smaller ones, and the flow rate of the input and
outflow pipes. Many different measurement technologies are used to
determine level including radar, ultrasonic, float gauge, and pressure
measurement. The final control element in a level control loop is
usually a valve on the input and/or outflow connections to the tank as
displayed in Fig (5.4). To avoid tank overflow, redundant level control
systems are sometimes employed.
Fig (5.4) – Feedback level control loop.

5.2. Multivariable Loops :

Multivariable loops are control loops in which a primary controller
controls one process variable by sending signals to a controller of a
different loop which impacts the process variable of the primary loop.
For example, the primary process variable may be the temperature of
the fluid in a tank that is heated by a steam jacket or a pressurized
steam chamber surrounding the tank.
To control the primary temperature variable, the primary or the master

controller will send signals to the secondary or slave controller which
controls the steam pressure. The primary controller will manipulate the
set-point of the secondary controller to maintain the set-point
temperature of the primary process variable as illustrated in Fig (5.5).
Fig (5.5) – Multivariable control loop.
When tuning a control loop, it is important to take into account the

presence of multivariable loops. The standard procedure is to tune the
secondary loop before tuning the primary loop because adjustments to
the secondary loop impact the primary loop. Tuning the primary loop
will not impact the secondary loop tuning.

5.3. Feedforward Control

Feedforward control is a control system that anticipates load
disturbances and controls them before they can impact the process
variable. For feedforward control to work, the user must have a
mathematical understanding of how the manipulated variables will
impact the process variable. Figure (5.6) shows a feedforward loop in
which a flow transmitter opens or closes a hot steam valve based on
how much cold fluid passes through the flow sensor.
Fig (5.6) – Feedforward temperature control loop.
An advantage of feedforward control is preventing error rather than

correcting that error. However, it is difficult to account for all possible
load disturbances in a system through feedforward control. There are
some factors and load disturbances that cannot always be effectively
accounted in a feedforward system such as outside temperature,
buildup in pipes, consistency of raw materials, humidity, and moisture
content.
In general, feedforward systems should be used in cases where the

controlled variable has the potential of being a major load disturbance
on the process controlled variable.

Adding complexity and expense to the feedforward control may not be

equal to the benefits of increased control in the case of a variable that
causes only a small load disturbance.
5.4. Feedforward Plus Feedback :

Because of the difficulty of accounting for every possible load
disturbance in a feedforward system, feedforward systems are often
combined with feedback systems.
Controllers with summing functions are used in these combined

systems to add the input from both the feedforward loop and the
feedback loop and send a unified signal to the final control element.
Figure (5.7) shows a feedforward plus feedback loop in which both a
flow transmitter and a temperature transmitter provide information for
controlling a hot steam valve.
Fig (5.7) – Feedforward plus feedback temperature control loop.
5.5. Cascade Control :

Cascade control is a control system in which the secondary or slave
control loop is set up to control a variable that is a major source of load

disturbance for another primary or master control loop. The controller

of the primary loop determines the set-point of the summing controller
in the secondary loop as shown in Fig (5.8).
Fig (5.8) – Cascade control loops.
5.6. Batch Control :

Batch processes are those processes that are taken from start to finish
in batches. For example, mixing the ingredients for a juice drinks is
often a batch process where a limited amount of one flavor is mixed at
a time. For these reasons, it is not practical to have a continuous
process running.
Batch processes often involve getting the correct proportion of

ingredients into the batch. Level, flow, pressure, temperature, and often
mass measurements are used at various stages of batch processes.
A disadvantage of batch control is that the process must be frequently
restarted where some control problems arise because all measurements
in the system are below set-point at start-up. Another disadvantage is
the need of recalibrating the control instruments whenever recipes are
changed.

5.7. Ratio Control :

The ratio control is used to control the ratios of ingredients of a
mixture that come from different sources whether such sources are
controlled or not as displayed in Fig (5.9).
The ratio control is used to control the ratios of ingredients of a

mixture that come from different sources whether such sources are
controlled or not as displayed in Fig (5.9).
Fig (5.9) – Ratio control loop.
The ratio control is used in many applications and involves a controller

that receives input from a flow measurement device on the unregulated
flow. The controller performs a ratio calculation and signals the
appropriate set-point to another controller that sets the flow of the
second fluid so that the proper proportion of the second fluid can be
added. Ratio control might be used where a continuous process is
going on and an additive is being put into the flow, for example the
chlorination of water.

5.8. Selective Control :

Selective control refers to a control system in which the more
important of two variables will be maintained. For example, in a boiler
control system, if the fuel flow exceeds the air flow, then uncombusted
fuel can build up in the boiler and cause an explosion.
Selective control is used to allow for an air rich mixture, but never a
fuel rich mixture. Selective control is most often used when equipment
must be protected or safety maintained, even at the cost of not
maintaining an optimal process variable set-point.
5.9. Fuzzy Control :

Fuzzy control is a form of adaptive control in which the controller uses
fuzzy logic to make decisions about adjusting the process. It can be
considered as a form of computer logic where whether something is or
is not included in a set is based on a grading scale in which multiple
factors are accounted for and rated by the computer.
The essential idea of fuzzy control is to create a kind of artificial

intelligence that will account for numerous variables, formulate a
theory of how to make improvements, adjust the process, and learn
from the result. It is a relatively new technology. Because a machine
makes process control changes without consulting humans, fuzzy
control removes from operators some of the ability, but none of the
responsibility, to control a process.

5.10. Exercise :

Chapter (6)
Introduction to
Process Automation

Chapter (6)
Introduction to Process
Automation
6.1. Introduction
Industrial automation or numerical control is the use of control systems
such as computers to control industrial machinery and processes,
replacing human operators. In the scope of industrialization, it is a step
beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provided human
operators with machinery to assist them with the physical requirements
of work, automation greatly reduces the need for human sensory and
mental requirements as well.
Currently, for manufacturing companies, the purpose of automation

has shifted from increasing productivity and reducing costs, to broader
issues, such as increasing quality and flexibility in the manufacturing
process.
Automation is now often applied primarily to increase quality in the

manufacturing process, where it can increase quality substantially. For
example, automobile and truck pistons used to be installed into engines
manually. This is rapidly being transitioned to automated machine
installation, because the error rate for manual installment was
around 1-1.5%, but has been reduced to 0.00001% with automation.
Hazardous operations such as oil refining, manufacturing of industrial
chemicals, and all forms of metal working were always early
contenders for automation.

The main task of a control system for industrial process automation is

to control a sequence of events or maintain some variable constant or
follow some prescribed change.
The inputs to such control systems might come from switches or

sensors, however the outputs of the controller might go to run a motor
in order to move an object, or to turn a valve, or perhaps some heater
on or off.
In the traditional form of control systems, the governing rules and the
control actions depend on the wiring of the control circuit. When
changing the rules used for giving the control actions, the wiring has to
be changed too. This leads to expensive cost of replacing the
controllers.
Instead of hardwiring each control circuit for each control rule or

action, the basic system for all situations can be used with a
microprocessor based controller. So, by changing the program
instructions, the same control circuit may be used with a wide variety
of control rules or actions, which saves the cost.
This was the main idea behind inventing the programmable logic
controllers (PLC). The PLC was invented in response to the needs of
the automotive manufacturing industry where software revision
replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired control panels when production
models changed.
The basic internal construction of a PLC is illustrated in Fig (6.1),

where one can say that the main components of a PLC are :
1. Rack or mounting part.

2. Processor or central processing unit (CPU).

3. Input assembly.
4. Output assembly.
5. Power supply.
6. Programming unit.
Fig (6.1) – Internal construction of a PLC.
The input/output unit provides the interface between the PLC system
and the outside world allowing the connections to be made through
input/output channels to receive input signals from input devices such
as sensors or send output signals to output devices such as motors and
solenoids. Moreover, such input/output channels provide isolation and
signal conditioning required by the PLC. The input/output devices (I/O)
used with PLCs are different in type and usage where it might be
analog or digital devices. Typical input devices used with PLCs
include:

1. Mechanical switches for position detection.

2. Proximity switches.
3. Photoelectric switches.
4. Encoders.
5. Temperature & pressure switches.
6. Potentiometers.
7. Linear variable differential Tr.
8. Strain gauges.
9. Thermistors.
10. Thermocouples.
On the other hand, typical output devices used with PLCs include :
1. Relays or Contactors.
2. Solenoid valves.
3. Motors.
6.2. PLC operation scan

6.3. PLC addressing :

1. Mitsubishi PLC :
Inputs : X400 , X401 , X402 , … … etc
Outputs : Y430 , Y431 , Y432 , … … etc
2. Toshiba PLC :
Inputs : X000 , X001 , X002 , … … etc
Outputs : Y000 , Y001 , Y002 , … … etc
3. Allen Bradley :
4. Siemens SISMATIC S5 :
Programs for microprocessor-based controllers usually being loaded in

machine code as binary numbers and representing the instructions.
Assembly language can be used in the form of mnemonics to indicate
the operations, e.g : LD , OUT , OR , … … etc. The PLC
programming methods are :

1. IL (Instruction List Programming) : This is effectively mnemonic

programming.
2. ST (Structured Text) - A BASIC like programming language.
3. LD (Ladder Diagram) - Relay logic diagram based programming.
4. FBD (Function Block Diagram) - A graphical dataflow

programming method
5. SFC (Sequential Function Charts) - A graphical method for
structuring programs.
6.4. Relay Ladder Logics (RLL) ;

Ladder logic is a drawing of electrical logic schematics which results
from the usage of relays. It is now a graphical language very popular
for programming PLCs, where sequential control of a process or
manufacturing operation is simulated.
Fig (6.6) - Motor stop – start circuit.
6.4.1. Ladder Programming Symbols :

Several symbols are used to enter a ladder program either using a the
keypad of a programming device with symbols or using a PC software.
The following are samples of such symbols :

Normally Open Contact (NOC)
This can be used to represent any input to the

logic controller such as : a switch or sensor, a
contact from an output, or an internal output.
When solved, the referenced input is examined for an ON (logical 1)
condition :
 If it is ON, the contact will close and allow power (logic) to flow
from left to right.
 If the status is OFF (logical 0), the contact is Open, power (logic)
will NOT flow from left to right.
Normally Closed Contact (NCC)

When solved, the referenced input is
examined for an OFF condition :
 If the status is OFF (logical 0) power

(logic) will flow from left to right.
 If the status is ON, power will not flow.

Normally Open Coil

Also, the coils may represent a physical output
which operates some device connected to the
programmable controller such as solenoid
valves, lights, motor starters and servo motors, or may represent an
internal storage bit for use elsewhere in the program.
This can be used to represent any discrete output from the control logic.
When solved :
 If the logic to the left of the coil is TRUE, the referenced output is
ON (logical 1).
 If the logic to the left of the coil is FALSE, the referenced output is
OFF (logical 0).
Solving a Single Rung

Suppose a switch is wired to Input1, and a light bulb is wired through
Output1 in such a way that the light is OFF when Output1 is OFF,
and ON when Output1 is ON.
 When Input1 is OFF the contact remains open and power cannot
flow from left to right. Therefore, Output1 remains OFF.
 When Input1 is ON then the contact closes, power flows from left to
right, and Output1 becomes ON (the light turns ON).

The AND rung :

The AND is a logic condition where an output is not energized unless
two NOC are closed.
Step Instruction Step Instruction

0 LD X400 0 A I0.1
1 AND X401 1 A I0.2
2 OUT Y430 2 = Q2.0
The OR rung :
The OR is a logic condition where an output is energized when one or
both of two NOC are closed.


0 LD X400 0 A I0.1
1 OR X401 1 O I0.2
2 OUT Y430 2 = Q2.0
Timer programming for PLCs :

In many control applications and tasks, it needed to control time, or
controlling the operation for a specified interval of time, Timers can do
this job. They come in many varieties and increments. The most
common type is an on-delay type. Others include off-delay and both
retentive and non-retentive types.
Mitsubishi PLC Siemens PLC

0 LD X400 0 A I0.0
1 OUT T450 1 LKT 5.2
2 K 5 2 SR T0
3 LD T450 3 A T0
4 OUT Y430 4 = Q2.0
5 END 5 END

Counter programming for PLCs :

A counter allows a number of occurrences of input signals to be
counted. These counters are not physically existed, actually, they are
simulated counters and they can be programmed to count pulses. These
counters can count up, down or both up and down.
Mitsubishi PLC Siemens PLC

0 LD X400 0 A I0.0
1 RST C460 1 CU C0
2 LD X401 2 A I0.1
3 OUT C460 3 R C0
4 K 10 4 = Q2.0
5 LD C460 5 END
6 OUT Y430
7 END

Chapter (7)
Application to
Process Automation
Using PLCs

Chapter (7)
Applications to Process
Automation Using PLCs
7.1. Signal Lamp Simple Process :
A signal lamp is required to be on if :
● A pump is running.
And
● The pressure is satisfactory.
Or
● The test lamp is closed.
Step Instruction
0 LD X400
1 AND X401
2 LD X402
3 ORB
4 OUT Y430
5 END

7.2. Machine Safety Process :

A machine has 4 sensors to detect the safety and is required to be off in
the following conditions :
 If any of the sensors gives input.
 When the machine is stop, an alarm is sound.
0 LDI X400 6 OR X401

1 ANI X401 7 OR X402
2 ANI X402 8 OR X403
3 ANI X403 9 OUT Y431
4 OUT Y430
10 END
5 LD X400

7.3. Central Heating Process :

Consider a central heating system with the following features :
● The boiler is thermostatically controlled and supplies the
radiator system in addition to a hot water tank.
● Pumps are used to supply hot water to either or both the radiator
and the tank according to the desired sensors.
● The whole system is controlled by a clock to operate a certain
time a day.
Fig (7.1) – Central heating process configuration.
Fig (7.2) - The power circuit for the central heating process.

● The ladder & IL program for the central heating system using
Mitsubishi PLC is :
Inputs : Outputs :
X400 Clock Y430 Boiler
X401 Boiler sensor Y431 Pump M1
X402 Room sensor Y432 Pump M2
X403 Tank sensor
Fig (7.3) - The ladder diagram for the central heating process using
Mitsubishi PLC.

0 LD X402 6 AND X402
1 OR X403 7 OUT Y431
2 AND X400 8 LD Y430
3 AND X401 9 AND X403
4 OUT Y430 10 OUT Y432
5 LD Y430 11 END

● The ladder & IL program for the central heating system using
Siemens PLC is :
● Inputs : Outputs :
● I0.0 Clock Q2.0 Boiler
● I0.1 Boiler sensor Q2.1 Pump M1
● I0.2 Room sensor Q2.2 Pump M2
● I0.3 Tank sensor
Fig (7.4) - The ladder diagram for the central heating process
using Siemens PLC

0 A I0.2 6 A I0.2
1 O I0.3 7 = Q2.1
2 A I0.0 8 A Q2.0
3 A I0.1 9 A I0.3
4 = Q2.0 10 = Q2.2
5 A Q2.0 11 END

7.4. Automatic Mixing Process :

The automatic mixing processes of liquids and other compounds are
very common in the chemical and food industries.
Consider the mixing station shown in Fig (7.5), whose goal is to mix
two liquids for a specified time and then drain the final output product
to a storage tank. The system consists of :
1. Two level sensors to monitor the flowing of the liquids into the
tank.
2. Three solenoid valves to control the flow of liquids.
3. A motor connected to an agitator to mix the liquids into the tank.
Fig (7.5) - The automatic mixing station.

The sequence of events for this automatic mixing process will be as

follows :
1. Open valve 1 until level 1 is reached for the first liquid.
2. Then close valve 1.
3. Open valve 2 until level 2 is reached for the second liquid.
4. Then close valve 2 .
5. Start the motor and agitate to mix the liquids into the tank for a
specified time.
6. Then stop the motor.
7. Open valve 3 up to a specified time to empty the mixed product
to a storage tank.
8. Then close valve 3.
9. Repeat or end the mixing process as required.
● The ladder & IL program for the automatic mixing station using
Mitsubishi PLC is :
Inputs to the PLC :
1. Start push button X400

2. Stop push button X401
3. Level sensor LS1 X402
4. Level sensor LS2 X403
Outputs from the PLC :
Valve # 1 (VA1) Y430

Motor starter (MS1) Y432

Fig (7.6) - The ladder diagram for the automatic mixing

process using Mitsubishi PLC.
Step Instruction Step Instruction Step Instruction

0 LD X400 12 ANI X403 24 ORB
1 OR M100 13 ANI Y432 25 ANI T450
2 ANI X401 14 ANI Y433 26 OUT Y432
3 OUT M100 15 OUT Y431 27 LD M100
4 LD M100 16 LD M100 28 AND T450
5 ANI X402 17 AND X403 29 OUT T451
6 ANI X403 18 OUT T450 30 K 180
7 ANI Y432 19 K 1200 31 LD M100
8 ANI Y433 20 LD M100 32 ANI T451
9 OUT Y430 21 AND Y432 33 AND T450
10 LD M100 22 LD M100 34 OUT Y433
11 AND X402 23 AND Y433 35 END

● The ladder & IL program for the automatic mixing station using
Siemens PLC is :
Inputs to the PLC :
5. Start push button I0.0

6. Stop push button I0.1
7. Level sensor LS1 I0.2
8. Level sensor LS2 I0.3
Outputs from the PLC :
Valve # 1 (VA1) Q2.0

Motor starter (MS1) Q2.2
Fig (7.7) - The ladder diagram for the automatic mixing process using
Siemens PLC.


0 A I0.0 12 AN I0.3
1 O F0.1 13 AN Q2.2
2 AN I0.1 14 AN Q2.3
3 = F0.1 15 = Q2.1
4 A F0.1 16 A F0.1
5 AN I0.2 17 A I0.3
6 AN I0.3 18 LKT 1200
7 AN Q2.2 19 SR T0
8 AN Q2.3 20 A T0
9 = Q2.0 21 = Q2.4
10 A F0.1 22 A(
11 A I0.2 23 A F0.1

24 A Q2.2 36 A T1
25 ) 37 = Q2.5
26 O( 38 A F0.1
27 A F0.1 39 AN Q2.5
28 A Q2.3 40 A Q2.4
29 ) 41 = Q2.3
30 AN Q2.4 46 END
31 = Q2.2
32 A F0.1
33 A Q2.4
34 LKT 180
35 SR T1
The instruction list program for the automatic mixing

process using Siemens PLC.

7.5. Automatic Packing Process :

Consider the following packing machine, where it is required to pack 6
objects in a box and then pack 12 objects in another box in another path
as shown :
Step Instruction
0 LD X400
1 OR C461
2 RST C460
3 K 6
4 LD X401
5 OUT C460
6 LD C460
7 OUT Y430
8 LD X400
9 OR C461
10 RST C461
11 K 12
12 LD X401
13 AND C460
14 OUT C461
15 LD C461
16 OUT Y431
17 END
Fig (7.8) - The ladder diagram and IL program for the automatic
packing process using Mitsubishi PLC.

Step Instruction
0 A I0.0
1 O C1
2 CU C0
3 LCK 6
4 A I0.1
5 R C0
6 = Q2.0
7 A I0.0
8 O C1
9 CU C1
10 LCK 12
11 A I0.1
12 R C1
13 A C0
14 = Q2.1
15 END
Fig (7.9) - The ladder diagram and IL program for the automatic
packing process using Siemens PLC.

References
1. Rhodes, T.J. and Carroll, G.C., “Industrial Instruments for
Measurement and Control “, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill, 1981.
2. Wightman, E.J., “Instrumentation in Process Control “, CRC Press,

Cleveland, Ohio, 1998.
3. Jan Mikles, Miroslav Fikar, “Process Modeling, Identification and

Control “, STU Press, 2002.
4. William C. Dunn, “Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Process

Control “, McGraw Hill, 2005.
5. PAControl, “Process control fundamentals”, PAControl, 2006.
6. Curtis D. Johnson, “Process control instrumentation technology “,
8th Ed., Prentice Hall, 2006.

3 psi
Flow
valve
F1
Level 3 psi
sensor
H
F2

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Helwan University

Chapter 2: Mathematical modeling of industrial

Chapter 3: Measurement of control system parameters

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 2

3.4. Pressure Sensors.

Chapter 4: Industrial controllers

Chapter 5: Forward control, Sequential control &

Chapter 6: Introduction to process automation

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 3

6.3. PLC Addressing.

Chapter 7: Application to process automation using

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 4

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 5

For example, heating up the temperature in a room is a process that has

A commonly used control device called a programmable logic controller,

Larger more complex systems can be controlled by a Distributed Control

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 6

To make a good introduction to the process control, we should answer

1.1. What is a process control?

In practice, the industrial processes are different in behavior,

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 7

 Discrete process : it can be found in many manufacturing,

Fig (1.1) – Robot arm control in a discrete process.

 Batch process : where some applications require that specific

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 8

Fig (1.2) – Batching processes.

 Continuous process : often, a physical system is represented

Fig (1.3) – Continuous reject process.

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 9

 Hybrid processes : Applications having elements of discrete,

Fig (1.4) – Product line processes as a hybrid process.

1.2. What does a control system do?

2. Comparison between the measured variable and a reference

3. Making a final decision in order to maintain the sensed variable

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 10

The following sample of examples illustrates the process manual control

 Level process control :

Fig (1.5) – Manual level process control steps.

Fig (1).6 – Automatic level process control system.

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 11

 Heating process control :

Fig (1.7) – Manual heating process control steps.

Fig (1.8) – Automatic heating control system

Dr. M. Bahgat Page 12

1.3. Why is control necessary?

1. The first one is to maintain the controlled conditions or

2. The second reason is to respond to changes in the desired

Finally, the process control will assure the following issues :

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1.4. Why is control possible?

a. Providing adequate equipment : which means including

b. Expected changes in the plant variables : which concerns

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1.5. How can control be done?

2. In complex processes the feedback actions are automated by

1.6. Where can control be implemented?

 Sensors and control elements are located in the process.

 Distances between the process and the control center ranges

 In some processes, small control panels are used nearby the

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Fig (1.9) – Local and centralized control equipment

1.7. What are the control engineers’ interests?

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