3 Generalized Multinomial Theorem

3.1 Binomial Theorem

Theorem 3.1.1
If x1 , x2 are real numbers and n is a positive integer, then
n
x1+ x2 = ΣnＣ r x1 x2
n n-r r
(1.1)
r=0

Binomial Coefficients
Binomial Coefficient in (1.1) is a positive number and is described as nＣ r . Here, n and r are both

non-negative integer. nＣ r is the number of ways of picking r unordered outcomes from n possibilities
and is calculated as follows.
n!
n Ｃr =
(n -r)! r!

Pascal's Triangle
About nＣ r , what arranged n in the row and r in the column is called Pascal's Triangle .

Ｃ0
0 1
1Ｃ0 Ｃ1
1 1 1
Ｃ0
2 Ｃ1
2 Ｃ2
2 1 2 1
Ｃ0
3 Ｃ1
3 3 Ｃ2 3Ｃ3 1 3 3 1
4 Ｃ0 Ｃ1
4 Ｃ2
4 Ｃ3
4 Ｃ4
4 1 4 6 4 1
 

Propertis of the Binomial Coefficient

Although a lot of properties of the binomial coefficient are known, fundamental ( understood from Pascal's
Triangle immediately ) some are as follows. Among these, ii is used for step-by-step calculation of nＣ r .

i nＣ r = nＣ n-r
ii nＣ r = n -1Ｃ r-1 + n -1Ｃ r
n -1
iii Ｃ r = Σ kＣ r-1
n
k = r-1
n
iv Σ
r=0
nＣ r = 2
n

n
v Σ
r=0
(-1)rnＣ r = 0

-1-
3.2 Generalized Binomial Theorem

3.2.1 Newton's Generalized Binomial Theorem

Theorem 3.2.1
The following formulas hold for a real number  .


 r

Σ x r
|x| 1 ( |x| = 1 is allowed at  >0 ) ( 1.1)
r=0

(1+ x) =

Σ   -r  x

-r
|x|>1 ( 1.2)
r=0

Proof
When n is a natural number, the following expression holds from the binomial theorem.
n
(1+ x)n = ΣnＣ r x r
r=0

Since nＣ r = 0 for r > n , this can be written as follows.


(1+ x)n = ΣnＣ r x r
r=0
Extending n to real number  ,
 ( +1)
r
 
(1+ x) = Σ xr = Σ xr (1.1)
r=0 r=0 ( -r +1) r!
Here, let
( +1)
x r  ar .
( -r +1) r!
Then
(p +1) r+1
x
ar+1 (p -r) (r +1)! (p -r)x
= = .
ar (p +1) r +1
xr
(p -r +1) r!
From this,

 
ar+1
      = |x|
(p -r)x (p /r -1)x -x
lim = lim = lim =
r ar r r +1 r 1+1/r 1
According to d'Alembert's ratio test, (1.1) converges absolutely if |x|< 1 .
then x < 1 . Therefore, from (1.1) ,
-1
Next, if |x|> 1

r
 
-1 r
1+ x  = Σ x 
-1
r=0

Multiplying by x both sides,

 
r  
 

(x +1) = x Σ x -r = Σ x -r (1.2)
r=0 r=0  -r
The proof in case of |x|= 1 is accomplished in the following sub section..

-2-
3.2.2 General Binomial Coefficient

The coefficient
r  in Theorem 3.2.1 is called General Binomial Coefficient and is as follows.

 ( +1)  ( -1)( -2)( -r +1)

r =
( -r +1)(r +1)
=
r!
(2.0)

The first few are as follows.

    ( -1)  ( -1) ( -2)
0 = 1,
1 =
1!
,
 2 =
2!
,
3 =
3!
,

Although properties similar to binomial coefficient also about general binomial coefficient are known, especially
an important thing is sum of the general binomial coefficient. We prepare some Lemma, in order to obtain this.

Lemma 3.2.2
 -1
r

When  is not positive integer, binomial series Σ ar converges or diverges simultaneously
r=0

 ar
with Dirichlet series Σ (-1)r .
r=1 r

Source 「岩波数学公式Ⅱ」 p132

Lemma 3.2.3

r

Σ converges absolutely for non-integer  >0 .
r=0

Proof
   -1
r =
 -r r
Then
   -1
r r
 
Σ
r=0
=Σ
r=0  -r

Let ar = . Then
 -r
 -1 
r r
 
Σ
r=0
ar =Σ
r=0
(s1)

 ar  
Σ (-1)r 
= Σ(-1)r 
(s2)
r=1 r r=1 r ( -r)
Here, let

(-1)r  br
r ( -r)
Then

-3-
 
(-1)r+1 
br+1 (r +1) ( -r -1) r ( -r)
= =-
br r  (r +1)( -r -1)
(-1) 
r ( -r)
From this

r ( -r)  r -r +1

  = lim   = lim  (r +1) -(r +1) 
br+1
lim
r br r
(r +1)( -r -1) r  +1

 r

  



+1 +1
-1 +1 -1


r r 1 r
= lim = lim =1
r
(r +1)+1
 (r +1) r 1 
-1 1+ -1
(r +1)+1 r r +1
Since the judgment is impossible, we try Raabe's test for convergence.

(r +1)( -r -1)
     
br
lim r -1 = lim r -1
r br+1 r
r ( -r)
 

 r r ( -r)  - r
r(r +1) r(r +1)
= lim -  
r

 

       - r
1 1 r
= lim r 1+ - 1+
r r r  -r

= lim  1+  r +
 1- /r  - r
1 1
r r
Since 1- /r > 0 for sufficiently large r ,
 

     
br
 
1 1 1
lim r -1 = lim 1+ r + 1+ -r
r br+1 r r r 1- /r
 
= lim r 1+    
1 1 1
-1 + lim 1+
r r r r 1- /r
Here,
   1 ( -1) 1 ( -1)( -2) 1
s  r


 
1 1
1+ =Σ s
=1+ 1
+ 2
+ 3
+
r s=0 1! r 2! r 3! r
Then,
   
  s  r s  r s  r
  


1 1 1 1
r 1+ -1 = rΣ s
=Σ s-1
= +Σ s-1
r s=1 s=1 s=2
Therfore,
 
   s r
1  1
lim r 1+ - 1 =  + lim Σ s-1
=
r r r s=2

Moreover,


 
1 1
lim 1+ =1
r r 1- /r
After all,

-4-
   
br
lim r -1 =  +1
r br+1
Thus, if  >0 , (s2) converges absolutely. Then, (s1) also converges absolutely according to Lemma 3.2.2 .

Theorem 3.2.4
The following expressions hold for arbitrary real number  >0 .

r = 2


Σ
r=0
(2.1)


Σ(-1)  r  = 0

r
(2.2)
r=0

Proof

r

According to Lemma 3.2.3 , Σ converges absolutely for non-integer  >0 .
r=0
Therefore, from Theorem 3.2.1 (1.1) ,

r

Σ 1r = (1+1) = 2 (2.1)
r=0


Σ  r  (-1) = (1-1)

r 
=0 (2.2)
r=0

Note
In fact, it is known that (2.1) holds if  > -1 . ( Where, it is conditional convergence. )
For example, when  = -0.9 , the right side is 2-0.9 = 0.53588673 and the left side seems to
converge to this value. However, the confirmation is difficult as the convergence is very slow. So, we apply
Knopp Transformation to this and accelerate the convergence. It is as follows.

We can see that (2.1) converges to 2-0.9 .

3.2.3 Generalized Binomial Theorem

Theorem 3.2.1 can be further generalized.

Theorem 3.2.5
When  is a real number, the following expression holds for x1 , x2 s.t. x 1 x 2 .


r

 
x1+ x2 = Σ x1 -rx2r ( x 1 = x 2 is allowed at  >0 ) (3.1)
r=0

Proof
x2
 
x2
If x 1 x 2 then 1> = . Therefore, using Theorem 3.2.1 (1.1) ,
x1 x1

-5-
  

x   = x  

x2 
x2
x1+ x2 = 1 1+
x1 1 1+
x1
 x  
  1  x  2   x   3   x  + 
2 3

x 2 x 2 2
=x 1 +
1 + +
1 1 1
   
=
 0  1
x + 
1x x +
 2 x x +
1  3 x x + 
-1 1
2
-2 2
1 2
-3 3
1 2


r x x

-r r
=Σ 1 2
r=0

Note
As is clear from the process of the proof, if x 1 x 2 then (3.1) converges absolutely.

Where, x 1 x2 is allowed at  >0 .

This becomes important in Generalized Multinomial Theorem.

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3.3 Multinomial Theorem

Theorem 3.3.0
For real numbers x1 , x2 ,  , xm and non negative integers n , r1 , r2 ,  , rm , the followings hold.

n!
x11 x22  xmm
n r r r
x1+ x2++ xm = Σ (0.1)
r1! r2! rm!
where  denotes the sum of all combinations of r1 , r2 ,  , rm s.t. r1+ r2++ rm= n .
n! n-r  -r r
x1 1 m-1 x21  xmm-1
n r
x1+ x2++ xm = Σ (0.2)
n -r1 -rm-1! r1! rm-1!
where  denotes the sum of all possible combinations of n , r1 , r2 ,  , rm-1 .

Since (0.1) is well known, the proof is omitted. In addition, it is also clear (0.2) and (0.1) are synonymous.
These are near a definition rather than a theorem.

How to generate multinomial coefficients

Theorem 3.3.0 is not difficult in theory. Difficulty is its proviso. This is to actually generate combinations
( m choose n ) with repetition. But this is not easy when it becomes more than 3 terms. Since I found out
the formulas which generates these without leak, I present it here as a theorem. (1.2) realizes the provis by
an iterated series (multiple series) and (1.1) realizes it by a diagonal series (half-multiple series).

Theorem 3.3.1
For real numbers x1 , x2 ,  , xm and a natural number n , the following expressions hold.

 r  r  r 
n r1 rm -2 n r1 rm-2 rm-2-rm-1 rm-1
x1+ x2++ xm = Σ Σ  Σ  x2  xm-1
n n -r1 r1-r2
x1 xm
r1=0 r2=0 rm -1=0 1 2 m-1
(1.1)
r1+ r2+ + rm-1
 r + r + + r     
n n n n rm-2 + rm-1
= Σ Σ Σ 
r1=0 r2=0 rm -1=0 1 2 m-1 r2+ + rm-1 rm-1
n -r1- - rm-1 r
 x1 x21 x32  xmm-1
r r

(1.2)

Proof
According to Theorem 3.1.1 , the following expressions hold.
n n n-r1 r1
x1+ x2+ x3+ x4++ xm = Σ nＣ r1 x1 x2+ x3+ x4++ xm (1)
r1=0

r r1 r
r
x2+ x3+ x4++ xm
1
= Σ r1Ｃ r2 x21-r2 x3+x4++xm 2 (2)
r2=0

r2 r2 r
r
x3+ x4++ xm = Σ r2Ｃ r3 x32-r3 x4++xm 3 (3)
r3=0


rm -3
r r -rm-2 rm-2
xm-2 + xm-1 + xm
m-3
= Σ r Ｃr
r =0
m-3 m-2
m-3
xm-2 xm-1 + xm (m -2)
m -2

-7-
 rm -2
r r -rm-1 r
xm-1 + xm
m-2
= Σ r Ｃr
r =0
m-2 m-1
m-2
xm-1 xmm-1 (m -1)
m -1

Substituting (2), (3),  ,(m -2) ,(m -1) for (1) one by one, we obtain (1.1) .
Next, according to Theorem 3.4.1 ( later ) , when x1  x2+ x3++ xm ,
 r1+ r2+ + rm-1
 r + r + + r     
    rm-2 + rm-1
x1+ x2++ xm = Σ Σ Σ r2+ + rm-1

rm-1
r1=0 r2=0 rm -1=0 1 2 m-1

 -r1-- rm -1 r1 r2 r
 x1 x2 x3  xmm-1
Replacing the real number  with non-negative integer n ,
 r1+ r2+ + rm-1
 r + r + + r     
   rm-2 + rm-1
x1+ x2++ xm = Σ Σ Σ
n

r1=0 r2=0 rm -1=0 1 2 m-1 r2+ + rm-1 rm-1
n -r1-- rm -1 r
 x1 x21 x32  xmm-1
r r

 r  = 0 for r > n, r =1, 2, 3,  , this is a definite multiple series. Therefore, the condition
n
Since

x1 x 2+ x3++ xm is unnecessary. Although this is not bad as it is, replacing  on the  with
n , we obtain (1.2) .

cf.
(1.2) results in (0.2) . Because,
r1+ r2+ + rm-1
 r + r + + r     
n rm-2 + rm-1 n!
 =
1 2 m-1 r2+ + rm-1 rm-1 n -r1 - - rm-1! r1!+ + rm-1!

4
Example 1: The expasion of x1+ x2+ x3
Using (1.1) ,

 r  s 
4 r 4 r r-s
x1+ x2+ x3 = ΣΣ x14-rx2 x3s
4
r=0 s=0

0 Σ  s  x
4 0 4
0
0-s s
= x 1 2 x3
s=0

1 Σ  s  x 2  s  x
4 1 1 4 2 2
+ x 3
1
1-s s
2 x3 + x12Σ 2-s s
2 x3
s=0 s=0

3  s  x 4  s  x
4 3 3 4 4 4
Σ Σ
1 3-s s 0 4-s s
+ x 1 2 x3 + x 1 2 x3
s=0 s=0

= x14
+ 4x13 x2 + x3
+ 6x12 x22 + 2x2 x3 + x32 
+ 4x1x23 + 3x22 x3 + 3x2 x32 + x33
+ x24 + 4x23 x3 + 6x22 x32 + 4x2 x33 + x34

-8-
 Using (1.2) ,

r + s   s 
4 4 4 r+s
x1+ x2+ x3 = ΣΣ x14-r-s x2r x3s
4
r=0 s=0

 0+ s   s  x
44 0+ s
= Σ 4-s 0
1 x2 x3s
s=0

1+ s   s  x 2+ s   s  x
44 1+ s 4 4 2+ s
+Σ 3-s 1 s
1 x2 x3 +Σ 2-s 2 s
1 x2 x3
s=0 s=0

3+ s   s  x 4+ s   s  x
44 3+ s 4 4 4+ s
+Σ 1-s 3 s
1 x2 x3 +Σ 0-s 4 s
1 x2 x3
s=0 s=0

= x14 + 4x13 x3 + 6x12 x32 + 4x1x33 + x34

+ 4x13 x2 + 12x12 x2 x3 + 12x1 x2 x32 + 4x2x33 + 0
+ 6x12 x22 + 12x1 x22 x3 + 6x22 x32 + 0 + 0
+ 4x1 x23 + 4x23 x3 + 0 + 0 + 0
+ x24 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0
we can see that what totaled this along the diagonal line is equal to the above.

3
Example 2: The expasion of x1+ x2+ x3+ x4
Now, the formulas of the theorem are expanded using mathematical software. (1.1) and (1.2) are expanded
and are verified respectively.

-9-
Sum of multinomial coefficients
n r1 r m -2
Σ Σ  Σ nＣ r1 r1Ｃ r2  rm-2Ｃ rm-1 = m n
r1=0 r 2=0 rm -1=0
(1.1")

Proof
n n
n-r r
Σ
r=0
nＣ r =ΣnＣ r1
r=0
1 = (1+1)n = 2n
n r n r n

 s=0  = Σ
n-r r
Σ ΣnＣ r rＣ s =Σ
r=0 s=0 r=0
nＣ r Σ rＣ s
r=0
nＣ r1 2 = (1+2)n = 3n
n r s n r s n
Σ Σ Σ
r=0 s=0 t=0 
nＣ r rＣ s sＣ t =ΣnＣ r ΣΣrＣ s sＣ t
r=0 s=0 t=0 r=0 
=ΣnＣ r1n-r3r = (1+3)n = 4n
Hereafter, by induction we obtain the desired expression.

4
Example: Sum of multinomial coefficients of x1+x2+x3
Let's calculate sum of multinomial coefficients in Example 1 . Then it is as follows.

1+(4+4)+(6+12+6)+(4+12+12+4)+(1+4+6+4+1) = 81 = 34

- 10 -
3.4 Generalized Multinomial Theorem
Although I do not know whether the theorem like generalized multinomial theorem exists or not , since this
is essential for Higher Calculus of Function Product, I present this here.

Theorem 3.4.1
The following expressions hold for real numbers  and x1 , x2 ,  , xm s.t.x 1 x2+ x3++ x m .

 r  r  r 
  r1 r m -2 r1 rm-2  -r1 r1-r2 r -rm -1 rm -1
x1+ x2++xm = Σ Σ  Σ   xm-1
m -2
. x1 x2 xm
r1=0 r 2=0 rm -1=0 1 2 m-1
(1.1)
 r1+ r2+ + rm-1
 r + r + + r     
   rm-2 + rm-1
= Σ Σ Σ 
r 1=0 r 2=0 rm -1=0 1 2 m-1 r2+ + rm-1 rm-1
 -r1- - rm-1 r1 r2 r
 x1 x2 x3  xmm-1
(1.2)
Where, x 1 x 2+ x 3++ x m is allowed at  >0 .

Proof
From Theorem 3.2.5 , when x 1 x 2+ x 3++ x m , the following expression holds.



  -r1 r1
x1+ x2+ x3+ x4++ xm = Σ x1 x2+ x3+ x4++xm
r1=0 r1

Here, the right side converges absolutely.

On the other hand, from Theorem 3.3.1 (1.1) , the following expression holds.

    
r1
r1 r2 r m -2 r1 r2 rm-2 r -rm -1 rm -1
x1+ x2++ xm = Σ Σ  Σ   xm-1
r -r2 r -r3 m -2
x21 x32 xm
r2=0 r 3=0 r m -1=0 r2 r3 rm-1
Substituting the latter for the former ,

 r  r   r  x
  r1 rm -2 r1 rm-2 -r1 r1-r2 r -rm -1 rm -1
x1+ x2++ xm = Σ Σ  Σ  xm-1
m -2
1 x2 xm
r 1=0 r 2=0 r m -1=0 1 2 m-1
(1.1)
Naturally, the right side also converges absolutely.
Next, let us describe a multiple series and its iterated series as follows respectively.
   
Σ ar ,r ,,r
r , r ,  ,r =0
1 2 m
, Σ Σ Σ ar ,r ,, r
r =0 r =0 r =0 1 2 m -1 ,rm
1 2 m 1 2 m

In order to convert the iterated series to its diagonal series, we should just perform the following operations.
( See " 02 Multiple Series & Exponential Function " ).
Replace rm-1 with rm-1- rm , and replace the 1st  with rm-1 from the right.

Replace rm-2 with rm-2- rm-1 , and replace the 2nd  with rm-2 from the right.


Replace r1 with r1- r2 , and replace the (m-1)th  with r1 from the right.
If so, in order to return the diagonal series to the original iterated series, we should just perform this opposite
operation. That is,
Replace r1 with r1+ r2 , and replace r1 on the 2nd  with  from the left.

Replace r2 with r2+ r3 , and replace r2 on the 3rd  with  from the left.

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 Replace rm-1 with rm-1+ rm , and replace rm-1 on the (m -1)t h  with  from the left.
For example,

  r  r  x x x
 r1 r2 r1 r2  -r1 r1-r2 r2-r3 r3

x1+ x2+ x3+ x4 = Σ Σ Σ r x1 2 3 4
r1=0 r 2=0 r 3=0 1 2 3


 r +r   r   r  x x x
r1  r +r r   r2 1 2 2  -r1-r2 r1 r2-r3 r3
r  r + r ,ΣΣ; = Σ Σ Σ
1 1 2 1 2 3 x4
r1=0 r2=0 r 3=0 1 2 2 3


Σ Σ Σ  r +r +r   r +r   r  x
r2  r +r +r r +r
   1 2 3 2 3  -r1-r2-r3 r1 r2 r3
2 2 
r r + r ,Σ Σ;
3 = 1 x2 x3 x4
r1=0 r 2=0 r3=0 1 2 3 2 3 3
Thus, performing this operation to (1.1) , we obtain the following.
 r1+ r2+ + rm-1
 r + r + + r     
    rm-2 + rm-1
x1+ x2++ xm = Σ Σ Σ r2+ + rm-1

rm-1
r 1=0 r 2=0 rm -1=0 1 2 m-1

 - r + + rm-1 r1 r2
 x1  1
r
x2 x3  xmm-1 (1.2)
Since (1.1) converges absolutely, this rearrangement is allowed.

3.9
Example 1: The expasion of x1+ x2+ x3
Using (1.1) ,

 r  s x x x
 r 3.9 r 3.9-r r-s s
x1+ x2+ x3 = ΣΣ
3.9
1 2 3
r=0 s=0

 0  Σs   1  Σs  x x
3.9 0 3.9
3.9
0 1 0-s s 2.9
1
1-s s
= x x 1x + x 2 3 1 2 3
s=0 s=0

 2  s  3  s x x
3.9 2 3.9
2 3 3
+ x Σ x x + 1.9
1 x Σ 2-s s
2 3
0.9
1
3-s s
2 3
s=0 s=0

 4  x Σs  5  x Σs  x
3.9 1 4 4.1 41 5 5
+ x x0.1
+ 4-s s
2 3 1.1
5-s s
2 x3 +
s=0 s=0
1 1

= x13.9
+ 3.9 x12.9 x2 + x3
+ 5.655 x11.9 x22 + 2x2 x3 + x32 
+ 3.5815 x10.9 x23 + 3x22 x3 + 3x2 x32 + x33
0.805838 4
x2 + 4x2 x3 + 6x2 x3 + 4x2 x3 + x3
3 2 2 3 4
+ 0.1
x1
0.0161168 5
x2 +5x2 x3 +10x2 x3 +10x2 x3 +5x2 x3 + x3
4 3 2 3 2 4 5
- 1.1
x1


Using (1.2) ,

r+s  s  x
  3.9 r+s
x1+ x2+ x3
3.9
= ΣΣ 3.9-r-s r
1 x2 x3s
r=0 s=0

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 s=0  0+ s    1+ s   s  x
3.9 3.9
s 
 0+ s  1+ s
= Σ x13.9-s x20 x3s +Σ 2.9-s 1 s
1 x2 x3
s=0

 2+ s   s  x  3+ s   s  x
3.9
 2+ s  3.9 3+ s
+Σ 1.9-s 2 s
1 x2 x3 +Σ 0.9-s 3 s
1 x2 x3
s=0 s=0

 4+ s   s  x
3.9
 4+ s
+Σ -0.1-s 4 s
1 x2 x3 +
s=0
4
0.805838 x3
= x13.9 +
2.9
3.9 x1 x3 +
1.9 2
5.655 x1 x3 +
0.9
3.5815 x1 x 33 + +
x10.1
3
2.9 1.9 0.9 2 3.22335 x 2x3 0.0805838
+ 3.9 x1 x 2 + 11.31 x1 x2 x3 + 10.7445 x1 x2 x3 + -
x10.1 x11.1
2 2 2 3
4.83503 x2 x3 0.161168 x2 x3
+
1.9 2 0.9 2
+ 5.655 x1 x2 + 10.7445 x1 x2 x3 + -
x10.1 x11.1
3 3 2 3 3
3.22335 x 2 x3 0.161168 x2 x3 0.0590948 x2 x3
+
0.9 3
+ 3.5815 x1 x2 + - +
x10.1 x11.1 x12.1
4 4 4 2 4 3
0.805838 x2 0.0805838 x2 x 3 0.0443211 x2 x3 0.0310247 x2 x3
+ - + - +
x10.1 x11.1 x12.1 x13.1


we can see that what totaled this along the diagonal line is equal to the above.

Example 2: The expasion of (a + b + c + d)2.9

Although a = b +c+d in this numerical example, (1.1) and (1.2) are consistent.

Sum of General Multinomial Coefficients


 r  r  r 
 r1 rm -2 r1 rm-2
ΣΣ Σ   m (1.1")
r 1=0 r2=0 rm -1=0 1 2 m-1

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 As expected, the following expression does not hold.

 r  r  r  = m
 r1 rm -2 r1 rm-2

ΣΣ Σ
r 1=0 r2=0 rm -1=0 1

2 m-1

It is because x 1= x2== xm = 1 does not satisfy the condition x 1 x 2+ x 3++ x m .

Let its partial sum be

 r  r  r 
n r1 rm -2 r1 rm-2
Sn = Σ Σ  Σ 
r 1=0 r2=0 r m -1=0 1 2 m-1

Then, when n  , Sn oscillates and diverges. And m

is the median of this oscillating divergent series.

In fact, applying Knopp Transformation to S n , we can obtain the approximate value of m with high precision.
However, it does not become a series but becomes an asymptotic expansion.

2007.07.06
2016.02.13 updated
2016.02.22 renewed
Kano. Kono
Alien's Mathematics

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