C. Models of Teaching and Learning
Principles of reaction - tell the
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this reporting, the student will
be able to:
 Identify the different models of
teaching and learning
 Apply various models learned in a
class room setting
A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that
can be used to shape curriculums (long-term
courses of studies), to design instructional
materials, and to guide instruction in the
classroom and other settings based on Joyce
and Weil (1980).
Aim: To produce effective teaching.
Functions of models of teaching:
 Formulate a complete and diverse
teaching scheme.
 Enable teachers to analyze strengths
and weaknesses as to plan and
implement appropriate follow up
actions.
 A basic guidance to teachers for
reflections during feedback sessions.
 To guide teachers to plan and carry
out teaching process effectively
Elements of teaching model
1. Focus - is the central intent of the
model. Focal components revolve
around the main objective of the
model
2. Syntax - describes the model’s
structure and includes the sequence
of steps involved in the organization
of the model
3.
teacher how to regard the learner and
how to respond to what the learner
does during the use of the model
4. Social System - describes the
interactions between students and
teacher as each model is viewed as if
it were a mini society.
5. Support System - defines the
supporting conditions required to
implement the model successfully.
6. Application - is the utility of the
model as it can be transferred to
other situations.
There are known 23 models of teaching.
Joyce and Weil (1980) classify them into 4
basic families that are based on nature,
distinctive characteristics and effects of the
models. These are:
 Information process model
 Personal model
 Social Interaction model and,
 Behavioral Modification model.
Information Process Model
These models are focused to the
intellectual capacity of the learner. Its
concern is to help the learner to solve
problems, observe, organize and formulate
data as well as concepts. And also to
understand information.
The purpose of these models is:
o To understand methods of
inquiry
o To have mastery of academic
concepts and facts
o To help learners develop to
have a general intellectual
skills such as logical
thinking and reasoning
 The models which belong to this
family are:
a. The Concept Attainment
Model
b. Taba Inductive Thinking
Model
c. Inquiry Training Model
d. The Advance Organizer
Model
e. The Memory Model
f. Cognitive Growth Model
Personal Model
These models emphasizes on the
development of an individual to have an
integrated, confident and competent
personality. These models help learners to
understand themselves and their goals and
develop of means of educating themselves,
and to stimulate the learner’s creativity and
self- expression.
The purpose of these models is:
o To increase student’s self-
worth
o To help learners understand
themselves
o to help students recognize
their emotions and become
more aware of the way
emotions effect other aspects
of their behavior,
o to help them develop goals
for learning,
o to help students develop
plans for increasing their
competence,
o to increase the students'
creativity and playfulness,
o to increase the students'
openness to new experience.
The models which belong to this
family are :
a. Non-Directive Teaching
Model,
b. Synetics Model,
c. Awareness Training Model,
d. Classroom Meeting Model.
Social Interaction model
These models emphasizes on the
learners relationship to society and other
people.
The purpose of these models is:
o to help learners have a sense
of teamwork in identifying
and solving problems
o to become aware of personal
and social values
o to develop skills in human
relations
The models which belong to this
family are :
a. Group Investigation
Model,
b. Role Playing Model,
c. Jurisprudential Inquiry
Model,
d. Laboratory Training
Model,
e. Social Simulation Model,
f. Social Inquiry Model
Behavioral Modification model
All the models in this family share a
common theoretical base, a body of
knowledge which referred to as behavior
theory. The common thrust of these models
is the emphasis on changing the visible
behavior of the learner.
The models which belong to this
family is:
 a. Self Control Model
b. Stress Reduction Model
c. Desensitization Model
d. Assertiveness Training
Model
The Concept Attainment Model
Helping children learn concepts
efficiently is a fundamental purpose of
schooling. However most educators did not
consciously distinguish the learning of
concepts from other types of learning. Today
researchers have dwelled in to the meaning
of concepts, the process of acquiring them
and conditions that facilitate effective
learning of concepts. The work of Jerome
Bruner (1956) in this area is noteworthy. His
method of concept attainment has been
shaped into a model of teaching by Bruce
Joyce and Marsha Weil(1980).
Concept has a set of elements. The
concept is attained when these sets of
elements are identified.
Elements:
1. Name – term or label given to a
category
2. Attributes – Features and
characteristics of an object
3. Examples – Essential or non-
essential attributes
4. Definition – statement that specialize
the attribute of a concept
Syntax
Phase One: Presentation of Data and
Identification of Concept
 Teacher presents labeled examples.
 Students compare attributes in
positive and negative examples.
 Students generate and test
hypotheses.
 Students state a definition according
to the essential attributes.
Phase Two: Testing Attainment of the
Concept
 Students identify additional
unlabeled examples as yes or no.
 Teacher confirms hypotheses, names,
concept, and restates definitions
according to essential attributes.
 Students generate examples.
Phase Three: Analysis of Thinking
Strategies
 Students describe thoughts.
 Students discuss role of hypotheses
and attributes.
 Students discuss type and number of
hypotheses.
Taba Inductive Thinking Model
Hilda Taba utilized three main
assumptions in developing her teaching
model
 Thinking can be taught.
 Thinking is an active transaction
between the individual and data.
 Processes of thought evolve by a
sequence that is "lawful."
Taba developed three effective strategies in
the inductive model that enable students to
form concepts, interpret data and apply
principles.
Syntax:
1. Concept Formation
 Identifying and enumerating
 Grouping according to common
attributes
 Labeling categories
2. Interpretation of data
 Assumptions can be made
 Finding relationships among
concepts identified
3. Application of principles
  Putting the formed concepts into a
test
 Analyzing propositions made.
Inquiry Training model
This model was designed by Richard
Suchman to teach students to engage in
casual reasoning and to become more fluent
and precise in asking questions, building
concepts and hypotheses, and testing them.
Inquiry learning provides opportunities for
students to experience and acquire processes
through which they can gather information
about the world. This requires a high level of
interaction among the learner, the teacher,
area of study, available resources, and the
learning environment, students become
actively involved in the learning process as
they:
• Act upon their curiosity and interests;
• Develop questions;
• Think their way through controversies or
dilemmas;
• Look at problems analytically;
• Inquire into their preconceptions and what
they already know;
• Develop, clarify and test hypotheses;
• Draw inferences and generate possible
solutions.
Syntax
Phase One: Confrontation with the Problem
Explain inquiry procedures.
Present discrepant event.
Phase Two: Data Gathering – Verification
Verify the nature of objects and
conditions.
Verify the occurrence of the problem
situation.
Phase Three: Data Gathering - Organization
Experimentation
Isolate relevant variables.
Hypothesize (and test) causal
relationships.
Phase Four: Organizing, Formulation an
Explanation - Formulate rules or
explanations.
Phase Five: Analysis of the Inquiry Process -
Analyze inquiry strategy and develop more
effective ones.
Advance organizer model
Developed by David P. Ausebel. This
model focused on how the mind is organized
when there is new information learned. and
how these ideas about curriculum and
learning can be applied by teachers. The
goal is to acquire the subject matter.
Syntax
Phase One: presentation of Advance
Organizer
Clarify the aims of the lesson.
Present organizer.
Identify defining attributes.
Give examples or illustrations where
appropriate.
Provide context.
Repeat.
Prompt awareness of learners
relevant knowledge and experience.
Phase Two: Presentation of Learning Task or
Material
Present material.
Make logical order of learning
material explicit.
Link material to organizer.
Phase Three: Strengthening Cognitive
 Use principles of integrative
reconciliation.
Elicit critical approach to subject
matter.
Clarify ideas.
Apply ideas actively (such as by
testing them).
The Memory Model
This models developed In 1968 by
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. For
the information to be processed as
memories, there steps in which proposed by
these theorist. There are sensory inputs that
triggers the information processing in the
mind and thus will be stored in the sensory
input compartment. The sensory input
compartment hold large amount of
information just enough to be selected for
longer storage. After a brief information
process, the information will become short
term memory then the information will be in
and out in the long term memory until
learning occurs and new information is
processed thus will be stored to long term
memory and can be retrieve for another
information processing.
Syntax
Phase One: Attending to the Material - Use
techniques of underlining, listing, reflecting.
Phase Two: Developing Connections - Make
material familiar and develop connections
using key word, substitute –word, and link-
word system techniques.
Phase Three: Expanding Sensory Images -
Use techniques of ridiculous association and
exaggeration. Revise images.
Phase Four: Practicing Recall - Practice
recalling the material until it is completely
learned.
Cognitive Growth Model
This model focuses on the diversity
of the student to learn in relation to their
cognitive developmental milestone. It is all
about matching the instructions to students
and not matching the student to the
instructions. Learning must be spontaneous.
And “teachable moment” is in paramount,
meaning the teacher must take in
consideration the peaking learning of the
student in able for the teacher to give
information to the student. The focus of this
model is to have problem solving skills. in
teaching, creation of an appropriate
environment where cognitive structures can
develop and change. Learning must be
spontaneous. Learning must match students’
cognitive structures. Students are not all
alike, in fact students are often quite
different in developmental structures.
Non-Directive Teaching Model
The model was developed by Carl
Rogers. He believed that that positive human
relationships help humans grow. Instructions
should be based on human relations.
“The nondirective approach has four
qualities for its atmosphere. First, the
teacher portrays warmth and responsiveness,
showing genuine interest and accepting the
students regardless of anything. Second, the
teacher does not judge or moralize any of
the students. Third, students are free to
express their emotions and feelings – this
does not mean they have control over the
teacher and can act upon these emotions and
feelings. Fourth, the teacher to student
relationship is free from any type of pressure
or coercion” (p. 328). (Joyce & Weil, 2009).
Syntax:
Phase One: Defining the Helping Situation -
Teacher encourages free expression of
feelings.
Phase Two: Exploring the Problem
Student is encouraged to define
problem
Teacher accepts and clarifies
feelings.
Phase Three: Developing Insight
Student discusses problem
Teacher supports student.
Phase Four: Planning and Decision Making
Student plans initial decision
making.
Teacher clarifies possible decisions.
Phase Five: Integration
Student gains further insight and
develops more positive actions.
Teacher is supportive.
Action Outside the Interview
Student initiates positive actions.
three, suggest several compressed conflicts,
and choose one.
Phase Five: Direct Analogy - Students
generate and select another direct analogy,
based on the compressed conflict.
Phase Six: Reexamination of the Original
Task - Teacher has students move back to
original task or problem and use the last
analogy and/or the entire synectics
experience.
Awareness Training Model
This model was developed by W.S.
Fietz. This model aims to help student
understand themselves with the use of
reflection, about interpersonal relationship,
self image and presentation to self.

Synectics Model
Synectics is an instructional model
designed to activate students’ creativity and
help them see old ideas in new ways through
employing various forms of metaphoric
thinking to activate “generative thinking.”
Focus is to have and creativity among Classroom Meeting Model
students. The model is based on the
assumption that your ideas and feelings are
Syntax as important as those the students express.
Phase One: Description of the Present Having all sides heard helps keep the
Condition - Teacher has students describe process real and responsible. The key
situation or topic as they see it now. characteristics of the model include positive
Phase Two: Direct Analogy - Students feedback, turning concerns into constructive
suggest direct analogies, select one, and recommendations, and moving from
explore (describe) it further. problem solving to action.
Phase Three: Personal Analogy - Students
“become” the analogy they selected in phase
two.
Phase Four: Compressed Conflict - Students
take their descriptions from phases two and

Group Investigation Model
Group investigation is an
organizational approach that allows a class
to work actively and collaboratively in small
groups and enables students to take an active
role in determining their own learning goals
and processes. Group investigation method
requires the students to form small interest
groups, plan and implement their
investigation, synthesize the group
members’ findings, and make a presentation
to the entire class. This method is viewed as
a solver for the problem stated above.
Adopting this method, teacher is expected to
be able to run the teaching learning process
effectively. They will work in groups by
explain materials that given. Thus, when
teacher put the students in groups he or she
has to ensure that the students whose levels
are different are put together. In addition, the
activity offered in Group investigation is
interesting so that the students will feel the
new atmosphere in classroom and are
interested in learning.
Syntax
Phase One - Students encounter puzzling
situation (planned or unplanned).
Phase Two - Students explore reactions to
the situation.
Phase Three - students formulate study task
and organize for study (problem definition,
role, assignments, etc.).
Phase Four - Independent and group study.
Phase Five - Students analyze progress and
process.
Phase Six - Recycle activity.
Role Playing Model
Role-play is a technique that allows
students to explore realistic situations by
interacting with other people in a managed
way in order to develop experience and trial
different strategies in a supported
environment. Role play is an educational
technique in which people spontaneously
act-out problems of human relations and
analyze the enactment with the help of other
role players and observers.
Syntax
Phase One: selection of the problem
Phase Two: constructing of role play
situation
Phase Three: casting the players
Phase Four: briefing
Phase Five: role play action
Phase Six: discussion and analysis
Jurisprudential Inquiry Model
This model is based on a conception
of society in which people differ in their
views and priorities and in which social
values legitimately conflict with one
another. Resolving complex, controversial
issues within the context of a productive
social order requires citizens who can talk to
one another and successfully negotiate their
differences.
Syntax:
Phase One: Orientation to the case.
Phase Two: Identifying the issues
Phase Threee:Taking a position
Phase Four: Exploring the stance
underlying the position taken
Phase Five: Refining and qualifying
the position
Phase Six: Testing assumptions about
facts, definitions, and consequences.
Social Simulation Model
Simulation – is the imitation of real –
world activities in a safe environment.
Simulations aim to provide an experience as
close to the ‘real thing’ as possible; however,
a simulated activity has the advantage of
allowing learners to ‘reset’ the scenario and
try alternative strategies and approaches.
This allows learners to develop experience
of specific situations by applying their wider
learning and knowledge.
Social simulation is a model
developed by Benjamin Cox. This models
aim to gain social problem solving skills
through academic inquiry and logical
reasoning.
Syntax
Phase One: Orientation
 Present the broad topic of the
simulation and the concepts to be
incorporated into the simulation
activity at hand.
 Explain simulation and gaming.
 Give overview of the simulation.
Phase Two Participant Training
 Set up the scenario (rules, roles,
procedures, scoring, types of
decisions to be made, goals).
 Assign roles.
 Hold abbreviated practice session.
Phase Three: Simulation Operations
 Conduct game activity and game
administration.
 Obtain feedback and evaluation (of
performance and effects of
decisions).
 Clarify misconceptions.
 Continue simulation.
Phase Four: Participant Debriefing (Any or
All of the Following Activities)
 Summarize events and perceptions.
 Summarize difficulties and insights.
 Analyze process.
 Compare simulation activity to the
real world.
 Relate simulation activity to course
content.
 Appraise and redesign the
simulation.
Laboratory Training Model
This model develop by the national
Training Laboratory. This model aims to
simulate possible actual scenarios by then
students must learn how to solve such
scenarios given to them. The most noted
work in relation to his model is the Learning
pyramid. The learning pyramid illustrates
the percentage of learner recall associated
with various teaching approaches.
Figure 1.1 The learning pyramid (NTL,
2013)
Social Inquiry Model
A model that engages exploration
and reflection about authentic social
problems,
controversies, or dilemmas, and which
guides students through stages of inquiry,
research/evidence-gathering, analysis and
reflection for the purpose of resolving,
solving, taking a position on the social issue,
or drawing conclusions about hypotheses
related to the social issue.
Syntax
Phase One: Orientation
sensitization to a dilemma or problem,
development of a general statement of the
problem as a starting point for inquiry
Phase Two: Hypothesis
– some hypothesis(ses) to guide inquiry and
that can be tested
Phase Three: Clarifying & defining terms in
hypothesis(ses)
Phase Four: Exploration
examine logical validity and internal
consistency of hypothesis(ses);
Phase Five: Evidencing – gather and
reconcile facts related to the hypothesis(ses);
Phase Six: Generalizations – solutions,
conclusions,or statements about the problem
Self Control Model
Self control is what people used to
do to control their desires or impulses. This
model focuses on the strength of the learner
to control its desires and rather focus on
other important aspects like studying. This
model aims students to have focus and
discipline in doing work and finishing one
work at a time. The most notable work on
this model was in 1990 by Roy Baumeister.
Baumeister assumed that self control is like
a muscle that can be used up to exhaustion
but can be renewed if rest was provided.
Also like muscles, self control can be
exercised to be strengthen.
Stress Reduction Model
This model was developed by Joseph
Wolpe that aims person to reduce stress by
introducing to various relaxation technique.
In order for the person to be relaxed, it must
first recognize the moment of its tension
then he/she can produce some relaxation
technique such as exercise in order to
achieve relaxation.
Desensitization Model
desensitization is a behavioral
technique whereby a person is gradually
exposed to an anxiety-producing object,
event, or place while being engaged in some
type of relaxation at the same time in order
to reduce the symptoms of anxiety. This
model aims to modify behavior by reducing
anxiety that can be a hindrance to learning.
There are steps in using this model of
behavior modification:
First, the patient is taught a deep
muscle relaxation technique and breathing
exercises. E.g. control over breathing,
muscle detensioning or meditation. This step
is very important because of reciprocal
inhibition, where once response is inhibited
because it is incompatible with another. In
the case of phobias, fears involves tension
and tension is incompatible with relaxation.
Second, the patient creates a fear
hierarchy starting at stimuli that create the
least anxiety (fear) and building up in stages
to the most fear provoking images. The list
is crucial as it provides a structure for the
therapy.
Third, the patient works their way up
the fear hierarchy, starting at the least
unpleasant stimuli and practising their
relaxation technique as they go. When they
feel comfortable with this (they are no
longer afraid) they move on to the next stage
in the hierarchy. If the client becomes upset
they can return to an earlier stage and regain
their relaxed state.
Assertiveness Training Model
 Assertive training helps people learn
to be more aware of themselves, to respond
to their wishes and feelings, and to express
themselves more directly. It is a model for
change which focuses upon specific aspects
of behavior and is designed to teach new
behavioral skills. The current emphasis in
assertive training is based upon behavioral
and cognitive approaches. Such work
involves behavior practice in order to
change behavior and frequently takes the
form of role playing, modeling, active
practice, and homework assignments.
Presentations of this approach can be found
in Lange and Jakubowski (1976), Smith
(1975), Fensterheim and Baer (1975), and
Dawley and Wenrich (1976). Assertive
training evolved from behavior modification
with its focus
on change in behavior as the means to
facilitate change and growth in personality.
D. Nature of teaching and learning
The classroom is the main
environment where teaching and learning
occurs. This place could be a standard
classroom with measurements and charts
and drawings to it, or an outside
environment where teachers and pupils
interact, or in a clinical setting where
students can see various cases that can be
appreciated and what management can be
done to a particular patient. A classroom can
be conducive to teaching - learning process
because:
 Has activities and its well - values are given an importance for
organized
 There is a mutual sharing of
responsibility and state of order and
democratic living
 Pleasant and hygienic conditions
prevail.
The classroom environment
encompasses Four factors:
1. Physical Environment - this includes
the structures the shape and the
physical appearance of the classroom
itself. Also includes the furniture the
resources materials, the lighting , the
ventilation, the cleanliness and
orderliness.
2. Intellectual Climate – this refers to
the interaction patterns, the quality of
interaction patterns, and attributes
that help the learners to think clearly,
critically and creatively. The general
atmosphere should be characterized
by intellectual abilities and pursuit of
excellence. The teacher must guide
students in the ability of problem
solving skills, and to become self
directive citizens.
3. Social Climate - this refers to the
interaction and conversations of the
teacher among students, students
amongst themselves and the typical
classroom discussions, group work
activities, engagement in role
playing, games, and other social
intercations.
4. Emotional Environment – this refer
to the respect among person inside
the classroom, the identities of each
individual is valued. Mistakes
happened in class room are minorly
acceptable and solutions given and
further improvement.
E. Lesson Planning in Clinical Teaching
 Lesson Plan - it is the detailed
description of the course of instruction
created by the teacher to guide class
learning.
In the clinical setting, Nursing
educators must be prepared in creating a
plan that would help nursing students to
appreciated clinical scenarios learned in the
classroom setting. Equipping students to
enter the clinical setting must be balanced
along with the preparation of the staff
members in the presence of the learners in
the service areas and by respect to the
patient needs.
Steps in creating a lesson plan in clinical
setting:
1. Know and understand the clinical
outcomes - To begin preparations for
clinical teaching and learning, nurse
educators should reflect on the
context in which these activities take
place. Teachers and learners use an
established health care or community
setting for a learning environment,
this becoming guests within that
setting.
2. Selection of clinical area - this is the
sole responsibility of the clinical
teachers in which he /she must select
the appropriate clinical setting the
coincides to its learning outcome.
There are criteria in selecting
appropriate clinical setting:
a. Opportunity to achieve
learning outcomes – this
refers on how will the
learning outcomes will be
facilitated in the selected
clinical area.
b. Level of the learner - this
refers to the appropriate
exposure of the student in
congruent to the lessons he
/she has already learnt in the
classroom
c. Degree of control by faculty -
this refers to on how extent
shall the clinical teacher can
oversee the students during
clinical rotations to that
selected area.
d. Availability of role models
for students - this refers to
the staff that can influence
the learning of the student in
the selected clinical area.
e. Geographical location - this
refers to the physical location
of the selected area whether
or not it is safe for the student
to have a clinical rotation
f. Physical facilities – this
refers to the actual physical
settings the equipment used
in the selected clinical setting
g. Staff relationships with
teachers and learners – this
refers to the good working
relationship of clinical
teachers and staff amongst
student in the clinical area.
h. Orientation needs. – this
refers to the completeness of
the needs of the students that
will be exposed in the clinical
area.
i. Agency requirements – this
refers on what are the things
needed by the agency in order
for the school to be affiliated
for the exposure of students
in the clinical area.
 j. Agency licensure and feeding, tracheostomy
accreditation – this refers to care, etc.
the Accreditation of the c. Affective preparation
agency if it is conducive for  This refers to the
clinical learning attitude and emotional
k. Costs. - this refers oh how preparedness of the
the affiliation to the agency students in relation to
would costs ang would it be facing the challenges
worth it. of the patient assigned
to him/her in the
3. Preparation of the faculty clinical area. On how
a. Clinical Competence he / she handles
b. Familiarity in Clinical Setting emotional distress and
also refers to the
c. Relationship among staff
working relationship
members in the area
among it fellow
d. Defining roles of the staff and
students.
clinical teachers in the
learning of student 4.
4. Preparation of the learner
a. Cognitive preparation
 This refers to the
knowledge of the
student about the
certain cases and
clinical scenarios the
he / she learned in the
classroom during
discussions and how
he/she applies it in the
clinical area.
b. Psychomotor preparation
 This refers to the skill
learnt during
simulation usually in
the nursing laboratory
through return
demonstration. In
which students
applies it. Examples
of this are Vital signs
monitoring, Iv
insertion, tube