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Conjugate Pairs
𝐻𝐴 + 𝐵 ⇌ 𝐴− + 𝐵𝐻 +
HA acts as an acid donating a proton to B. B acts as a base since it takes the proton released. But
in the reverse reaction we see that BH acts as acid and a acts as a base. That is my we establish
the acid base pairs for the forward and reverse reaction.
NOTE that 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) and 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) are both used to represent a proton in aqueous solution.
To be a conjugate pair, they must differ only by one proton.
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞)
Indicators
We can distinguish between acids and bases using different indicators. The colors are
in the formula booklet.
Indicator Color in acid Color in alkali
Litmus Pink Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink
The pH scale
The pH is a logarithmic expression of [𝐻]+ the concentration of hydrogen ions. Therefore we
can say that:
𝑝𝐻 = − log10 [𝐻 + ]
In other words:
[𝐻 + ] = 10−𝑝𝐻
Example:
𝐴 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑠 [𝐻 + ] = 0.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3 ⟹ 𝑝𝐻 = − log10 0.1 = 1
Range: Most acids and bases will have a positive pH value between 1-14.
Units: They do not have units. A change in pH by 1 represents a decrease or increase by a factor
of 10 in [𝐻 + ].
Solutions with a higher [𝐻 + ] have a lower pH and vice-versa.
Acid deposition
Rain water: is acidic because of the dissolved 𝐶𝑂2 in it. Its pH is 5.6
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) ⇌ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
Carbon dioxide dissolved in water to form a weak acid, carbonic acid. Therefore rain is acid.
Acid rain: refers to solutions with a pH bellow 5.6. The reason why pH may be lower than 5.6 is
due to the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen which are primary pollutants.
Acid deposition: refers to all process by which acidic components as precipitates or gases leave
the atmosphere.
o Wet acid deposition: when precipitation falls to the ground as an aqueous
precipitate.
o Dry acid deposition: acidifying particles, fall to the ground as dust and smoke
which later dissolve in water to form acids.
Sulfur Oxides
Sulfur dioxide is produced from burning fossil fuels (to generate electricity). It dissolves in water
to form sulfurous acid.
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
Additionally, sulfur dioxide can be oxidized to create sulfur trioxide which then dissolves in
water to produce sulfuric acid.
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑆𝑂3 (𝑔) → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞)
This causes acid deposition.
Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen monoxide is produced from internal combustion engines which give out heat energy
that causes nitrogen and oxygen to combine. This also produces acid deposition.
Nitrogen oxide can be oxidized to produce nitrogen dioxide which dissolves in water to create a
mixture of nitric acid and nitrous acid.
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝐻𝑁𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
Alternatively nitrogen dioxide can also oxidize to form nitric acid.
2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 4𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 4𝑁𝐻𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)