Hardness of Tempered Martensite in Carbon

and Low-Alloy Steels

R. A. GRANGE, C. R. HRIBAL, AND L. F. PORTER

This paper p r e s e n t s the r e s u l t s of a s y s t e m a t i c study of the effect of carbon, manganese,

phosphorus, silicon, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium on the h a r d n e s s of
m a r t e n s i t e in low to medium carbon s t e e l s t e m p e r e d for one hour at 100~ (56~ i n t e r -
v a l s in the r a n g e 400 to 1300~ (204 to 704~ R e s u l t s show that the as-quenched h a r d -
n e s s depends s o l e l y on carbon content. On t e m p e r i n g , the effect of carbon on h a r d n e s s
d e c r e a s e s m a r k e d l y with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . Studies of c a r b o n - 0 . 5 man-
ganese s t e e l s showed that the i n c r e m e n t a l i n c r e a s e in h a r d n e s s f r o m 0.5 pct manganese
a f t e r a given t e m p e r i n g t r e a t m e n t was independent of carbon content. Based on this r e -
sult, studies of the effects of the other alloying e l e m e n t s w e r e made using a 0.2 or 0.3
pct carbon, 0.3 to 0.5 pct manganese s t e e l b a s e composition. The h a r d n e s s of the r e s u l t -
ing t e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e was a s s u m e d to be due to a given alloy addition, and when two
or m o r e alloying e l e m e n t s w e r e added, t h e i r effects w e r e a s s u m e d to be additive.
Each of the seven alloying e l e m e n t s i n c r e a s e d the h a r d n e s s of t e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e by
v a r y i n g amounts, the i n c r e a s e being g r e a t e r as m o r e of each element was p r e s e n t . Nickel
and phosphorus have s u b s t a n t i a l l y the s a m e effect at all t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s . Man-
ganese has e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e hardening effect at any t e m p e r a t u r e in the range 700
(371~ to 1300~ s i l i c o n is most effective at 600~ (316~ chromium at 800~ (427~
molybdenum at 1000 to l l 0 0 ~ (538 to 592~ and vanadium at 1200~ (649~
Using the data obtained, a p r o c e d u r e is e s t a b l i s h e d for calculating the h a r d n e s s of t e m -
p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e for carbon and alloy s t e e l compositions in the range studied and for
any combination of t e m p e r i n g time and t e m p e r a t u r e .

T HE i m p o r t a n c e of developing a t e m p e r e d m a r t e n - MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL WORK

s i t e s t r u c t u r e to p r o v i d e s t r e n g t h and toughness in
h i g h - s t r e n g t h s t e e l s has long been recognized. I F o r
a s t e e l of given carbon content and alloy composition,
the final s u b c r i t i c a l heat t r e a t m e n t (tempering t r e a t -
ment) e s t a b l i s h e s the h a r d n e s s of the s t e e l and for
t e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e s , the h a r d n e s s can be used to
e s t i m a t e t e n s i l e strength. In addition to carbon and
alloy content, such f a c t o r s as the p r i o r austenite
g r a i n s i z e influence strength. This l a s t - m e n t i o n e d
factor is beyond the scope of the p r e s e n t paper.
Although t h e r e has been a c o n s i d e r a b l e body of in-
f o r m a t i o n published over the p a s t f o r t y y e a r s on the
effect of carbon and the individual alloying e l e m e n t s on
the h a r d n e s s of t e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e , 2"~ these i n v e s t i -
gations have d e a l t mainly with medium carbon s t e e l s ,
have been c u m b e r s o m e to use, and have not fully a c -
counted for s e c o n d a r y hardening effects. The p r e s e n t
p a p e r d e s c r i b e s the r e s u l t s of a coordinated study to
evaluate the effect of carbon and alloying e l e m e n t s on
the h a r d n e s s of quenched and t e m p e r e d low carbon
s t e e l s . Using the p r o c e d u r e s p r e s c r i b e d in the p a p e r ,
one can calculate the h a r d n e s s and, in turn, the strength
that will be achieved f r o m a given t e m p e r i n g t r e a t m e n t
for s t e e l s with compositions lying within usual r a n g e s
for AISI c a r b o n and alloy s t e e l s .
R. A. GRANGEwas formerly with U. S. Steel Corporation (retired),
C. R. HRIBALis Senior Technician-PhysicalMetallurgy,and L. F.
PORTER is Senior Research Consultant-PhysicalMetallurgy,U. S.
Steel Corporation, Research Laboratory, 125 Jamison Lane, Monroe-
vitle,PA 15146.
Manuscript submitted December 17, 1976.
I r o n - c a r b o n a l l o y s and high c l e a n l i n e s s s t e e l s were
p r e p a r e d by vacuum induction melting 35 pound (16 kg)
heats of e l e c t r o l y t i c iron, graphite and p u r e f e r r o a l l o y s .
Each 35 pound heat was split into two ingots, the second
of which contained twice the amount of the element of
i n t e r e s t added to the f i r s t .
Ingots w e r e h o t - r o l l e d to 0.25 in. thick (6.3 mm)
plate. A portion of each h o t - r o l l e d plate was then cold-
r o l l e d to 0.1 in. thick (2.5 mm) s t r i p or, in a few in-
stances, to 0.05 in. thick (1.3 mm) s t r i p . Specimens
0.5 in. (12,7 mm) s q u a r e were taken from the cold-
r o l l e d s t r i p for heat t r e a t m e n t .
The composition of the s t e e l s used in this i n v e s t i -
gation with r e s p e c t to the significant e l e m e n t s can be
d e t e r m i n e d by r e f e r e n c e to Table I. Other than the
p r i n c i p a l e l e m e n t s , the amount of any minor e l e m e n t
p r e s e n t was always l e s s than 0,005 pct and its effect
was c o n s i d e r e d insignificant.
Specimens f r o m each s e r i e s of s t e e l s made up of
graded amounts of one alloying e l e m e n t w e r e heat-
t r e a t e d as a group, simultaneously, to avoid any p o s -
s i b i l i t y of v a r i a t i o n in heat t r e a t m e n t affecting the
data for a given element. All s p e c i m e n s were austeni-
tized for 10 min at 1700~ (927~ and quenched in 6
pct NaC1 b r i n e . Except for the higher carbon s t e e l s ,
the as-quenched s a m p l e s contained e s s e n t i a l l y 100
p c t m a r t e n s i t e . Steels with a 0.50, 0.72, or 0.98 pct
carbon contained r e t a i n e d austenite in amounts of 3, 7,
and 13 pct, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Slack quenching tended to oc-
cur in the low carbon F e - C alloys, and this tendency
was m i n i m i z e d by reducing s p e c i m e n thickness f r o m
0.1 to 0.05 in. (2.5 to 1.3 mm). T e m p e r i n g , always
for 1 h, was done in a c i r c u l a t i n g - a i r furnace for

METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA VOLUME 8A, NOVEMBER 1977 !775

 ..... ~ , , , , , ~ ,_..~..o,- I
Table I. Levels of Significant Elements in Iron-Carbon Alloys and
High Cleanliness Steels Investigated A -oo,, D L.
Alloy Series Levels of Element Vaned, Pct
Carbon* 0.12, 0.20, 0.42, 0.50, 0.72, 0.98
0.5Mn-Carbon* 0.08, 0.20, 0.42, 0,58, 0 78
0.2C-Manganese* 0.35, 0 64, 0.90, 122, 1 66, 1.95 7~ - ,'! / 4ooo~/ - 60
0.2C 0,SMn-Phosphorus* 0.002, 0.06,028 ACCORDING TO ,] /- i s " O""
0 19C-0,53Mn-Sihcon* 0.09, 0.29, 0.56, 0.85 ANDGO=DON!7
'A' J / t i
0.t 8C-&30Mn-Nickel*
0.19C-0.3Mn-Chromium*
0.20, 027, 0.80, 155
0.1,0.18, OAO,0.63 o-
\ ,W / o
\ j / / _,~
0.18C-0.3Mn-Molybdenum* 0.06, 0.12, 0.17, 0.41
0.19C-0.5Mn-Vanadmm* 0.02, 0.052, 0.075, 0.18 ..///o / _I-o-
*Element vaned. /7/ / o oo~ o ~-
Lu

temperatures below 700~ (371~ and in lead for , //Zol/.o ~ -,,

o//,.,/ .,,o . o I ~.~o-
temperatures at and above 700~
4%- /s /" / 0 I- - ~o
The austenite grain size was determined for one set
of specimens of each series and found to be in the C00
range 4 to 6 ASTM. This variation in grain size was
found to trove an insignificant effect on the hardness of
o/ o.O o..I-- ~'~ -11
tempered martensite. /
After heat treatment, each set of specimens was i:" o--~ _-oX0 o. ---o-,o
mounted edgewise (using an unheated polymer in the .-" o/JO ~ o ~---'~-
~- o-~/ o.~O"~ ~.._.--o-
as-quenched condition and bakelite when tempered), ~
. - "0
,.~.,,,.--
. 0-"~'~
~
j . O ~ o , ~
O~r~'3~'r~O ~

ground to remove at least 0.06 in. (1.5 mm) from the
exposed surface and polished. Three or more diamond
pyramid (HV) hardness measurements with 20 kg load
were made for each specimen. In those few instances,
where all three hardness readings were not identical,
additional hardness measurements were taken after
regrinding and polishing.
The m i c r o s t r u c t u r e of all specimens was examined
after etching in picral and nital solutions. Photomi-
crographs were taken to illustrate the effect of each
element on m i c r o s t r u c t u r e .
RESULTS
F e - C Alloys
Results for iron-carbon alloys with carbon content
ranging from 0.12 to 0.97 pct, are shown graphically
in Fig. 1. The measured hardness of each specimen
is represented by a point, and a smooth curve is
drawn through the points for each tempering tempera-
ture to show the hardness at any carbon content.
The relation between carbon content and hardness
for as-quenched martensite is somewhat lower than
the relation shown by Bain and Paxton 2 but agrees r e -
markably well, as seen in Fig. 1, with that obtained by
Jaffe and Gordon 5 for samples water quenched and
then cooled t o - 320~ (-196~ The hardness of as-
quenched martensite of a particular carbon content
was not changed significantly as a result of adding
manganese or other alloying elements. Thus, the
curve for as-quenched martensite is the maximum
hardness attainable by quenching to martensite in all
the carbon and low alloy steels investigated, and the
alloy content apparently did not change the retained
austenite content of the steels sufficiently to affect
the as-quenched hardness. However, the curves for
all tempered specimens are higher when alloying ele-
ments are added to F e - C alloys. The curves of Fig. 1
thus serve as a base to which the effect of the alloy in
~ ~ 0 , ~ 0 ~ 0 T c = (T F - 32)/1 8
,oa ~'~~ 8 ' ' ' ~
t I I,, i I i I i ~ t
0 02 04 06 08 10
CARBON, percent
Fig, l ~ H a r d n e s s of t e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e in i r o n - c a r b o n a l -
loy.
resisting softening on tempering can be added. The
resistance to softening thus can be shown as an in-
c r e a s e in the hardness (~ffIV) over that which would be
obtained by tempering an F e - C alloy. When r e f e r r i n g
to the effect of various alloying elements on tempering
response in the figures and discussion, the term in-
c r e a s e in hardness (AHV) due to the alloy will be un-
derstood to be a measure of the resistance to soften-
ing imparted by the alloying element.
Figure 2 shows typical mtcrographs of specimens
chosen to illustrate the effect of carbon on quenched
martensite and on martensite tempered one hour at
1300~ (704~ In the as-quenched condition, so-
called lath martensite is present at 0.12 pct carbon
and plate martensite at 0.42 and 0.97 pct carbon.
Somewhere between 0.12 and 0.42 pct carbon, the
structure changes from lath to plate martensite; the
transition is probably gradual, since the hardness
curve exhibits no discontinuity in hardness.
When Fe-C alloys are tempered at 1300~ hardness
does not increase greatly with carbon content (Fig. 1).
Figure 2 indicates that with increasing carbon content,
the cementite particles become larger r a t h e r than
more numerous; thus, the mean distance between par-
ticles, which principally determines hardness, changes
relatively little.
Fe-0.5Mn-C Alloy
A s e r i e s of five alloys, all containing 0.5 pct man-
ganese with carbon varying in the range 0.07 to 0.78
pct, was investigated to determine the quantitative

1776-VOLUME 8A, NOVEMBER 1977 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

effect of manganese on the hardness of tempered m a r -
tensite in alloys with different carbon contents. The
data points connected by dashed lines in Fig. 3 shows
the results for Fe-0.SMn-C alloys at tempering tem-
peratures of 600, 800, 1000, and 1200~ (316, 427, 538,
and 649~ The solid-line curves are for Fe-C alloys
transposed from Fig. 1.
After tempering at 400~ (204~ the points for the
Fe-0.5Mn-C alloys lie on the curve for Fe-C alloys.
Thus, manganese had no effect on the hardness of
martensite tempered at 400~ At higher tempering
temperatures, the presence of manganese resulted in
higher hardness after tempering. The fact that the
corresponding curves for a given tempering tempera-

0.12C

0.42C

0.97C

As-quenched Tempered 1300~

Fig. 2 - - E f f e c t of c a r b o n c o n t e n t on the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e of F e - C a l l o y s . Magnification 500 t i m e s .

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONSA VOLUME 8A, NOVEMBER 1977-1777

 800, I 1 1 1 I I I ....... I l ! I I I l I ! I I
400QF 0
45(3 !45
0 -O 0 0 0
706 AS-QUENCHED j./0
AND 4 0 0 ~ F / 50 500~ ~.0/C
400 O ...........O O O- ' ' ~ "
O

600 / 55
O
"" ~ 0 " ~ ~0~ 15

~ 5oo / .o"*%e~ = =>

m

400 40 i
25

~| / ..o ~ / .o- _.-.--- ~~

." / ...o"- 10o0~
2/o
100 r,"~ I t t t ~ I I I 1 1 o, i/ / TC = (T~ - 32)/1 8
0 02 0.4 06 08 ?0
CARgON, pea'cent ~ooi I ........ I I I I I I I i
0 04 08 12 16 20
F i g . 3 - - E f f e c t of 0.5 p c t m a n g a n e s e on t h e h a r d n e s s of t e m -
p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e in s t e e l s c o n t a i n i n g v a r i o u s a m o u n t s of c a r - MANGANESE, percent
bon. F i g . 4 - - H a r d n e s s of t e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e in 0.2 p c t c a r b o n
steels containing different amounts of manganese.
t u r e a r e v e r y n e a r l y p a r a l l e l indicates that for a given
t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e , 0.5 pct manganese had sub- i I t f /
s t a n t i a l l y the s a m e hardening effect at a l l carbon con- 80 TC = (TF - 32)/18 700~
tents.* These r e s u l t s offer some a s s u r a n c e that the 8 0 0 ~
*The low hardness value for the 0.07 pet carbon alloy tempered at 1200~
(649~ was due to atypical, exaggerated ferrite grain growth in this specimen > 1200"F . ~./J~'1000~ F
effect of other alloying elements may a l s o be inde- 60 \-f2 f ....... 8oo~F/
pendent of carbon content. In the work that follows, . -;5 / f ,1300VF / /
5 900 ~ ~ . i ~/L/ _ ~ -- . ~
a 0.2 pct c a r b o n s t e e l is used as a b a s e and the a s -
sumption is made that the effect on h a r d n e s s of a
given alloy addition would be independent of the c a r -
bon content. This assumption, which might be ex-
pected to be r a t h e r tenuous f o r s t r o n g c a r b i d e f o r m e r s ,
was tested l a t e r by c o m p a r i n g calculated and actual
h a r d n e s s e s for different s t e e l s t e m p e r e d at different
-
=<
00

20 --
//
/<.,,/.S /

500*F~. / - ~
]
t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s and found to be r e a s o n a b l y
valid within the composition r a n g e s investigated.
, / 4 t ~ 1 7~ 6 t / I F
0 0.4 08 12 16 20
Effect of Different Amounts of Manganese
MANGANESE, percent
R e s u l t s for six p u r e s t e e l s containing 0.2 pct c a r - Fig, 5--~crease in hardness d u e to m a n g a n e s e Jn 0 . 2 p c t
bon and different amounts of manganese in the range carbon, quenched and tempered steels.
0.35 to 1.97 pct a r e given in Fig. 4. The points for
z e r o manganese were taken from the e a r l i e r r e s u l t s convenient f o r m in Fig. 5 by plotting the i n c r e a s e in
f o r F e - C a l l o y s (Fig. 1). The data show that when t e m - the t e m p e r e d h a r d n e s s of the 0.2 pct carbon s t e e l r e -
p e r e d at 400~ (204~ i n c r e a s i n g manganese content sulting f r o m v a r i o u s manganese additions. The effect
did not r e s u l t in a higher h a r d n e s s than that of the of manganese on the h a r d n e s s of t e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e
F e - C alloy t e m p e r e d at 400~ (204~ but substantially is shown to i n c r e a s e f r o m z e r o at 400~ (204~ in a
higher h a r d n e s s e s w e r e obtained for the manganese r e g u l a r manner with t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e to 800~
containing a l l o y s at t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s of 600~ (427~ In the r e g i o n f r o m 800~ to 1300~ the h a r d -
(316~ and above. Note that the curve for 1300~ ness i n c r e a s e v a r i e s about an a v e r a g e value. The
(704~ t e m p e r i n g ends at about 1.2 pct manganese b e - v a r i a t i o n is ~10 HV V i c k e r s h a r d n e s s n u m b e r s in the
cause with m o r e than this amount of manganese, the region of 0.4 pct manganese and the amount of v a r i a -
A~ t e m p e r a t u r e is exceeded. tion is a minimum at 1.6 pct manganese.
The r e s u l t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d in a m o r e g e n e r a l and As manganese i n c r e a s e d , the a p p e a r a n c e of the m i -

1 7 7 8 - V O L U M E 8A, NOVEMBER 1977 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

F i g . 6 - - E f f e c t of m a n g a n e s e
on t h e m i c r o s t r u e t u r e of
m a r t e n s i t e t e m p e r e d at
1200~ (649~ f o r 1 h. M a g -
n i f i c a t i o n 455 t i m e s .

0.35Mn i. 97Mn

c r o s t r u c t u r e of t e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e changed n o t i c e - cept 400~ (204~ For various tempering tempera-

a b l y . T h i s change can be i l l u s t r a t e d by c o m p a r i n g the
low and high m a n g a n e s e s t e e l s t e m p e r e d at 1200~
(649~ F i g . 6. A s m a n g a n e s e i n c r e a s e d , 1) the m a r -
t e n s i t i c a p p e a r a n c e was r e t a i n e d to a g r e a t e r d e g r e e ,
2) the c a r b i d e s , when e x a m i n e d at high m a g n i f i c a t i o n ,
w e r e found to be s m a l l e r and m o r e n u m e r o u s , and 3)
the m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l b a n d i n g was a c c e n t u a t e d . T h e s e
changes s u g g e s t that m a n g a n e s e i n c r e a s e s the h a r d -
n e s s of t e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e p r i n c i p a l l y by r e t a r d i n g
the c o a l e s c e n c e of c a r b i d e s , and thus p r o v i d e s a r e -
s i s t a n c e to g r a i n growth in the f e r r i t e m a t r i x . T h e
c o m b i n a t i o n of m o r e and s m a l l e r c a r b i d e s and an a p -
p a r e n t l o w e r s t a t e of r e c o v e r y of the m a r t e n s i t e
(finer p a c k e t s of f e r r i t e ) , c a u s e s the o b s e r v e d s u b -
s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e in the h a r d n e s s of t e m p e r e d m a r t e n -
s i t e a s the p e r c e n t a g e of m a n g a n e s e in s t e e l i n c r e a s e s .
t u r e s , the i n c r e a s e s in h a r d n e s s due to p h o s p h o r u s
w e r e found to a l l s c a t t e r about a s i n g l e c u r v e . Thus,
p h o s p h o r u s m a y be c o n s i d e r e d to have the s a m e effect
at a l l t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s in the r a n g e 500 to
1200~ (260 to 649~
M e t a l l o g r a p h i c e x a m i n a t i o n showed that p h o s p h o r u s
had l i t t l e effect on c a r b i d e s i z e , and, t h e r e f o r e , p h o s -
p h o r u s was a s s u m e d to i n c r e a s e the h a r d n e s s of t e m -
p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e p r i n c i p a l l y , if not e n t i r e l y , by s o l i d -
s o l u t i o n h a r d e n i n g of the f e r r i t e m a t r i x .
Effect of Silicon. S i m i l a r d a t a w e r e o b t a i n e d for a
s e r i e s of 0 . 1 9 C - 0 . 5 M n s t e e l s c o n t a i n i n g g r a d e d
a m o u n t s of s i l i c o n a s i n d i c a t e d in T a b l e I. S i l i c o n in-

E f f e c t s of O t h e r A l l o y i n g E l e m e n t s
In a m a n n e r s i m i l a r to that u s e d in d e t e r m i n i n g
the e f f e c t of m a n g a n e s e , the effect of i n c r e m e n t a l
a m o u n t s of the a l l o y i n g e l e m e n t s , P , Si, Ni, C r , Mo,
and V on the r e s p o n s e to t e m p e r i n g w e r e d e t e r -
m i n e d and the i n c r e a s e in h a r d n e s s o v e r that of an
F e - C a l l o y t e m p e r e d f o r 1 h at the s a m e t e m p e r a t u r e
was d e t e r m i n e d for e a c h i n c r e m e n t in a l l o y and f o r
e a c h of the t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s . F a m i l i e s of c u r v e s
s i m i l a r to t h o s e shown in F i g . 5 w e r e p l o t t e d f o r e a c h
a l l o y i n g e l e m e n t . T h e s e p l o t s w e r e u s e d to e x a m i n e
the effect of the v a r i o u s a l l o y i n g e l e m e n t s on t e m -
p e r i n g r e s p o n s e . H o w e v e r , the e f f e c t s a r e not shown
in this f o r m but a r e shown l a t e r in F i g s . 8 t h r o u g h 17,
w h e r e f o r a given t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e , the in-
c r e a s e in h a r d n e s s o b s e r v e d for e a c h of the a l l o y i n g
e l e m e n t s is p l o t t e d a s a function of the a l l o y content.
Effect of P h o s p h o r u s . S i m i l a r d a t a w e r e o b t a i n e d
f o r t h r e e l e v e l s of p h o s p h o r u s (0.002, 0.064, o r 0.28 0 02 04 06 08 10
p c t p h o s p h o r u s ) in a 0.2 p c t c a r b o n - 0 . 5 p c t m a n g a n e s e CARBON percent

s t e e l . P h o s p h o r u s i n c r e a s e d the h a r d n e s s of t e m - Fig. 7--Chart showing hardness of tempered martensite in

p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e at a l l t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s e x - Fe-C alloys.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 8A, NOVEMBER 1 9 7 7 - 1 7 7 9

 5C
[
I I I 11III
L~ ' t i I Jill
> 1M?: ~>, +~r~ ~o l i I i 1,4 ! , --
90

80

t= T-- t- 1 I I I , 4 ' --~

c ~ - T-'-F I
I.ko, 7 -
002 005 01 0t5
ELEMENT,
02
percent
05 15 2
>
"1
60 ' !
f ! lJ, d-!!!.,,~
Fig. 8--Effect of e l e m e n t s on the h a r d n e s s of m a r t e n s i t e tern- 5O

p e r e d at 400~ (204~ for 1 h.

00_ _ -4q- J-

40 ; ; ;
/ J

002 005 01 0~5 02 05 1 15 2

ELE~ENT, perc~t
~~ ~ - " " ~ t I L
oi ,-+"'f~ ~1- Fig. t 2 - - E f f e c t of e l e m e n t s on the h a r d n e s s of m a r t e n s i t e
002 005 01 O15 0 2 05 t e m p e r e d at 800~ (427~ for 1 h.
ELEMENT, percent

F i g . 9--Effect of e l e m e n t s on the h a r d n e s s of m a r t e n s i t e tern- 80 I I ,

p e r e d at 500~ (260~ for 1 h. I -I ...........
- - i I , i

~<_-L-_ i a , 1

II
7O t--~
F/:_I t ~ "~M~
.! ~
50 I
,
!
,
--

4( : : "
/ I .4I j,,," ~
I J/A I'I/ t
/ !
Jr A~ I i
;/__2_2 2o i 't ',-i

20 - - - - ~ --

002 005 01 015 02 05 1 15 2

N -- I I I [,, Fig, 13--Effect of e l e m e n t s on the h a r d n e s s of m a r t e n s i t e

ELEMENT, percent

002 005 01 015 Q2 05

t e m p e r e d at 900~ (482~ for 1 h.
ELEMENT, percent

Fig. 10--Effect of e l e m e n t s on the h a r d n e s s of m a r t e n s i t e ,.1, -

t e m p e r e d at 600~ (316~C) for 1 h.
- 9 tO~ PF ~ " ' V 1

X
Yt!, t ltl _
. . . . /

I l 7O~=F . . . . . I

7~: : : i
i i t , > 5( I i ] ,
601 ; , :
1 ! ,,I

> 501 ,i i
Me --
-1 : : : . . . . . v
~~ .... ~ I i. i,,l ; ~ - r ' l
"-+- ~ J I J'__4"-FI I1
30" ' ' .' ~ f/<"

/ 71
002 005 O~ Or5 02

ELEMENT, p e r c e n t
05 1 15

002 005 0,1 015 02 05 15 2

Fig. ! 4 - - E f f e c t of e l e m e n t s on the h a r d n e s s of m a r t e n s i t e
t e m p e r e d at 1000~ (538~ for 1 h.
ELEMENT, percent

Fig. 11--F, ffeet of elements on the hardness of martensite

tempered at 700~ (371~C) for I h. The microstructure of tempered martensite was
noticeably affected by adding 0.86 pct silicon. Metallo-
creased t h e hardness of tempered martensite at all graphic examination of samples containing 0.09 Si and
tempering temperatures. 0.86 Si tempered at 1200~ (649~ showed that the car-
Silicon was found to have a much greater effect at bides were smaller and the ferrite tended to be
600~ (316~ than at other tempering temperatures. divided into smaller lath-like regions (packets) in the
This result is in agreement with the well-known effect 0.86 Si steel, which probably explains most of the
of silicon in inhibiting the conversion of epsilon car- hardening effect of silicon; however, silicon also
bide to cementite, a change that occurs at about probably increases the hardness of tempered marten-
600~ .~ site by solid-solution hardening.
i780 VOLUME 8A, NOVEMBER 1977 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A
 Effect of Nickel, Study of the effect of nickel on The increase in hardness resulting from nickel for
0.18C-0.3Mn steels showed that nickel has a relatively any tempering temperature can be quantitatively ex-
small effect on the hardness of tempered martensite p r e s s e d by a single line drawn from zero for a nickel
which is essentially the same at aH tempering tem- free steel to an increase in hardness (AI-IV) of I0
peratures. points in diamond pyramid hardness for a steel con-
taining 1.5 pct nickel,
In accordance with its smaller effect on the hardness
of tempered martensite, nickel has no apparent effect
on m i c r o s t r u c t u r e . The effect of nickel is probably
.---4-
- - --1100~ due to weak solid-solution hardening.
r io Effect of Chromium. The effect of chromium in the
" III ! / range 0.10 to 0.63 pet was investigated in a 0.19C-
0.3Mn steel. Chromium r e t a r d s the tempering of m a r -
tensite at all tempering temperatures. Obviously,
the effect of chromium, which is the f i r s t strong c a r -
"! I - -
bide forming element to be discussed, is more complex
than that of weak carbide f o r m e r s (Mn) or noncarbide
~ 7 f o r m e r s (P, Si, and Ni). The increased hardness due
to chromium, weak at 400~ (204~ increases to a
maximum at 800~ (427~ the temperature at which
: : : ~ , I ~A,;.,,~,.-
the alloy carbides produce maximum strengthening,
and then decreases with increasing tempering tempera-
002 005 01 015 02 05 1 15 ture because the carbides coalesce.
E L E M E N T , percent Metallographic investigation showed that, in the
Fig. 15--Effeet of e l e m e n t s on the h a r d n e s s of m a r t e n s i t e higher chromium steels, carbides were s m a l l e r and
t e m p e r e d at l t 0 0 ~ (592~ for 1 h. more numerous and that the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e remained
more acicular in appearance (finer packets) than in
120
low chromium steels. Chromium in the percentage
110 " "
I" , " '
LV ! range investigated substitutes for some of the iron in
108
'~"~ IIII
L!!!
i ~ ! cementite, and thus r e t a r d s coalescence of carbides.
Effect of Molybdenum. Molybdenum, like chromium,
9~
is a strong carbide forming element that can be ex-
8{] " " pected to produce substantially higher hardness than an
7C
Fe-C alloy when the alloys are tempered at higher
I ,I 4--r -- d~O
temperatures. The effect of the molybdenum contents
6s
i ia'] ' shown in Table I on tempering in a 0.15C-0.3Mn steel
5C
was determined.
4C At 400~ (204~ molybdenum had no effect but in-
_ /iiii / ,'L; c r e a s e s in hardness were observed in increasing
3(

7
t II~/.-"
~."
"tj' FI " amount as the tempering temperature increased to
2(
1000~ (538~ At 1000 and II00~ (592~ the effect
.~ . I 1s ~' of molybdenum was the same, but the increase in hard-
ness was lower when tempering at 1200~ (649~
002 005 01 01502 05 1 lS 2

E L E f ~ E N T . #e~cent
Molybdenum is a potent addition to steels quenched
and tempered at 1000~ or above. It partitions to the
Fig. 16--Effect of elements on the h a r d n e s s of m a r t e n s i t e
tempered at 1200~ (649~ for 1 h. carbide phase at elevated temperatures, and thus
keeps the carbide particles small and numerous.
Effect of Vanadium. Because vanadium is a stronger
__ V carbide f o r m e r than chromium or molybdenum, it can
be expected to have a potent effect on the hardness of
tempered martensite. Vanadium carbide forms in
steel containing relatively small amounts of vanadium.
The effect of the vanadium contents shown in Table I
on tempering in a 0.19C-0.5Mn steel was determined.
The maximum increase in hardness, which o c c u r r e d
in specimens tempered at 1200~ was considerably
)/V 5 greater than that observed with other alloying ele-
~ /lJ .'I/1 Lkt ments, even though the maximum percentage of van-
adium added was only 0.18 pct. The effect of vanadium
increased steadily with increasing tempering t e m p e r a -
tures up to 1200~ Vanadium was also potent at
1300~ (704~ (only slightly below A1). The large ef-
IfiiIt fect of vanadium is probably due to the formation of an
006 O1 015 02 05 ~ 15

E L E M E N T , percent
alloy carbide (V4Cs or VC), which replaces cementite
Fig. t 7 - - E f f e c t of e l e m e n t s o n t h e hardness of martensite type carbide at high tempering temperatures and p e r -
t e m p e r e d at 1300~ (704~ f o r t h . sists as a fine dispersion up to the At temperature,

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 8A, NOVEMBER I977-1781

 ESTIMATION OF THE HARDNESS OF
TEMPERED MARTENSITE FROM CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
The quantitative effect of the significant chemical
elements (C, Mn, P, Si, Ni, Cr, Me, and V) present in
standard grades of carbon and low-alloy steels has
been evaluated. The effect of other elements normally
present but not evaluated can be ignored in most
quenched and tempered steels. Sulfur is present in
inclusions and aluminum is used in very small
amounts. Some s u c c e s s has been achieved in estimat-
ing the hardness of tempered martensite from chemi-
cal composition, but the methods proposed 3-~ have
been based on inadequate data, are largely empirical,
and are rather complicated. It is therefore worth-
while to consider how the present data might be in-
corporated into a new, more reliable method of esti-
mating the hardness of tempered martensite. Such
a method would save much of the time and effort pre-
sently expended in conducting trials and would be
helpful in selecting steel compositions for quenched
and tempered steel products.
Ideally, the development of a general equation from
which hardness could be calculated directly from
chemical composition, tempering time, and tempering
temperature, would be desirable. However, the large
amount of data generated in the present study, the
wide ranges in composition and temperature covered,
and the complex tempering reactions occurring make
the formidable task of developing such an equation of
questionable merit. Accordingly, a more practical
procedure is proposed in which the hardness of tem-
pered martensite is estimated from a s e r i e s of stand-
ard charts. The obvious starting point for such an e s -
timate is with the data for F e - C alloys. Carbon con-
tent has a large and basic effect and carbon is present
in all steels. The hardness of F e - C alloys varies
greatly with carbon content at low tempering tempera-
tures but much less so at high tempering t e m p e r a -
tures; consequently, even the effect of carbon would
appear to be too complex for simple mathematical
formulation. The hardness of tempered martensite
at any particular carbon content is therefore d e t e r -
mined from a suitable chart, F o r this purpose, the
curves of Fig. 1 for tempering temperatures of 400~
(204~ and above were drawn on a chart with numer-
ous coordinate lines to aid in reading hardness values
(Fig. 7). Tempering curves are given for 100~ (56~
intervals, and although interpolation at intermediate
t e m p e r a t u r e s is possible, it is considered preferable
to read the curves directly and estimate hardness at
intermediate tempering temperatures as a final step.
To estimate the increase in hardness produced f r o m
elements other than carbon, a set of quantitative
" r e a d - o f f " charts is required; the set consists of one
chart for each tempering temperature. These charts
are presented in Figs. 8 through 17. On these charts,
the data is presented on a semilogarithmic scale to
permit accurate readings for the percentages of ele-
ments present in relatively small amounts. Each ele-
ment, unless it had no effect at a particular temper-
ing temperature, is represented by a curve on each
chart.
The use of the charts for estimating the hardness
of tempered martensite from chemicat composition is
1782-VOLUME 8A, NOVEMBERt977
r a t h e r obvious. F o r a given steel composition being
considered, the hardness, for example, at 1000~
(538~ tempering temperature is the hardness of the
F e - C alloy with corresponding carbon content tem-
pered at 1000~ plus alt the ZXHVvalues for each of the
other significant elements present in the steel. Thus,
Estimated HV (1000~ = HV (from Fig. 7)
+ AHVMn + AHVp+ AHVsi
+ ~HVNi + LXHVcr+ AHVMo
+ LxHVv (all from Fig. 14).
The ~-IV value for any element not present in the steel
for which the tempered hardness is being estimated,
of course, drops out of the formula. Therefore, esti-
mation by this method is a matter of simple addition
and can be done quickly and easily.
The estimated hardness values for each tempering
temperature represented by a chart (100~ or 56~ in-
tervals in the range 400 to 1300~ or 204 to 704~ can
be plotted to give an entire tempering curve of hard-
ness v s tempering temperature. The resulting curve
permits interpolation for hardness at any tempering
temperature between the 100~ intervals used in con-
structing the chart. Often, an estimator will be in-
terested only in the hardness after tempering in a
limited range, for example 1000 to 1200~ (538 to
649~ in which case fewer calculations are required.
COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED WITH
EXPERIMENTALLY DETERMINED TEMPERING
CURVES
A considerable number of experimentally deter-
mined tempering curves are available from e a r l i e r
work, 4 and to test the validity of the assumptions made
regarding interactions between alloying elements,
tempering curves for different c o m m e r c i a l grades of
steel may be calculated using the proposed charts and
compared with those determined by direct m e a s u r e -
ment. The experimentally determined curves to be
compared were developed from hardness m e a s u r e -
merits made on small specimens fully quenched to
martensite and tempered for one hour.
Figures 18(a) and (b) provide comparisons of esti-
mated hardness values with those of the experi-
mentally determined tempering curve of two grades of
carbon steel (1026 and 1080). In these figures, as well
as in others to follow, the estimated hardness value
at each 100~ interval in tempering t e m p e r a t u r e is
shown as a point for comparison with the directly
measured tempering curve. In the two steels, esti-
mated hardness values lie reasonably close to the
measured curve. The inherent variability in heat
treating and hardness testing is such that a variation
of at least • c , or about • HV, can be considered
to be the best agreement that can be expected; most
of the estimated points are within this range relative
to the measured curve. F o r these carbon steels, the
estimated hardness is generally on the low side.
A similar comparison of estimated and experi-
mentally determined tempering data for 8650 steel
is given in Fig. 19. The trend in this steel is for the
estimated hardness values to be on the high side with
respect to the measured curve. Nevertheless, a smooth
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA
curve, if drawn through the e s t i m a t e d points, would be
r e a s o n a b l y c l o s e to the m e a s u r e d c u r v e .
Data for a vanadium containing grade of m e d i u m -
carbon, low a l l o y s t e e l (AISI 6145 s t e e l ) is shown in
Fig. 20. Above 1000~ (538~ the e s t i m a t e d v a l u e s
for this s t e e l are c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r than m e a s u r e d
v a l u e s . T h i s is in the t e m p e r i n g range w h e r e vana-
dium was found to have its g r e a t e s t effect. The d i s -
a g r e e m e n t between the calculated v a l u e s and the e x -
p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s in this range is attributed to in-
c o m p l e t e solution of vanadium in a u s t e n i t e in the s t e e l
used to obtain the e x p e r i m e n t a l t e m p e r i n g curve. 4
TEMPERING TEMPE RATURE,~

TEMPERING TEMPERATURE, r 200 300 400 500 600 700

200 300 400 500 600 700

~3 I I I I I

500 ~ I I I I [

C - 0 2 5 Mn-O 7g 800 -- 55

O\o
P-O 012 Sl-O 11

400
O
46

500
O\o O O 50
40

~> o ~
,z
45
w w
~ 35 ~
I c - o 50 ]:
400
P-O010 sl-o 22 ~
,%. 40
N;-0 66 Cr-051
300 30 Mo-0 22 0
O

25
~ 0 - 35
MEASURED

200
0 ESTIMATED

O
20 300

\o 25

1 I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I O 400 600 800 1000 1200
400 600 800 1060 1200
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE,~ (ONE HOUR)
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE,~ (ONE HOUR)
F i g . 1 9 - - C o m p a r i s o n of t h e m e a s u r e d (curve) and estimated
(a)
(points) hardness of tempered martensite i n a n A I S I 8650
steel.
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE ~

200 300 400 500 600 700

TEMPERING TEMPE RATURE,~
800 I I I I I I

O 200 300 400 500 600 700

C-082 Mn-O 75
P 0 054 S~ 0 30
700 60 6001~ 0 1 I I I 50

600 -- 55

O 45

~ -EO ~
z
< < 4o
I -- 45 2:
za:
400 40 <
-- 35 I
C-043 Mn-674
35 P-0 019 SI-0 23
Cr-0 92 V-016
300 ~ 3 0 - 3o

%,~, O - 25 0
%
20 300 % 25
200
400 600 800 1000 1200 %
20
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE,~ (ONE HOUR)
(b)
I I I I I I I I
F i g . 1 8 - - ( a ) C o m p a r i s o n of measured and estimated hardness
400 600 800 I(}00 1200

of tempered martensite i n a n A I S I 1 0 2 6 s t e e l . {b} C o m p a r i - TEMPERING TEMPERATURE,~ (ONE HOUR)

son of measured and estimated hardness of tempered mar- F i g . 2 0 - - C o m p a r i s o n of the measured and estimated hardness
tensite in an AISI 1080 steel. of tempered martensite in AISI 6145 steel.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A V O L U M E 8A, N O V E M B E R 1 9 7 7 - 1 7 8 3

 The method of estimation, developed by using an 0,2 10~

pct carbon steel, appears to be as satisfactory for

medium and high carbon steels as for low carbon
steels. This indicates that the quantitative effect of
each of the alloying elements is independent of carbon
content, at least over the 0.2 to 0.8 pct carbon range
investigated, Estimated hardness values are least
!/x// . /
reliable for 400 to 600~ (204 to 316~ tempering, al-
though for some steels, they agreed well with m e a s -
ured values, In this tempering range, hardness would
logically be least predictable from chemical composi-

ij-I ,/ / ....i
tion because other factors are probably important.
-4
F o r example, when martensite is tempered below
600~ (316~ retained austenite is usually not t r a n s -
l~
iltitll //
formed, and quench tempering effects occur. F u r t h e r -
more, 400 (204~ to 600~ is the range in which ep-
silon is converted to cementite type carbide. These
changes are affected by such variables as austenitizing ::

i1,1111/1
temperature, specimen size, and severity of the
quench,
No attempt has been made to establish the predicted O2
e r r o r of this technique for calculating the hardness of
tempered martensite, but the results given in Figs.
18 through 20 should provide the r e a d e r with an ap-
o, i / tl/
preciation of the magnitude of the e r r o r that might be
expected. In general, the accuracy with which the
hardness of tempered martensite can be estimated
f r o m chemical composition by the method developed
in this investigation is good and the method is e a s i e r
= (T F -32)/1 8 T
to use and more reliable than e a r l i e r methods of e s -
timating the hardness of tempered martensite from t5 20 30 35
chemical compositions. PARAMETER~ (F + 460)(18 + ~o9 of t~me Jn hour~} • 10 3

Fig. 21--Chart showing relationship of tempering parameter

Conversion to Other Tempering Times
In this investigation, all hardness values, experi-
mentally determined as welt as estimated, are for a
tempering time of 1 h. Such data are easily con-
verted to a hardness value for any other tempering
time through the use of the so-called tempering par-
ameter, 4'8 A chart, Fig. 21, reproduced from an
e a r l i e r study, 4 makes it possible to determine the
hardness for tempering treatments either s h o r t e r o r
longer than 1 h. The basis for the conversion is that
all combinations of tempering temperature and tem-
pering time having the same p a r a m e t e r value will
have essentially the same hardness. Thus, the chart
is used by locating the 1 h tempering treatment and
reading vertically up the constant-parameter ordinate
line for times greater than one hour and down the
same ordinate for times less than one hour. In this
way, the tempering curve for any other desired tem-
pering time, or any portion thereof, can be deter-
mined f r o m the one-hour tempering curve.
Hardness Conversion
The method proposed for estimating the hardness
of tempered martensite yields a diamond pyramid
hardness (HV) number rather than the more common
Rockwell C scale (R e) number. Hardness m e a s u r e -
ments were made with the diamond pyramid hardness
tester because this method is m o r e p r e c i s e and be-
cause the same scale encompasses both very hard
and very soft steel. An HV hardness increase (zXI-IV)
due to an alloy addition cannot be shown as an equiva-
I 7 8 4 - V O L U M E 8A, NOVEMBER. I 9 7 7
to temperature and time.
lent RC hardness increase on an auxiliary scale on
the charts because the R C increase value varies with
the hardness of the base steel. Therefore, all estima-
tion is made in t e r m s of HV hardness, and to convert
the resulting estimated HV hardness to the more com-
mon RC, or Bhn, o r R B values, a conversion chart is
required.
Extrapolation
Based on the comparisons of measured and esti-
mated Imrdnesses of tempered martensite in s e v e r a l
alloy steels, alloying element interaction effects
were not strong enough to be significant, probably be-
cause the maximum amount of each element considered
was limited to the amount present in most AISI low
alloy steels. This result, however, provides no as-
surance that extrapolating the composition range, for
purposes of estimation, beyond that given in Figs. 8
through 17, will be reliable.
The method proposed for estimating the hardness
of tempered martensite from chemical composition
is valid only for steel quenched to martensite. Steel
products that contain ferrite or pearlite (slack
quenched) wilt usually be softer than the estimated
value, especially at low tempering temperatures. In
a steel product that, when tempered, is substantially
softer than the estimated hardness value, the p r e s e n c e
of slack quenched transformation products or undis-
solved carbides should be suspected.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A
 SUMMARY
The h a r d n e s s of quenched m a r t e n s i t e and of t e m -
p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e was d e t e r m i n e d for a s e r i e s of i r o n
c a r b o n a l l o y s with c a r b o n content v a r y i n g o v e r the
r a n g e 0.1 to 1 pct. T h e q u a n t i t a t i v e effects of m a n -
g a n e s e , phosphorus, s i l i c o m nickel, c h r o m i u m , m o l y b -
denum, and v a n a d i u m was evaluated by adding g r a d u a l
a m o u n t s of the e l e m e n t b e i n g studied to a s t e e l con-
t a i n i n g about 0.2 pct c a r b o n (when s t u d y i n g alloys other
than m a n g a n e s e , the b a s e c o m p o s i t i o n a l s o contained
0.3 o r 0.5 pct m a n g a n e s e ) . T h e r a n g e of c o m p o s i t i o n s
i n v e s t i g a t e d included the a m o u n t s and kinds of c h e m i -
cal e l e m e n t s p r e s e n t in m o s t AISI g r a d e s of c a r b o n
and low alloy s t e e l .
F o r m a r t e n s i t e i n the u n t e m p e r e d condition, none of
the a l l o y i n g e l e m e n t s i n v e s t i g a t e d i n c r e a s e d h a r d n e s s ,
b u t on t e m p e r i n g above 400~ (204~ they all r e -
Larded softening. T h e i n c r e a s e d h a r d n e s s of the t e m -
p e r e d s t e e l s due to aUoying e l e m e n t s v a r i e d g r e a t l y ,
depending on the a m o u n t and kind of each e l e m e n t , and
u s u a l l y with t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . Only p h o s p h o r u s
and n i c k e l had e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e effect at a l l t e m -
p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s above 400~ (204~ The g r e a t e s t
effect of s i l i c o n o c c u r r e d when m a r t e n s i t e was t e m -
p e r e d at 600~ (316~ The g r e a t e s t effect of m a n -
ganese o c c u r r e d over the t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e
r a n g e of 800 to 1200~ (427 to 649~ F o r the s t r o n g
c a r b i d e f o r m i n g e l e m e n t s , the t e m p e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA
of g r e a t e s t h a r d n e s s i n c r e a s e was 800~ (427~ for
c h r o m i u m , 1000 o r l l 0 0 ~ (538 or 592~ for m o l y b d e -
num, and 1200~ (649~ for v a n a d i u m . V a n a d i u m was
the m o s t potent a l l o y i n g e l e m e n t at t e m p e r i n g t e m -
p e r a t u r e s above 600~ (316~
On the b a s i s of the data for F e - C a l l o y s , the q u a n t i -
tative effect of the a m o u n t of each a l l o y i n g e l e m e n t
p r e s e n t in a s t e e l within the r a n g e s i n v e s t i g a t e d can
be added to provide a n e s t i m a t e of the h a r d n e s s of
t e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e i n a wide v a r i e t y of c a r b o n and
alloy s t e e l s . C o m p a r i s o n of e s t i m a t e d t e m p e r i n g
c u r v e s for a n u m b e r of c a r b o n and alloy s t e e l s with
those d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i n d i c a t e d that the
e s t i m a t i o n is s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e to be u s e f u l as a
s u b s t i t u t e for t r i a l t e m p e r i n g t r e a t m e n t s p r o v i d e d that
the s t e e l p r o d u c t is quenched to m a r t e n s i t e f r e e of any
a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t of f e r r i t e o r p e a r l i t e .
REFERENCES
1. J. H. Hollomonand L D. Jaffe. Ferrous Metallurgwal Design, John Wileyand
Sons,Inc., 1947,p 2.
2. E. C. Barnand H W.Paxton. TheAlloying Elements in Steel, 2nd ed., Amen-
can Societyfor Metals,MetalsPark,Ohao,1961.
3. W.Craftsand V. L Lamont:Trans. AIMS; 1949, vol 180, pp+471-512.
4. R. A Grangeand R W. Baughman.Trans ASM, 1956,vol.48, pp. 165-97.
5 L. D. Jaffe and E, Gordon:Trans. ASM, 1957,vol.49, pp. 359-71.
6 G. R. Speichand W.C. Leshe"Met. Trans., 1972,vol.3, pp, 1043-54.
7. A G. AUtenand P. Payson:Trans. ASM, 1953,vol.45, pp. 498-532,
8. J. H. Hotlomonand L D. Jaffe Trans. TMS-AIME, 1945,vol. 162,pp. 223-49.
VOLUME 8A, NOVEMBER 1977-1785