RF Fundamentals, Part 3: Signal

Generation, Modulation, and Vector

Signal Analysis
Keysight Technologies
Agenda RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 2

– Generating Signals
• Basic CW signal
• Block diagram
• Applications

– Analog Modulation
• Types of analog modulation
• Block diagram
• Applications

– Digital Modulation
• Overview of IQ modulation
• Block diagram
• Applications
What is a signal generator?

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 3
Generating Continuous Wave (CW) Signals

Voltage
Voltage

Time Frequency

Oscilloscope Spectrum Analyzer

RF Microwave Millimeter

6 GHz 20-70 GHz 300 GHz

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 4
 Basic CW Signal Generator Block Diagram
Synthesizer Section Output Section

Frac-N

ALC Output
Modulator Attenuator

f
Phase
Detector VCO

ALC
divide Driver
by X
Reference ALC
Oscillator Detector
Reference Section ALC = automatic level control

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 5
 Synthesizer Components: VCO
Input Tune
Voltage
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

Tuning Range: Output Frequency

Range
Frequency

Tuning Gain: V / Hz

VCO Slope: F for V

Voltage Phase-Noise: dBc/Hz

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 6
 Synthesizer Components: Phase-Locked Loop

Reference Signal VCO

Phase Loop
Detector Amp/Filter
Error Tune
Voltage Voltage

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 7
Key CW Signal Generator Specifications
Frequency, Amplitude, and Spectral Purity
Frequency – Frequency: range, resolution,
Power

Uncertainty accuracy, switching speed

– Amplitude: range, resolution,

accuracy, switching speed, reverse
power protection
Frequency
– Spectral purity: phase noise,
spurious, harmonics,
subharmonics
Power

Amplitude
Uncertainty

Frequency

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 8
 Spectral Purity

CW output

Phase Harmonic spur

Sub-harmonics noise ~30dBc from non-
From multipliers (dBc/Hz) linear components
used to extend Non-harmonic spur
from LO’s
the frequency from power supplies
output and other contributors

Broad Band Noise Floor

Thermal noise of source

0.5 f0 f0 2f0

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 9
Why Spurs and Harmonics Matter
Radar/Electronic Warfare
Example
False target/threat detection
& interference

Satellite Example
In channel receiver
interference degrades
sensitivity and range

Cellular Example
Out of channel interference
pollutes neighbors receiver
sensitivity & degrades range
and data rates

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 10
Why Phase Noise Matters

Phase Noise

Phase noise can prevent resolution of unequal signals.

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 11
Main Contributors to Phase Noise
Absolute SSB Phase Noise
at 10 GHz in dBc/Hz
-30

-40

-50

-60

-70

Reference
-80

Oscillator
-90

-100
Noise PLL BW
-110

-120
Phase
-130
detector
-140 noise
-150 Broadband noise VCO noise
-160 floor, thermal
-170
1 10
noise of
100
source
1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M

f(Hz)

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 12
Oscillator / Clock Substitution
Antenna
Simplified Receiver Block Diagram

ADC FPGA

Local Clock Clock

Oscillator In In
In

MXG DDS
Ref out
Ref In

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 13
Amplifier Gain Testing
Using a power sensor

Calibration

Amplifier Attenuator

U2000B USB
Power Sensor
Pin Pout

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log
𝑃𝑖𝑛

𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝐵𝑚 − 𝑃𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝐵𝑚)

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)

RF Fundaments
Part 3 Page 14
Agenda RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 15

 Generating Signals
 Basic CW signal
 Block diagram
 Applications

– Analog Modulation
• Types of analog modulation
• Block diagram
• Applications

– Digital Modulation
• Overview of IQ modulation
• Block diagram
• Applications
Modulation
...where the information resides

𝐴 𝑡 sin[2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + Φ]

AM, Pulse
FM, PM

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 16
Analog Modulation
Baseband
Signal
Amplitude
(AM)

Frequency
(FM)

Phase
(PM)
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 17
 Amplitude Modulation

Important Characteristics
Carrier for Amplitude Modulation
Modulation
depth %, – Modulation frequency (rate)
dB – Depth of modulation (Mod Index)
– Distortion (%)
Voltage

Time

Modulation
frequency

Where are AM signals used?

– AM Radio
– Antenna scan
– ASK (early digital 100101)

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 18
 Frequency Modulation

V(t) = A cos[2πfct + βsin2πFmt]

β is the modulation index, where Important Characteristics
β = ΔFdev /Fm for Frequency Modulation
– Frequency Deviation (ΔFdev)
– Modulation Frequency (Fm)
– Accuracy
Voltage

– Resolution
– Distortion (%)
Time – Sensitivity (dev/volt)

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 19
 Phase Modulation
V(t) = A cos[2πfct + β2πFmt]
Where β =Δθ, the peak phase deviation
Important Characteristics
for Phase Modulation
– Phase deviation (Δθ)
Voltage

– Modulation Rate (Fm)

Time – Accuracy

Where are PM signals used?

– PSK (early digital 1010)
– Radar (pulse coding)

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 20
 Generating Signals – Analog Modulation
Pulse Modulation
Pulse Repetition
Interval (PRI) Important Characteristics
Rise time for Pulse Modulation
T – Pulse width (t)
– PRF (1/T)
–
Voltage

On/Off ratio Duty cycle (t/T)

– On/Off ratio (dB)
– Rise time (ns)

t 2/t
Time
Pulse Width 1/T 1/t
Where are Pulse Modulated
signals used?
– Radar
Power

– High Power Stimulus/Response

– Communications
Frequency

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 21
Analog Signal Generator Block Diagram
Add Internal Modulation Generator
ALC Output
Modulator Attenuator
VCO
Pulse
Mod.

Freq.
Control ALC
Driver

FM, PM input AM input Pulse Mod input

LF Generator
FM AM Pulse
Reference Source Source Source
Oscillator

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 22
 Receiver Baseband Distortion

Receiver
In-channel signal
(modulated signal)

Required SG
Modulation Receiver
distortion
= Distortion % x 10-(margin(dB)/20)

Distortion
Level (dBm)

Frequency

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 23
Agenda RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 24

 Generating Signals
 Basic CW signal
 Block diagram
 Applications

 Analog Modulation
 Types of analog modulation
 Block diagram
 Applications

– Digital Modulation
• Overview of IQ modulation
• Block diagram
• Applications
Digital Modulation
Signal characteristics are modified discretely
Amplitude
(ASK)

Frequency
(FSK)

Phase
(PSK)

Both Amplitude
and Phase
(QAM)
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 25
Composite Modulation
Simultaneous Modulation of Two Modulation Types
Independent Amplitude and Integrated IQ Modulator
Phase Modulation
Q

I
Independent FM and
Pulse Modulation

32 QAM Constellation Diagram

FM during the pulse = chirp

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 26
Vector Signal Changes or Modifications

Phase
0 deg Phase
0 deg
Magnitude Change Phase Change

0 deg

0 deg

Both Change Frequency Change

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 27
Polar versus IQ Format

{
Q-Value
Phase 0 deg
I

{
I-
Value

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 28
Transmitting Digital Data: Bits vs Symbols
Binary Data bit = 0,1 Transmission Bandwidth Required
Transmitting Digital Bits (f1 = 0, f2 = 1 )

f1
f(t) = 2/ T
f2
T 010101010 Main lobe width is 2 × Sample rate
Symbol = Groups/blocks of Bits Symbol Rate = Bit rate
2 bits/symbol (00 01 10 11) # bits per symbol
3 bits/symbol (000 001 …..)
4 bits/symbol (0000 0001 ..)
Symbol 1 (00)

f(t) = Symbol 2 (01)

Symbol 3 (10) 2/ S
Symbol 4 (11)
Main lobe width is 2 × Symbol rate
S

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 29
Digital Modulation Characteristics
Modulation Number of bits Transmission
Constellation
format per symbol bandwidth
Q

1 0
BPSK 1 I
F

01 Q 00

QPSK 2 I
11 10
F/2
Q 0000

16 QAM 4 I

F/4

Symbol Rate = #symbols/sec. (Hz)

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 30
Important Vector Modulation Characteristics
– IQ Modulation Bandwidth
Q
– Frequency Response/Flatness

– IQ Quadrature Skew

– IQ Gain Balance
Phase 0 deg flatness
I

Fb
w

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 31
IQ Modulator
IQ inputs to produce
Modulated Carrier

Q
01 00
I:

RF
90 degree Carrier
phase shifter π/2 synthesizer I
section

Q: 11 10

– Good interface with digital signals and circuits

– Can be implemented with simple circuits
– Fast, accurate state change

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 32
Vector Signal Generator Block Diagram
Adding an IQ modulator and baseband generator
I-Q Modulator Output
Synthesizer
90̊
VCO

Freq. ALC
Control Driver

Q Pattern
DAC RAM
I and
Symbol
Reference DAC Mapping

Baseband Generator
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 33
Baseband IQ Signal Generator

DAC’s convert digital IQ signals

to analog IQ signals

Pattern RAM Symbol Mapping DAC I

Binary Info to and Baseband
be transmitted Filters Send to
Map to digital IQ Modulator
symbols then to
Digital I Q signals DAC Q

00 -> 1+j1
11000101101 01 -> -1+j1
01001011100 10 -> -1-j1
10101010
11 -> 1-j1

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 34
M9381A: A Closer Look
Combination of high
performance modules
create uncompromising
VSG performance in PXIe
•M9311A Digital Vector Modulator
•M9310A Source Output
•M9301A Synthesizer
•M9300A Reference

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 35
Digital Receiver Sensitivity

DUT
RF Baseband

DAC DSP

RF LO

Payload
Data
Amplitude

BER Spec Line

BER
Frequency

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 36
Receiver Selectivity
DUT
RF Baseband

In-channel signal DAC DSP

RF LO

Out-of-channel interferer
Payload Data

IF Rejection Curve
Level (dBm)

Frequency
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 37
Measuring Component Distortion: ACPR

DUT

Spectral Output from Amplifier

ACPR of DUT

Input from Source

Spectral regrowth
ACP Margin

Margin (dB) 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 15
Error contribution (dB) 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.2 0.4 0.2

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 38
Measuring Component Distortion: EVM

DAC

Q Q
Magnitude Error
Q (IQ error mag)
Error
Vector
Test Magnitude
Signal I
I
Θ
Ideal (Reference) Signal

Phase Error (IQ error phase)

I
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 39
Agenda RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 40

 Generating Signals
 Basic CW signal
 Block diagram
 Applications

 Analog Modulation
 Types of analog modulation
 Block diagram
 Applications

 Digital Modulation
 Overview of IQ modulation
 Block diagram
 Applications
Thank You!
Additional Information

– More RF Webcasts:
www.keysight.com/find/RFDesignandTestWebcastSeries

– Signal Sources: www.keysight.com/find/sources

– Signal Analyzers: www.keysight.com/find/sa

RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 41