ICS Lecture 1

2/20/2018
Introduction to Communication
Systems
Lecture 1-2
Bilge Kartal Çetin, PhD
2017-2018-ICS_B.Kartal Cetin 1
What does Communication mean?

• The transfer of some form of information from
one place (SOURCE) to another place
(DESTINATION) using some system to do this
(COMMUNICATION SYSTEM)
What will we study in This course?

• We will study basic principles that are used in analysis
and design of analog communication system.
• Sampling and Analog to Digital Conversion following
an introduction to Digital Communication System
A Communication System
3 Main Component:
• Source
• Channel
• Destination
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Channel Impairments
• Fading
• Doppler Shift
• Frequency-reuse interference
• Chromatic Dispersion
Channel Impairments
Attennuation -Distortion -Noise
1. Attennuation: Signal loses strength due to the
resistance of the transmission medium
Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa
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Attenuation
• Attenuation can be problematic for long
distance communications
Solution to Attenuation
1. Use Amplifiers:
2. Use Channels with smaller attenuation levels

3. Digital Signals are less susceptible to attenuation
Channel Impairments
Attennuation - Distortion -Noise
• Linear Distortion
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Linear Distortion depends on channel

type and channel length
2017-2018-ICS_B.Kartal Cetin Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa 10
Linear Distortion
Solution to Linear Distortion

1- The message should fit in the
channel BW
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Solution to Linear Distortion

2- Use an Equalizer -
* Graphic equalizer
* Parameteric equalizer
Channel Impairments
• Non linear Distortion

Non-Linearly Distorted Signals

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Channel Impairments
Attennuation –Distortion- Noise
3- Noise -undesired signal
External Sources: Can be Minimized or Eliminated

• interference from signals transmitted on nearby channels
(crosstalk)
• İnterference generated by contact switches
• Automobile ignition radiation
• Fluorescent lights
• Natural noise from lightning
• Solar radiation
• Microwave ovens
• Cellphone emmision
Example External Noise: Crosstalk
Noise
Internal Sources: Can be minimized but never eliminated
• Thermal Noise (due to thermal interaction between

the free electrons and vibrating ions in a conductor)
J.B Johnson in 1928
• Its frequency content is spread equally throughout

the usable spectrum, so white noise (from optic
where white light contains all frequencies or colors)
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Solution for External Noise

• Shielding or twisting
• A proper cable design
• Using BPF or LPF at the
receiver side
• Use digital transmission

Solution for Internal Noise

• Cooling
• Using BPF and LPF at
the receiver side
• Use digital
transmission

What happen in practical

communication system?
Channel distorts the signal
Noise accumulates along the path
Signal strength decreases while the noise level
remains steady regardless of the distance from the
transmitter
RESULT
Signal quality is continuously worsening along the
lenght of the channel
What about amplification is that a solution?
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What happen to the signal in CS?

• Attennuation + Noise  Amplification is a solution?
• Alternative solution Regenerative Repeaters

(Digital Communication)

Noise Immunity of Digital Signals

• In Analog transmision waveform shape itself carriers
the needed info
• SO even a slight distortion or interference in the
waveform will show up in the received signal. Receiver
should detect the waveform correctly
• In Digital transmission finite set of electrical waveforms
are transmitted.
• SO digital decision must belong to the finite set of
symbols for binary case; to select between two
possible pulses -A/2 and A/2
• Repeater stations are placed along the communication
path of a digital system at the distance short enough to
ensure that noise and distortion remain within a limit.
Advantage of Digital Communication

over Analog Communication
• Immunity to Noise
• Efficient use of communication BW (proper
compression techniques)
• Higher Security possible (with data
encryption)
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Analog to Digital Conversion

1- A continuous signal is first sampled into a
discrete time signal
2 -Continuous amplitude of signal peaces is
quantized into a discrete level signal
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
A continuous time Sampled continuous Represent the samples
signal is first sampled amplitude is quantized as signal waveforms.
into a distrite time into a dicrete level Pulce Coded
signal signal. Modulation (PCM)
STEP-1-Nyquist Sampling Theorem

If the highest frequency in the signal spectrum is B (in hertz), the
signal can be reconstructed from its discrete samples, taken
uniformly at a rate of not less then 2B samples per second.
The sampling frequency should be at least twice the highest

frequency contained in the signal.
Or in mathematical terms:
𝑓 ≥ 2𝑓
𝑓 ----- the sampling frequency (how often samples are taken per
unit of time or space),
𝑓 -------is the highest frequency contained in the signal
STEP-2-Quantizing
1- Amplitude range of analog signal −𝑚 , 𝑚 is
partitioned into L subinterval
• Magnitude of each interval is ∆𝑣 =
2- Each sample amplitude is approximated by the

midpoint/ceil/floor value of the subinterval in which the
sample falls.
• Each sample now approximated to one of the L
numbers . So the signal is digitized.
• Quantized samples taking on any one of the L values.
• Such signal is known as an L-ary digital signal.
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Quantizing
• Voice Signal commercial minimum is L=32 (8 or 16

is sufficient)
• For telephone communication L=128 or 256 is
common
Effect of Distortion and noise
Transmitted
Received
distorted
Received
distorted with
noise
Regenerated
signal (delayed)
• If A is sufficiently large in comparison to typical noise amplitudes, the

receiver can still correctly distinguish between two pulses.
• The pulse amplitudes is typically 5 to 10 times the rms noise
amplitude.
• The probability of error at the receiver < 10-6
Pulse-Coded Modulation-A digital

Representation
• The idea is to represent each quantized sample by an
ordered combination of two basic pulses
• P1(t)1
• P0(t)0
• Each of the L sample values can be written as a bit string
of lenght log2L, each sample can be mapped into a short
pulse sequence that represents the binary sequency of
bits.
• If L=16, then each quantized level can be decribed
uniquely by 4 bits.
• If we use two basic pusles. A sequency of four such
pulses gives 2x2x2x2=16 distinct pattern.
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Some Definitions
• Baseband Signal /Baseband
Bandwidth/Baseband Channel
• Bandpass Signal /Bandpass
/BandwidthBandpass Channel
Baseband (Lowpass, unmodulated) Signal

• Baseband- Signal and system whose range of
frequencies is measured from close to 0 hertz to a cut-
off frequency, a maximum bandwidth or highest signal
frequency
• A baseband bandwidth is equal to the highest

frequency of a signal or system, or an upper
bound on such frequencies
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Baseband Channel and Transmission

• A baseband channel or lowpass channel (or system, or
network) is a communication channel that can transfer
frequencies that are very near zero. Examples are serial
cables and local area networks (LANs), as opposed to
passband channels such as radio frequency channels
and passband filtered wires of the analog telephone
network
• Baseband transmission Baseband transmission, also
known as Baseband modulation or LINE CODING, aims
at transferring a digital bit stream over a baseband
channel, as an alternative to passband transmission,
also known as carrier-modulated transmission
Bandpass (passband, carrier modulated)

• Bandpass Signal is a signal (x(t)) whose spectrum
(Fourier transform X( f )) is nonzero only in some
small band around some “central” frequency (fo).
• Bandpass Signal The bandwidth B of the bandpass

signal = the width of the positive-frequency
• interval on which the signal is nonzero.
Sampling Example 1
A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 100 kHz.
What is the minimum Nyquist sampling rate for this
signal?
Solution
We cannot find the minimum Nyquist sampling rate in
this case because we do not know the maximum
frequency in the signal.
ATTENTION !!
Sampling below the Nyquist rate, called bandpass
sampling, is sometimes done which means 2*B is enough
for acceptable recovering of the signal.
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Samping Example 2
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 100 kHz.
What is the minimum Nyquist sampling rate for this
signal?
Solution
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f,
where f is the maximum frequency in the signal.
Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the
highest frequency (100 kHz). The sampling rate is
therefore 200,000 samples per second.
Channel Effect, Signal to Noise Ratio

and Capacity
In a given digital communication system,
Fundamental parameters and physical
limitations that control the rate (number of bits
per second) and quality :
• Channel bandwidth B
• Signal Power Ps
Two Performance Factor in

A Communication System
• Channel Bandwidth: frequency range that a
channel can transmit with acceptable accuracy
BW of AM radio channel is 10 kHz, BW of FM
radio channel is 150 kHz.
• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the
power of the desired signal to the power of the
noise signal
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Bandwidth
• what signal bandwidth is, what the meaning of channel bandwidth to a
communications engineer is, and what the limitations on information rate
are.
• Signal bandwidth:
– We can divide signals into two categories: The pure tone signal (the sinusoidal wave,
consisting of one frequency component), and complex signals that are composed of
several components, or sinusoids of various frequencies.
T=1x10-3 s f=1/1x10-3
=1000Hz=1 kHz
0 1 t (ms)
Pure signal
– The bandwidth of a signal composed of components of various frequencies (complex signal) is the
difference between its highest and lowest frequency components, and is expressed in Hertz (Hz) - the
same as frequency.
– For example, a square wave may be constructed by adding sine waves of various frequencies:
Pure tone
150 Hz sine wave
Pure tone
450 Hz sine wave
Approaching a 150 Hz
square wave
(ms)
– The resulting wave resembles a square wave. If more sine waves of other frequencies were added,
the resulting waveform would more closely resemble a square wave
– Since the resulting wave contains 2 frequency components, its bandwidth is around 450-150=300 Hz.
• Since voice signals are also composed of

several components (pure tones) of
various frequencies, the bandwidth of a
voice signal is taken to be the difference Male voice
between the highest and lowest
frequencies which are 3000 Hz and (close 3000 Hz
to) 0 Hz frequency
component
• Although other frequency components

above 3000 Hz exist, (they are more
prominent in the male voice), an
acceptable degradation of voice quality is
achieved by disregarding the higher
frequency components, accepting the
3kHz bandwidth as a standard for voice
communications Female voice
3000 Hz
frequency
component
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Channel Bandwidth
– The bandwidth of a channel (medium) is defined to be the
range of frequencies that the medium can support.
Bandwidth is measured in Hz
– With each transmission medium, there is a frequency
range of electromagnetic waves that can be transmitted:
Increasing • Twisted pair cable: 0 to 109 Hz (Bandwidth : 109 Hz)
bandwidth • Coax cable: 0 to 1010 Hz (Bandwidth : 1010 Hz)
• Optical fiber: 1014 to 1016 Hz (Bandwidth : 1016 -1014 = 9.9x1015 Hz)
– Optical fibers have the highest bandwidth (they can

support electromagnetic waves with very high
frequencies, such as light waves)
– The bandwidth of the channel dictates the information
carrying capacity of the channel
– This is calculated using Shannon’s channel capacity
formula
Shannon’s Theorem
(Shannon’s Limit for Information Capacity)
• Claude Shannon at Bell Labs figured out how much information
a channel could theoretically carry: Note that the log
C= B log2 (1 + S/N) is base 2!
– Where C is Information Capacity in bits per second (bps)

– B is the channel bandwidth in Hz
– S/N is Signal-to-Noise ratio (SNR: unitless…don’t make into
decibel: dB)
– Ideal transmission system R=C bits/s
Upper bound on the rate of information transmission per
second in the presence of noise.
In other words;
Maximum number of bits that can be transmitted per
second with a probability of error arbitrarily close to zero.
Example
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Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• S/N is normally measured in dB (decibel). It is a relationship
between the signal we want versus the noise that we do not
want, which is in the medium.
• It can be thought of as a fractional relationship (that is, before

we take the logarithm):
• 1000W of signal power versus 20W of noise power is either:

– 1000/20=50 (unitless!)
– or: about 17 dB ==> 10 log10 1000/20 = 16.9897 dB
Example of Shannon Theorem

Modem
For a typical telephone line with a signal-to-noise ratio of 30dB and
an audio bandwidth of 3kHz, we get a maximum data rate of:
C = 3000 * log2(1001)
which is a little less than 30 kbps.
Satellite TV Channel
For a satellite TV channel with a signal-to noise ratio of 20 dB and a
video bandwidth of 10MHz, we get a maximum data rate of:
C=10000000 * log2(101)
which is about 66 Mbps.
Additive White Gaussian Noise

(AWGN) channel model
«Additive» It is added to the signal of interest
«White» Noise power spectral density is flat independent of

frequencies. It isan analogy to the color white which has uniform
emissions at all frequencies in the visible spectrum
«Process» Noise at each time t is a random variable
«Gaussian» because it has a normal distribution in time domain with

average time domain value of zero
This ideal model captures application cases with distortionless channel

and provides a performance upper bound for more general distrotive
channels.
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Modulation
• Modulation is changing one or more of the
characteristics of a signal (CARRIER SIGNAL)
based on the value of another signal
(INFORMATION or MODULATING SIGNAL) to
produce a MODULATED signal.
• A carrier is a sinusoidal of high frequency with
one of its parameters ;
– ( Amplitude (AM),
– phase (PM)
– or frequency FM)
is varried in proportion to the message m(t)
Why to Modulate?
• Baseband signals may be directly transmitted
over a suitable channel (telephone, fax)
BUT
• Depending on the channel and signal
frequency domain characteristics, baseband
signal not always suitalbe for direct
transmission over a given channel.
Why to Modulate?
Reason 1 -Ease of Radiation and Transmission:
For efficient radiation of electromagnetic energy

following condition must hold;
The Antenna Height > of a wavelenght
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Why to Modulate ?
One good reason!
• Signalling with carrier frequency of 10 kHz
• The wavelenght is
. /
𝜆= = = 3. 10 𝑚
Antenna Height > . 3. 10 =3000 m
Distance =velocity x time 𝜆 = 𝑐. 𝑡 → (𝑡 = )
Why to modulate?
What about Speech Signal?
• The power in a speech signal is concentrated at
frequencies in the range of 100 to 3000 Hz
. /
• 𝜆= = = 3. 10 𝑚  300 km
. /
• 𝜆= = = 10 𝑚  10 km
.
• Instead by modulating a high-frequency carrier, we

effectively translate the signal spectrum to the
neighborhood of the carrier frequency that
corresponds to a much smaller waveleghth.
• A 10 Mhz carrier 30 m wavelength and 3m antenna
Why to modulate?
Reason 2- Simultaneous Transmission of Multiple
Signals (Multiplexing)
 Multiple video signals will all be interfering
Without modulation cable Tv or broadcast TV would be
limited to one station at a time.
At the receiver (TV set) a tunable bandpass filter can
selecty the desired station or TV channel for viewing.
Transmitting several signals simultaneously, over
nonoverlaping frequency bands, is knows as frequency
division multiplexing (FDM)
Time division multiplexing (TDM) when signal is in the
form of pulse train
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Analog Modulation
• The purpose of a communication system is to transmit information signals (baseband
signals) through a communication channel
• The term baseband is used to designate the band of frequencies representing the
original signal as delivered by the input transducer
– For example, the voice signal from a microphone is a baseband signal, and contains
frequencies in the range of 0-3000 Hz
– The “hello” wave is a baseband signal:
• Since this baseband signal must be transmitted through a communication

channel (such as air or cable) using electromagnetic waves, a procedure is
needed to shift the range of baseband frequencies to other frequency ranges
suitable for transmission; and, a corresponding shift back to the original
frequency range after reception. This is called the process of modulation and
demodulation
• Remember the radio spectrum:
AM radio FM radio/TV
• For example, an AM radio system transmits electromagnetic waves with
frequencies of around a few hundred kHz (MF band)
• The FM radio system operates with frequencies in the range of 88-108 MHz
(VHF band)
• Since the baseband signal contains frequencies in the audio frequency range (3 kHz),
some form of frequency-band shifting must be employed for the radio system to operate
properly
• This process is accomplished by a device called a modulator
• The transmitter block in any communications system contains the modulator device
• The receiver block in any communications system contains the demodulator device
• The modulator modulates a carrier wave (the electromagnetic wave) which has a
frequency that is selected from an appropriate band in the radio spectrum
– For example, the frequency of a carrier wave for FM can be chosen from the VHF
band of the radio spectrum
– For AM, the frequency of the carrier wave may be chosen to be around a few
hundred kHz (from the MF band of the radio spectrum)
• The demodulator extracts the original baseband signal from the received modulated
signal
In Summary:
• Modulation is the process of impressing a low-frequency information signal (baseband
signal) onto a higher frequency carrier signal
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Basic analog communications system

Baseband signal EM waves (modulated
(electrical signal) Transmitter signal)
Input Transmission
transducer Modulator
Channel
EM waves (modulated
Carrier signal)
Baseband signal
(electrical signal) Receiver
Output
Demodulator
transducer
Amplitude Modulation
Carrier wave
Baseband signal
Modulated wave
Amplitude varying-
2017-2018-ICS_B.Kartal Cetin frequency constant 59
Frequency Modulation
Carrier wave
Small amplitude: Large amplitude:

Baseband signal high frequency
low frequency
Modulated wave
Frequency varying-
amplitude constant
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Digital Modulation
• Digital communication systems also employ modulation techniques,

some of which include:
– Amplitude Shift Keying
– Frequency Shift Keying
– Phase Shift Keying
Basic digital communications system

Transmitter EM waves (modulated
Digital signal
signal)
Analog signal
Input Transmission
Modulator
transducer Channel
Carrier EM waves
Receiver (modulated signal)
analog signal digital signal
Output Demodulator
transducer
Some Types of Digital Modulation
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

 The most basic (binary) form of ASK involves the process of
switching the carrier either on or off, in correspondence to a
sequence of digital pulses that constitute the information signal.
One binary digit is represented by the presence of a carrier, the
other binary digit is represented by the absence of a carrier.
Frequency remains fixed
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 The most basic (binary) form of FSK involves the process of varying
the frequency of a carrier wave by choosing one of two frequencies
(binary FSK) in correspondence to a sequence of digital pulses that
constitute the information signal. Two binary digits are represented
by two frequencies around the carrier frequency. Amplitude
remains fixed
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 The information that is transmitted over a communication channel
is impressed on the phase of the carrier.
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Amplitude Shift Keying

Digital 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
information
Carrier wave
ASK
modulated
signal
Amplitude varying-
frequency constant
Carrier present Carrier absent
Frequency Shift Keying

1 0 1 1 0 0 1
Digital
information
Carrier 1
(frequency #1)
Carrier 2
(frequency #2)
FSK
modulated
signal
Frequency varying-
amplitude constant
Size of a Signal=Strength of the signal

• Size – a standard quantity to measure the signal
strength
Many ways might be used to measure the size
1- Area under the curve , decribed by the
mathematical function, seems good measure?
Computed values cancel each other totally or

partially, rendering incorrect result.
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Size of a Signal
• The «area under the curve» is not suitable for
defining the size of signal.
• There exist two options:
1- Computation of the area under the absolute
value of the function
2- Computation of the area under the square of the
function
Second choice is favored due to its mathematical

tractability and its similarity to Euclidian Norm
which is used in signal detection techniques.
Signal Energy
Size of a Signal=Strength of a Signal

• If the signal is an electrical signal, then the this
definition gives the total energy of the signal
(in Joules) dissipated over a 1 Ohm resistor.
• 𝐸 =∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
• http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/EnergyA
ndPowerOfSignals/
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What if the signal does not decay?

• In this case we have infinite energy for any
such signal.
• A necessary condition for energy to be finite is

that the signal amplitude goes to zero as t
approaches to infitinity.
What if signal does not decay?

Need a more meaningful measure of the signal size
Signal Power
• Power is is time average of energy (energy per
unit time). • Pf is often called the mean-
square value of f.
• 𝑃 Is then called the root
mean squared (RMS) value
of f
• We compute the energy per a specific unit of
time, then allow that time to go to infinity
Units of Signal Energy and Power

• Decibel: The decibel is a base 10 logaritmic measure
of power ratios.
• 𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)

𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔
10
= 30 + 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)
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Decibel- if resistive loads are used

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑉
𝑃= = 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑅 = =𝐼 𝑅=𝑉 𝐼
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅
𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 10
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑅
𝐼 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅
𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 10
𝐼 𝑖𝑛 𝑅
İf normalized power are used R=1Ω
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 20
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝑖𝑛
Example
• The received signal power is -20 dBm.
• An enemy has a jamming source that can jam a
narrowband.
• The jamming power is finite the total received
jamming singal power is at most -26 dBm. Power
level of the interference is Jn=Pj/BW.
• Banwidth is 20 kHz.
• Signal power is (1.6x10 )-1
• Noise level is 10-11
(1.6x )−1
• Signal to Noise ratio is = 4.74 𝑑𝐵
25

ICS Lecture 1

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2/20/2018

What does Communication mean?

What will we study in This course?

Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa

2. Use Channels with smaller attenuation levels

Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Linear Distortion depends on channel

2017-2018-ICS_B.Kartal Cetin Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa 10

Solution to Linear Distortion

Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Solution to Linear Distortion

• Non linear Distortion

Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Non-Linearly Distorted Signals

Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa

External Sources: Can be Minimized or Eliminated

Example External Noise: Crosstalk

• Thermal Noise (due to thermal interaction between

• Its frequency content is spread equally throughout

Solution for External Noise

Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Solution for Internal Noise

Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa

What happen in practical

What about amplification is that a solution?

What happen to the signal in CS?

• Alternative solution Regenerative Repeaters

Copyright © Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Noise Immunity of Digital Signals

Advantage of Digital Communication

Analog to Digital Conversion

STEP-1-Nyquist Sampling Theorem

The sampling frequency should be at least twice the highest

2- Each sample amplitude is approximated by the

• Voice Signal commercial minimum is L=32 (8 or 16

Effect of Distortion and noise

• If A is sufficiently large in comparison to typical noise amplitudes, the

Pulse-Coded Modulation-A digital

Baseband (Lowpass, unmodulated) Signal

• A baseband bandwidth is equal to the highest

Baseband Channel and Transmission

Bandpass (passband, carrier modulated)

• Bandpass Signal The bandwidth B of the bandpass

Channel Effect, Signal to Noise Ratio

Two Performance Factor in

• Since voice signals are also composed of

• Although other frequency components

– Optical fibers have the highest bandwidth (they can

– Where C is Information Capacity in bits per second (bps)

• It can be thought of as a fractional relationship (that is, before

• 1000W of signal power versus 20W of noise power is either:

Example of Shannon Theorem

Additive White Gaussian Noise

«White» Noise power spectral density is flat independent of

«Process» Noise at each time t is a random variable

«Gaussian» because it has a normal distribution in time domain with

This ideal model captures application cases with distortionless channel

For efficient radiation of electromagnetic energy

The Antenna Height > of a wavelenght

Antenna Height > . 3. 10 =3000 m

Distance =velocity x time 𝜆 = 𝑐. 𝑡 → (𝑡 = )

• Instead by modulating a high-frequency carrier, we