Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
KEY TERMS
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. INTRODUCTION
II. DESIGNING ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES
A. Organizational Design Defined
III. Objectives of Organizational Design
A. Responding to Change
B. Integrating New Elements
C. Coordinating the Components
D. Encouraging Flexibility
E. Range of Organizational Design Outcomes
IV. Mechanistic Organizational Structures
A. Organic Organizational Structures
V. CONTINGENCY FACTORS AFFECTING ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN
A. Strategy
B. Environment
C. Size of the Organization
D. Age of the Organization
1. Birth Stage
2. Youth Stage
3. Midlife Stage
4. Maturity Stage
E. Technology
VI. STRUCTURAL OPTIONS IN ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN
A. Functional Structure
1. Advantages of the Functional Structure
2. Disadvantages of the Functional Structure
B. Divisional Structure
1. Advantages of the Divisional Structure
2. Disadvantages of the Divisional Structure
C. Matrix Structure
1. Advantages of the Matrix Structure
2. Disadvantages of the Matrix Structure
Enrichment Vignette
Is resistance to change always a bad thing? In fact, could there be merit in encouraging
employees and others to resist? Consider the many corporations that were dominant in
American business 20 years ago but have since gone out of existence, been taken over by
another organization, or are but a fraction of their size at one time: often the reason was not
because they could not implement change but rather because they DID change. The problem
was that the changes were not for the better. In some cases, there may have been a need for
change but not for the change that was selected.
When top management proposes change, lower-level managers and employees may lack the
big picture that stimulated the proposal, but their nearness to the frontlines may enable them to
see pitfalls that could not have been envisioned in that big picture. However, if top management
uses all the means at its disposal to persuade and involve employees in the proposed change, it
is possible that some may not ask the questions that need to be considered in order to prevent
the organization from creating a disaster for itself.
Employees do not automatically reject change. For example, if the change were to simply
involve an increase in pay without any increase in work or negative effects on benefits, working
conditions, or job security, few would resist the change. Employees will look at the size, timing,
and probability of the benefits of the proposed change and compare that analysis to the size,
timing, and probability of the costs or risks involved in the change. Their focus may be primarily
personal rather than organizational but if they are encouraged to raise their concerns, perhaps it
may be discovered by top management that the real need is not so much to overcome
employee resistance to change as it is for those at the top to modify their proposed change.
LECTURE OUTLINE
The outline below (the lecture outline) is referenced to the above chapter outline and contains
supplementary material to enhance your discussion of the chapter, but it is organized somewhat
differently. As a result, you have a choice: by using what is in the outline below, (1) you may
present the above chapter outline material in a different sequence, or (2) you may use the
chapter outline references in the outline below to present the lecture outline material in the
same sequence as the chapter outline.
A. Strategy
1. Structure must follow strategy in order to achieve objectives regarding the
designs of organizations.
2. A change in strategy will cause a change in structure.
B. Environment
E. Technology
A. Functional Structure
B. Divisional Structure
C. Matrix Structure
D. Team Structure
1. The newest approach with the most potential is the team structure.
2. Separate functions are grouped within this design.
3. Team structures are much flatter than traditional organizational patterns.
4. Decision making is more decentralized and not as “vertical” as the traditional
chain of command.
5. Speed of effort and response typifies team efforts.
6. Accountability and responsibility are identified appropriately.
7. Training must be an integral part of the team concept.
8. A large portion of the day is spent in meetings. This is a drawback to team
structuring.
E. Network Structure
A. Statements of Principle
B. Stories
C. Slogans
D. Heroes
F. Symbols
G. Climate
H. Physical Environment
1. The surroundings or confines of the corporation signify the physical nature of the
work environment.
2. Campus like enclaves typify the intended freedom-to-express philosophy of idea
exchanges for the Silicon Valley software and computer industry.
A. Role of Managers
1. Managers at all levels in an organization help develop the culture. Quite simply,
managers set the tone, control the resources, and control the means to influence
the results. Managers help create culture by:
a. Clearly defining the company’s mission and goals.
b. Identifying core values.
c. Determining the amount of individual autonomy and the degree to which
people work separately or in groups.
d. Structuring work to achieve goals in accordance with the firm’s values.
e. Developing reward systems that reinforce values and goals.
f. Creating methods of socialization that will bring new workers inside the
culture and reinforce the culture for existing workers.
B. Role of Employees
1. Nearly all employees can accept and adapt to any culture through the process of
socialization.
2. Many corporate values, norms, and beliefs are shaped by employees.
3. Subcultures are units within an organization based upon the values, norms, and
beliefs of the workers.
C. Factors Contributing to the Effectiveness of Culture
1. How well the culture fits the mission is known as coherence. Employee
acceptance of organizational elements is within coherence.
2. The greater the acceptance of the commitment to organizational values, the
stronger the culture.
3. The most critical factor that contributes to cultural effectiveness deals with the
adaptability to external stimuli and environments.
A. Sources of Change
B. Types of Change
C. Rates of Change
B. Organizational Learning
1. Organizational learning is how the manager and the organization integrate new
ways into established systems to produce better ways of doing things. A
manager can view organizational learning in either of two ways: single looped or
double looped.
a. A single-looped learning situation is one in which only one way exists in
which to make adjustments.
b. Double-looped learning means more than one alternative exists.
C. Adaptability
1. Adaptiveness is being prepared for change prior to the actual need for it.
2. Managers who are adaptive rather than reactive will minimize wasted energy and
maximize the use of time in a change situation.
A. Resistance to Change
There are two approaches or models for handling changes in individuals and their
behaviors at work.
1. Three-Step Approach
This approach focuses on three distinct phases or steps.
a. Unfreezing involves identifying deficiencies and confronting the individuals
with the behaviors.
b. Change results from individuals being uncomfortable with the identified
negative behaviors and being presented with new behaviors, role models,
and support.
c. Refreezing involves recognizing and rewarding new and approved attitudes
and patterns of behavior.
Enrichment Vignette
Not since the Industrial Revolution has U.S. business experienced so much change and
disruption. Almost every industry has been rocked by the forces of change—divestiture,
consolidation, and deregulation in the past few years.
All organizations experience change regardless of their size or business sectors. This
change can be divided into five stages:
1. Delayed change. This occurs when the organization is poised at the top of the
change cycle. In this stage, the company is ready either to resume the development
phase or to deal with change and turn around.
2. Operational change. This is the most common and easiest form of change to deal
with, and comes about as the organization addresses perceived operational
deficiencies in the face of more efficient competition or an increasing demand for
products and services.
3. Directional change. When time-tested business strategies become less appropriate
in competitive conditions, the marketplace can compel the organization to implement
an alternative strategy or face loss of market share.
4. Fundamental change. This occurs when the business climate forces the organization
to reexamine its mission and leadership practices.
5. Total change. A complete turnaround is required when the organization is confronted
by business failure or when new management decides to redirect the business into an
entirely new market sector.
Business leaders who understand change and have learned to manage it to the advantage of
their organizations know that change is an opportunity for growth and development.
Alternatively, those who resist change will always be confronted by it.
1. When managers are engaged in organizational design, what are they developing?
The basic elements available to all designers of organizational structure are amounts
and types of authority, departments, line and staff positions and departments,
functional considerations, product and productivity elements, and decision-making
approaches. Specifically, they are developing the means to implement plans, achieve
objectives, and accomplish the overall mission.
In some way or fashion the following elements all influence organizational design:
a. Strategy
b. Environment
c. Size
d. Age
e. Technology
Structure must follow strategy. Strategy dictates the pace and direction of structure.
Existing companies that change philosophy, mission, and/or strategy must change the
structural makeup to accommodate new factors, forces, requirements, and/or
demands. As an example, PepsiCo must adapt accordingly when they attempt to
manufacture an “uncola” such as Crystal.
Organic structures work well with small batch technology and continuous-process
production. A mechanistic structure is better suited to large batch technology.
Organic structures fit within unstable environments more readily. Flexibility is needed
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
to respond to needed changes. Close association and cooperation within and across
departments must exist within unpredictable environments.
5. What are the characteristics of a functional organization structure? What are the
advantages of a divisional structure? What are the characteristics of a matrix
organizational structure? What are the characteristics of teams? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of networks?
Advantages and disadvantages of networks: The size of staff and operations can be
reduced. Specific work can be contracted to other specialists. Control may be
lacking because of the indirect nature of “subbing” out the required work.
6. What are the seven factors that influence culture? Use specific examples to explain
how they interact.
a. Key organizational processes include the way an organization goes about
collecting and communicating information necessary to achieve its primary set of
goals. It also includes how decisions are made as well as the production
processes used in developing its products and services.
b. Objectives, strategies, personnel characteristics, and internal relationships of the
managers who oversee the organization and control its policymaking constitute
the dominant coalition.
c. Employees and other tangible assets are namely all the readily available
resources of the organization.
d. The formal organizational arrangements encompass the personnel, tasks, and
the structure of such elements as rules and procedures.
e. The social system is composed of the norms and values shared by most
employees. It is the set of relationships that exists among employees in terms of
power, affiliations, and trust.
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
f. Technology encompasses the major techniques commonly used by employees
while engaging in organizational processes. It also includes the underlying
assumptions about technology.
g. The external environment includes all possible suppliers, markets, competitors,
regulators, and associations that influence the organization’s goods and services.
8. What is the role of managers in creating culture? What is the role of employees in
creating culture?
The manager role is very diverse. It ranges from defining the mission to creating
methods of socialization for new and veteran employees. Employees form
subcultures, shape corporate values, and adopt and promote the aspects of the
organizational culture.
10. What are the four kinds of change that can occur in an organization?
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
philosophy toward change that includes three elements: mutual trust, organizational
learning, and adaptability.
13. Describe three reasons that people resist change, and explain what managers can
do to overcome that resistance.
These thought-provoking questions are provided by the authors for each chapter as primers for
student discussion. This method of questioning ensures that the students have read the
assigned materials or content. These questions are presented to generate thinking and
discussion. They can be used as supplemental homework assignments and/or class
discussions that center on specific critical thinking issues and applications.
It is important that students are able to respond from their experiences and through their
perceptions as well as incorporate the specific course content into their reasoning, explanations,
descriptions, and individualized contributions. Most of these questions cannot be answered in a
right/wrong fashion. Instead, student responses and/or group discussions should be
encouraged by the instructor to bring out individualized critical thinking as opposed to absolute
correct answers.
Choose one word from each area (Web 2.0, popular culture, ethical virtues) that is most
important to you. What do the words mean to you? If others in a company share these similar
values and beliefs, how might it influence worker behavior?
Use the “Conversation Prism” to identify the networks you use and the ones you are missing.
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The student answers to these questions will vary greatly. Similar to the critical thinking
questions provided throughout the text, these questions allow students the opportunity to think
in a broad, creative sense with many variables or choices for response. It is important that the
instructor encourage the students to “back up” or support their answers with specific subject
content from the text as well as provide a rational/logical approach to their comments.
The questions of this case provide opportunity for students to respond in many ways. That is,
the case is brief and the scenario is complex. Student interpretations and perceptions regarding
problem identification will differ greatly. However, all four questions will provide opportunity for
students to compare, contrast, and learn from their recommendations, comments, and solutions.
This case provides opportunity for group and/or class interaction, discussion, and/or debate.
Students will note those activities that have assigned to specific regions and others that
serve all regions and which help cut costs and improve efficiency. In addition, regions
have some areas of independence and ability to act on their own.
2. Does Lonely Planet have a tall structure or a flat structure? Explain briefly.
Students will note that it is neither a pure flat or tall structure but will observe many
attributes of a relatively flat structure.
3. In what ways does Lonely Planet achieve horizontal coordination across departments or
offices?
Students will note policies that are directed toward achieving interaction among the
offices and departments as well as the use of technology and the Wheeler’s
personal contact with the various areas of the organization.
Harty Press operates out of a complex of one-story cinder-block buildings in the industrial
section of New Haven, Connecticut. A commercial printer of everything from local advertising to
slick annual reports, Harty has stood unfailing since its founding in 1911. Inside the plant, the air
is ripe with the smell of ink and the hum of presses. Harty’s CEO George R. Platt grew up
working in the company, first during summers, and then full time after college to work alongside
his father and founder, George E. Platt.
When George R. Platt took over Harty Press, the business had 20 employees and $1
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
million in sales. With a keen eye for assessing Harty’s strengths and weaknesses—and with a
drive to grow—Platt beefed up quality and customer service. He found higher-margin market
niches. The rapid technological changes overtaking the industry, however, limited future growth.
Printing was moving quickly from the world of film, type, and light to the computer-driven,
digitized world of the desktop. Platt tried to solve the problem by hiring a specialist to
computerize Harty’s prepress process. But Platt soon learned that building digital desktop
capability from scratch would cost more than a million dollars.
The solution to that problem—and to growth—came in the form of Pre-Press Graphics.
Based in nearby Branford, Connecticut, Pre-Press Graphics had been one of the first in the
state to aggressively use advanced desktop technology. It had already done much of the costly
research and development work Platt knew he would have to undertake. In addition, because
the owner of Pre-Press had been spending a lot of time, money, and energy on the
development of technology, the business had plateaued. The owner was looking for a buyer.
Harty Press bought Pre-Press Graphics for $500,000; and the merging of the two
companies began. Platt immediately had major problems with the change:
It was hard to imagine two more different cultures than those of Harty Press and Pre-
Press Graphics.
Harty is based in the heart of an industrial neighborhood. Pre-Press sits twelve miles
away, out in the bustling world of office parks and fast food joints.
Harty’s workers, many with 10 to 20 years of service, wear smudged aprons, have ink
under their fingernails, and carry union cards. At Pre-Press, people in running shoes and
jeans sit in front of computer screens.
Harty’s management is low key, loose, and creates autonomy. The management at Pre-
Press was intense, precise, and controlling.
The move of Harty’s twelve-person prepress department to consolidate with Pre-Press
created chaos. The firms’ procedures and systems did not dovetail. Neither group had
been given enough notice to plan for and comprehend the effects of the merger.
Although Harty had bought Pre-Press specifically for its knowledge of desktop publishing,
Pre-Press employees who knew how to operate the computers saw that Harty workers
lacked those skills. They became protective of their knowledge and jobs.
A key Harty employee was sent to Pre-Press to work on the transition. He was sent with
no job description and no defined role; an immediate hassle resulted with former Pre-
Press managers.
Training courses on computer technology lasted for only one session. Then “familiarization
training” on the computer was announced. No one knew what that meant, and no one ever
figured it out because it never took place.
QUESTIONS
1. Based on the experiences of Harty Press and Pre-Press Graphics, what is the
importance of culture in the change process?
2. What specific cultural factors caused problems in the change process? Cite examples
to support your answer
3. What specific mistakes did Harty and Pre-Press make in the change process? Cite
examples to support your answer.
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
4. Using as your guide the nine steps for planned change discussed in this chapter,
construct a change process to successfully merge Harty Press with Pre-Press
Graphics.
ANSWERS
The questions to this case attempt to allow the students to respond in various ways. That is,
these questions are subjective in nature and each student will have different perceptions and
answers.
J. B. CONSIDERS DELEGATING
J. B. Maxwell was feeling unusually tired as he adjourned his weekly meeting with his store
managers. There seemed to be more and more problems and more fires to put out over the
past several months. There just weren’t enough hours in the day anymore, or so it seemed to J.
B. On his way home, he thought about the real possibility that time was catching up to him.
Was he just getting older and more tired, or was the organization getting more complex and
difficult to handle?
Since founding his first video rental outlet five years ago, he had found that store openings
had become a frequent event. The first store had been the nucleus for six more, located in five
towns and cities throughout his home state of Texas. Plans and market research for five more
stores were on his desk waiting for his careful analysis.
In the beginning, it had been so simple: one store, himself and his wife, and one or two
sales clerks. Now he had seven stores, seven sets of records and budgets to check, seven sets
of orders to approve, and seven sets of personnel and finance problems to resolve. He
wondered if his initial approach to managing the stores from a central office was still the best
approach. But could he trust his store managers to make the right decision? They didn’t have
the drive that he had. They seemed to be more interested in leisure than in work. The stores
were profitable but becoming less so, and competition was presenting a problem. J. B. knew
that something had to change, and he didn’t want it to be his health.
Question
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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ON THE JOB VIDEO CASE SOLUTIONS: Evo Gear: Leading Teams
1. Based on the video, Evo has not had a major problem with lost time due to frequent
meetings nor have any team members failed to do their share. Why might that be the
case? How can a team leader make sure that the team is productive without
becoming dictatorial? How does selection of members play a role?
2. Many of the teams at Evo consist of people with a wide range of creative skills. Do
you think that would make it easier or more difficult to lead such a team? Why?
3. How might the size of Evo impact on the effectiveness of its teams?
U. S. government operatives suddenly whisk Anwar El-Ibrahimi (Omar Metwally) from his flight
from Cape Town, South Africa after it arrives in Washington, D.C. He is a suspected terrorist
whom the government sends to North Africa for torture and interrogation (extraordinary
rendition). Douglas Freeman (Jake Gyllenhaal), a CIA analyst, becomes involved. He reacts
negatively to the torture techniques and urges El-Ibrahimi’s release. The story has other
complications in the form of El-Ibrahimi’s pregnant wife at home who desperately fights for her
husband’s safe return.
This BizFlix video case opens with a night shot of the Washington Monument. We learn
that Congressional aide Alan Smith (Peter Sarsgaard) was once a friend of El-Ibrahimi, and he
feels compelled to attempt to defend him. Yet Senator Hawkins (Alan Arkin) tells Alan to back
off in no uncertain terms.
1. What can you infer about this organization and its structure based on the conversation you
witness in this video clip?
2. Would you describe this as a mechanistic or organic organization? Explain your answer.
Students should recognize that on the spectrum from mechanistic to organic, this is a fairly
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
mechanistic organization. Among the specific reasons they should offer to support this
opinion are: the vertical, top-down communication; a heavy emphasis on following the
instructions and decision of the superior; and a heavy emphasis on loyalty and obedience.
3. Think about some of the specific statements that Hawkins makes to Smith, and use them to
analyze the organizational culture he is creating.
Hawkins appears to be creating a culture based on fear and self-protection. He advises him
to be particularly respectful to people in authority, and never to offend or upset them. He
also warns him against taking risks, such as speaking up for someone he once considered a
friend.
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.