CHAPTER Fuels and It’s Supply

System for SI and CI

4 Engines

Section - I : Fuels and Their Rating

4.1 Basic Properties of Fuels for I.C. Engines : (GTU - May 2014)
 An internal combustion engine is a device which converts the heat energy of a fuel
obtained by combustion of fuel in presence of air into mechanical work.
 The fundamental knowledge of the basic properties of the fuels are very essential since
in an I.C. engine the availability of time for completion of chemical reaction is very small
and the rate of heat energy released affects its performance.
4.1.1 Desirable Properties of Good I.C. Engine Fuel : (GTU - May 2014)
The basic properties of the fuels for internal combustion engine are :
1.High energy content per unit quantity of fuel.
2.Good combustion properties.
3.Availability in large quantities economically.
4.Free from fire hazards.
5.High stability with changes in temperature.
6.Low tendency to form deposits to avoid wear and corrosion of engine parts.
7.Easy to store and transport.
8.Low toxicity.
9.Easy starting at atmospheric conditions.
10.Low pollution.
11.Products of combustion in gaseous form and non-corrosive.
The internal combustion engines can be operated upon many kinds of fuels, however, the
character of the fuel used has a considerable influence on the design, output, efficiency, specific
fuel consumption, reliability and the durability of the internal combustion engines.
4.2 Fuels :
 Many types of fuels such as solid, liquid or gaseous fuels can be used for operation of
internal combustion engines, however, at present most of them employ petroleum fuels in
liquid state. I.C. engines need to be designed according to the fuel to be used.
4.2.1 Solid Fuels :
 During initial stages of development of I.C. engines the solid fuels in the form of
powdered coal, saw dust or similar materials were attempted.
 However, the practical problems in handling the solid fuels, disposal of solid residue in
the form of ash and elaborate arrangement in preparation and injection of fuels has prevented
the use of these solid fuels for their commercial application.
 The solid fuels can only be used for internal combustion engines after their gasification,
but its high conversion cost has prevented its use for commercial application in internal
combustion engines.
4.2.2 Gaseous Fuels : (GTU - May 2014)
Gaseous fuels can ideally be employed for spark ignition engines because :
1.It makes homogeneous mixture with air for combustion.
2.It can flow in pipes.
3.It eliminates starting problems associated with liquid fuels.
It eliminates the distribution problem associated with liquid fuels in multi-cylinder engines.
4.It can be pressurised and stored in cylinders.
Eventhough the gaseous fuels are most ideally suited for internal combustion engines,
the problem of storage and the high cost on the basis of energy content of gaseous fuels have
prevented their use in automobiles. These fuels are only found suitable for stationary engines.
Brief description of important gaseous fuels :

The description of various types of gaseous fuels is given below :

1. Natural gas :

Most of the natural gas is found in the upper part of the oil wells or gas wells. It mainly
consists of methane (75% to 95%) with small quantities of ethane, propane and higher
hydrocarbons. It may also contain small quantities of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide. It is nearly odourless and colourless.
2. Liquified petroleum gas :

During the refining process of petroleum, considerable amount of propane and butane
gases are produced. Propane gas liquefies at 8.8 bar and butane gas liquifies at 2.1 bar at
atmospheric temperature of 21.1C. The liquefied gas can be stored in steel cylinders and these
gases are suitable for domestic and industrial applications.
3. Blast furnace gas :
 This gas is obtained as by-product during the production of pig iron in a blast furnace. It
has a low calorific value of 3300 to 3700 kJ/m3. This gas can be used for operating the gas
engines and for heating applications. For application in gas engines, this gas needs to be
thoroughly cleaned since it contains about 30 to 50 gm of dust per m3 of gas.
4. Coke oven gas :

This gas is produced as by-product during the production of good quality of coke by the
process of carbonization of coal in closed retorts at temperatures maintained at 600 to 1000C.
Gas can be used for industrial heating and in gas engines after cleaning.
5. Blue water gas :

This gas is produced by blowing steam through incandescent bed of fuel containing
carbon. Blue water gas is the mixture of CO, CO2 and N2. It burns with blue flame and it is fit
for domestic applications.
6. Producer gas :

This gas is produced by partial gasification of solid fuels i.e. by incomplete combustion
of coal in presence of limited amount of air supplied in a gas producer. The main constituents
of producer gas are N2, CO, CO2 and H2. It's calorific value is low.
7. Sewage sludge gas :

This gas is produced in sewage treatment plants and it can be used for internal
combustion engines. Power developed by the engine, in turn, can be used to drive the sewage
pumps of the plant. The main constituents of sewage sludge gas are CO2 and methane.
4.2.3 Liquid Fuels :
The liquid fuels include the natural fuels which are the derivatives of the crude
petroleum and the artificially prepared fuels like tar, alcohols. However, petroleum products
are the largest single source of internal combustion engines and other power plants.
4.3 Chemical Structure of Petroleum :
 According to accepted theory, the crude petroleum was formed due to the anaerobic
bacterial action under very high pressures and temperatures from the decay of buried animal
and vegetable debris with sand and silt million years ago.
 The main constituents of petroleum are the mixture of various compounds of
hydrocarbons containing the molecules of carbon and hydrogen. In addition, it may contain
small quantities of other compounds having sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, etc.
 These hydrocarbons can be grouped into four main classes as shown in Table 4.3.1.
Table 4.3.1 : Basic hydrocarbon groups in petroleum
 4.3.1 Paraffins :
Paraffins are further divided into normal paraffins and iso-paraffins. The later being
the isomers of the former compounds. (Compounds of the same chemical group with same
number of carbon and hydrogen atoms but of different molecular structure are called isomers.)
(a)Normal paraffins :

Methane Ethane n-butane

(n-octane)
Fig. 4.3.1 : Normal paraffins
 These are given the suffix “ane�?. These are saturated compounds because the
valence (4) of the carbon bond is fully utilised. These have open structures with
formula (Cn H2n + 2) .
 The simplest member of the family is methane (CH4), followed by ethane
(C2 H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), pentane (C5H12) etc. These compounds are
usually stable and have a low specific gravity.
 The lower numbers n = 1 to 4 are gases, further up from n = 5 to 18 are liquids
and for (n 18) are solids. Representation of structures of some of the compounds are
shown in Fig. 4.3.1.
(b)Isoparaffins :

 These are the isomers of normal paraffins with the same chemical formula
 (Cn H2n+2) but have different molecular structure and physical properties.
 In order to specify any particular isomer, they are named by the number of
carbon atoms occuring in the chain and the number, location and the name of attached
 group. For example, molecular structure of the isomer of n-octane is 2, 2, 4 - trimethyl
pentane called iso-octane as shown in Fig. 4.3.2.
 To understand the nomenclature, pentane indicates five carbon atoms in a chain
of paraffin molecule, trimethyl indicates that there are three methyl groups attached to
the chain and 2, 2, 4 shows that the two methyl groups are attached at second carbon
atom in the chain and the third methyl group is attached at the fourth carbon atom of
the chain.

2, 2, 4 trimethyl pentane (Iso-octane)

Fig. 4.3.2 : Isoparaffin

 Though the n-paraffins and iso-paraffins may differ slightly in physical and
chemical properties, but they may differ widely in their combustion characteristics.
 For example, in case of spark ignition engines the 2, 2, 4 trimethyl pentane (iso-
octane) gives smooth combustion characteristics and it is choosen as the standard for
100 octane gasoline, while n-octane is considered a poor fuel with low octane rating.
4.3.2 Olefins :
 These are open chain compounds with chemical formula as Cn H2n. These are generally
named with suffix “ene�?.
 These are unsaturated and unstable hydrocarbons with insufficient hydrogen atoms
present which causes some carbon atoms to have two or more valence bonds.
 Diolefins are still more unsaturated hydrocarbons compared to olefins with a chemical
formula as Cn H2n – 2. The olefins have one double bond while the diolefins have two double
bonds. Olefins give good combustion characteristics and they are formed during the
process of oil cracking.
  Molecular structure of olefins and diolefins is shown in Fig. 4.3.3. It is thought that
unsaturated compounds while reacting with oxygen tends to form gums in the gasoline.

Olefine, 1 - pentane Diolefin : 1, 5 heptadience

Fig. 4.3.3 : Olefins and diolefins

4.3.3 Naphthenes :
 These are saturated, stable and ring structured compounds having the chemical formula
as Cn H2n. These are also called ascycloparaffins.
 These have the combustion characteristics similar to iso-paraffins and physical
properties similar to n-paraffins. The simplest naphthene is cyclo-propane. The molecular
structure of cyclo-hexane and n-propyl-cyclo hexane is shown in Fig. 4.3.4.

Cyclo-hexane n-propyl-cyclohexane
Fig. 4.3.4 : Naphthenes
The Naphthenes are desired components of gasoline.
4.3.4 Aromatics :
 These are unsaturated and highly unsaturated ring structured compounds with their
chemical formula as Cn H2n – 6.
  Benzene C6 H6 is the lowest member of the group whose molecular structure has been
shown in Fig. 4.3.5.
 Its thermodynamic properties are similar to naphthenes but this group of hydrocarbons
have desirable combustion characteristics for use in S.I. engines due to which these
compounds are added to gasoline to increase their octane rating, but, these compounds have
a tendency to smoke on burning.

Benzene, C H Toluene, C H CH
6 6 6 5 3

Fig. 4.3.5 : Aromatics

 By adding CH3, benzene is converted to toluene (C6 H5 CH3), the base for preparation
of trinitrotoluenes (TNT) which is highly explosive material.
 Petrol and kerosene are the mixtures of hydrocarbons belonging to paraffines,
Naphthene and aromatic groups.
4.3.5 Common Characteristics Exhibited by Hydrocarbon Fuels :

Above families of hydrocarbons exhibit some of the common characteristics according

to their molecular structure. These are summarized below.

(i)For S.I. engines, the antiknock quality of fuel is poorly exhibited by normal paraffins and improves
with the groups discussed above. Aromatics offer best resistance to knocking.
(ii)For C.I. engines, the suitability of fuel for anticlock characteristics is in reverse order that for S.I.
engine i.e. normal paraffins exhibit best antiknock qualities while the aromatics exhibit the
poorest antiknock qualities as fuels for C.I. engines.
(iii)In each group, the boiling temperature increases as the number of carbon atoms in the molecular
structure increase. Therefore, fuels with fewer atoms in the molecule tend to be volatile.
(iv)Heating value of the fuel increases with the increased ratio of hydrogen to carbon atoms in a fuel
because the hydrogen and carbon represent the best and the least heating values of fuels
respectively.
4.3.6 Properties of Hydrocarbon Fuels :
Table 4.3.2 gives the properties of various hydrocarbon fuels pertaining to various
groups.
Table 4.3.2 : Properties of hydrocarbon fuels
4.4 Fuels for Spark Ignition Engines :
 Gasoline is usually used for S.I. engines. It is a mixture of various hydrocarbons of low
boiling points consisting of paraffins, olefins, naphthenes and aromatics in different
proportions.
 The composition of gasoline varies with the quality of crude oil from the source and
the refining process.
4.4.1 Requirement of an Ideal Gasoline :
 Requirement of an ideal gasoline as a fuel for S.I. engine are :
1.It should easily vapourise and mix with air.
2.It should possess anti-knock properties.
3.It should be cheap, easy to handle, clean and non-corrosive.
4.It should not pre-ignite easily.
5.It should not form gum or varnishes.
6.It should have minimum sulphur content.
7.It should have high calorific value.
 Above requirements of the fuel are connected with certain important properties which
are being discussed below :
4.4.2 Volatility :
 In case of S.I. engines, the mixture consisting of partly or fully evaporated gasoline and
the air is prepared in the carburettor and supplied to engine through intake manifolds.
 Since the gasoline is a mixture of hydrocarbons in varying proportions and boiling
temperatures, the volatility of fuel plays an important role on the performance and operation
of these carburetted engines.
Methods used for determination of volatility of fuels :

Following methods are used for determining the volatility of a fuel.

1. ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials) distillation test.
2. Reid vapour test.

1. ASTM distillation test : (MU - May 2016)

 The apparatus used for ASTM distillation test is shown in Fig. 4.4.1. It consists
of a burner, 100 cc flask, thermometer, a condenser and a 100 cc graduated cylinder.
 Heat is applied to 100 cc of fuel in the flask under test. The vapour formed in
the flask are condensed.
 The temperature of first drop of condensate in the cylinder is recorded as
the initial boiling point. Since the gasoline is a mixture of various hydrocarbons of
different boiling temperatures and due to heating the boiling temperature continuously
rises, the evaporation of the fuel takes place.
 Fig. 4.4.1 : ASTM distillation test

 The vapour temperatures are recorded for every 10 cc of condensate in the

graduated cylinder. At the end when the last drop is condensed, the end point
temperature and the mass of the residue in the flask is recorded.
 A curve is plotted between the percentage volume of fuel evaporated and the
temperatures as shown in Fig. 4.4.2. This curve is referred as ASTM distillation
curve.

Fig. 4.4.2 : ASTM distillation curve

2. Reid vapour test :

  Volatility of gasoline can also be related in terms of Reid vapour pressure since
the vapour pressure of gasoline increases with temperature and it is also dependent on
its composition.
 The Reid vapour pressure apparatus is shown in Fig. 4.4.3.
 As per the standards laid down, during the test the chilled oil equal to 0.25 times
the volume of air chamber is kept in the gasoline chamber immersed in a water bath of
38C.

Fig. 4.4.3 : Reid vapour pressure apparatus

 A Bourdon pressure gauge is connected at the top, the reading on it represents

the sum of vapour pressure of the fuel and rise in pressure of air and water vapour in
the air chamber due to heating of air.
 The increased vapour pressure of the air chamber can be calculated and
subtracted from the gauge pressure reading to give true Reid vapour pressure of
gasoline fuel at 38C.
 The Reid vapour pressure test indicates the tendency of fuel to vapour lock and
its value should not exceed by a gauge pressure equal to 0.475 bar in summer
conditions.
3. Equilibrium air distillation (EAD) test :

 The ASTM distillation curve cannot be directly co-related with the performance
of fuel in the engine because the fuel is evaporated in presence of air in actual engines
in the intake manifolds, whereas, in the ASTM distillation test the fuel is evaporated
in the presence of its own vapour.
  Therefore, an EAD test apparatus is used to simulate the engine conditions and
the air distillation curves for the gasoline are obtained which are used in practice to
forecast the engine performance.
4.4.3 Effect of Volatility of Fuels on Engine Performance :
 The performance and fuel economy of spark ignition engines is vastly affected by the
volatility of the fuel.
 In fact, the volatility of the fuel will influence the design of engine, in particular, the
design and shape of the intake manifolds.
 The effect of volatility of the fuel as represented by ASTM distillation curve shown
in Fig. 4.4.2 can now be related to various problems of S.I. engines as follows.
1. Starting and warm up :

 In a S.I. engine, a rich mixture of air-fuel ratio of 12 to 13:1 is considered to be

suitable for easy starting of the engine.
 However, a certain amount of fuel must vapourise at low temperatures (slightly
lower than surrounding temperature) for initiation of combustion and easy starting.
 The temperatures corresponding to 10% ASTM curve has been accepted as an
indication of starting ability of the fuel.
 As the engine warms up after starting, the temperature of the engine will
gradually increase upto its operating temperatures. Duration of this warm up period is
related to 50% volatility of the fuel on ASTM curve.
 Lower the boiling temperatures, lower will be the warm up period for
flexible operation of the engine.
2. Engine acceleration and normal operation of the engine :

 In order to obtain good acceleration and normal operation of the engine, the fuel
evaporation rates should be high to produce better mixing and distribution of the fuel
in the engine cylinder.
 It is found that acceleration is better when boiling temperature is lower at 50%
evaporation rate and normal operation range is governed by 50 to 70% evaporation
rates.
3. Crankcase dilution :

 Liquid fuel droplets in the mixture of fuel and air will dilute the engine
lubricating oil and reduces its viscosity.
 It tends to increase the engine friction and deteriorates the quality of lubrication
due to weakening of the oil film between the mating parts.
  To reduce the problem of crankcase dilution, it is necessary that the ASTM
curve at 80 to 95% evaporation rates should exhibit low temperature range.
Using crankcase ventilationcan minimize this problem.
4. Vapour lock :

 An engine is said to be vapour locked when the interruption in the liquid flow
occurs due to its vapourisation.
 Depending upon the amount of vapourisation, it will reduce the amount of fuel
flow into cylinder (vapour occupies more volume than liquid). This reduction causes
the loss of power or the complete stoppage of the engine.
 To avoid vapour lock, the percentage of volume evaporated at low temperatures
should be small, which is contrary to fuel requirements for case of starting, warm up
and normal operation of engines.
 Based on the experience it is estimated that the vapour lock may start if the ratio
of volume of vapour released from the gasoline to the volume of liquid remaining in
the fuel exceeds the ratio 25.
5. Evaporation loss :

The loss of vapour from venting holes of storage tank depends on the volatility of fuel at surrounding
temperatures.
6. Antiknock properties :

The properties of the fuel should be such that it resists the tendency of detonation in S.I. engines. The
antiknock property of the fuel depends on its self ignition temperature, molecular structure and
the chemical composition.
7. Gum and Varnish deposits :

 The deposits of gasoline with high gum content due to unsaturated

hydrocarbons in the gasoline will cause piston ring plugging, sticking of valves,
clogging of carburettor jets etc.
 It results into poor operation of the engine and poor fuel economy.
 The gum content in a fuel should not exceed more than 5 mg per litre of
gasoline.
8. Sulphur content :

 High sulphur content in the fuel is undesirable because it forms hydrogen

sulphide, sulphuric acid and other compounds in presence of water vapour.
 These formed compounds may corrode fuel lines, muffler and other metal parts
of the engine.
  Since sulphur has low ignition temperature, the presence of sulphur in the
gasoline tends to increase the tendency for detonation.
 The sulphur content in gasoline is not allowed to exceed 0.25% by mass.
 For requirement of motor gasoline, IS : 2796 - 1971 must be referred.
4.5 Rating of S.I. Engine Fuels - Octane Number : (GTU - May 2011)
 Fuels differ widely in their ability to resist the knocking and detonation in S.I. engines.
It is expressed in terms of octane number.
 Fuel rating specifications require the standard engines operating under prescribed
standard conditions.
 The rating of a particular fuel is compared on the standard engine with that of a standard
reference fuel which is usually the combination of iso-octane (2,2,4 trimethyl pentane) and
n-hepatane (C7 H16) by volume.
 Arbitrarily the iso-octane is assigned a rating of 100 octane number since this fuel has
minimum knocking tendency and the n-heptane is assigned a rating of zero octane because
of its high tendency to knock.
 The percentage volume of iso-octane in the mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane
represents the octane number rating of a fuel.
 If a fuel is assigned a knock rating of 80, it means the fuel has the same tendency to
knock under standard operating conditions as the mixture of standard fuel having 80% iso-
octane and 20% of n-heptane fuels by volume.
 Hence the octane number rating of the fuel is an expression which indicates the ability
of a fuel to resist knock or detonation in S.I. Engines.
4.5.1 Method of Determination Octane Rating of Fuel :
 Octane rating of fuels is determined by testing a fuel on a variable compression co-
operative fuel research (CFR) engine under specified conditions.
 The fuel to be tested for knock rating is used in this engine to produce standard knock
by varying the compression ratio under standard operating conditions. Knockmeter reading
is noted.
 Then the various proportions of iso-octane and n-heptane are tested to produce knock
with same conditions. The percentage volume of iso-octane in the mixture will represent the
octane number rating of fuel.
4.5.2 Performance Number (PN) :
 Certain fuels show even less tendency to knock than iso-octane fuel i.e. they have
octane number more than 100. In order to extend the octane scale, the knock rating of fuel is
measured in terms Army-Navy performance number represented by “PN�?.
 It is defined as the ratio of knock limited indicated mean effective pressure (KLi.m.e.p.) of
the fuel under test to the knock limited indicated mean effective pressure of iso-octane.
  In certain cases the knock rating of fuel can be improved by adding tetra ethyl lead
(TEL) (refer section 4.7) and when added to iso-octane it shows improved anti-knock
characteristics.
 If ‘x’ ml of TEL is added to a U.S. gallon of iso-octane, the octane number
(ON  100) is expressed as (100 + x) ml of TEL.
Another method of octane scale is given by Wiese, and expressed as,

4.6 Highest Useful Compression Ratio (HUCR) : (GTU - May 2012, Dec. 2014)
 For a particular fuel, the highest useful compression ratiorepresents the compression
ratio at which the fuel can be used in an engine without detonation on a specified standard
test engine under standard operating conditions and the ignition with mixture strengths
adjusted to give best thermal efficiency.
 HUCR rating of certain fuels determined in Recardo E6 engine are given in
Table 4.6.1.
Table 4.6.1 : HUCR of Fuels

4.7 Dopes for S.I. Engines :

 Certain compounds when added to fuels in even very small quantities have pronounced
effect on anti-knock characteristics of the engine. These compounds are called additives or
dopes.
 Apart from anti-knock characteristics of the dopes these must remain stable and in
liquid form at atmospheric conditions and these should vapourize in intake manifolds without
producing any harmful deposits on the cylinder walls.
o The most important additive is tetra ethyl lead [Pb (C2H5)4], commonly called as
TEL. Lead is a heavy metal and its deposits on spark plug can cause the fouling of
spark plug and deposits on exhaust valves will give corrosion.
o To avoid the lead deposits inside the engine, TEL is added with ethelene
dibromide [C2H4Br2] to make a volatile mixture commercially known as ethyl fluid.
 o If one percent of ethyl fluid is added to petrol by volume, it brings down the
appreciable knocking tendency in the engines and increases the octane number rating
of fuels.
o The addition of ethelene bromide in TEL helps in preventing the deposits of
lead since the lead combines with bromine to form lead bromide which is carried away
by exhaust gases.
o There are other metallic dopes such as Ni (CO)6, Fe (CO3)2 and non-metallic
dopes like methyl aniline (C7H9N), toluidine (C7H11N), aniline (C5H7N), phenol
(C6H5OH) etc. but, these dopes are not found to be as effective as TEL.
In the recent past another dope called tetra methyl lead (TML) of chemical formulae
(CH3)4 Pb is found to be effective. It's boiling point is 110C which is lower than the TEL
having 210C, TML is also found to be more effective compared to TEL in case it is used with
aromatic fuels.
4.8 Fuels for C.I. Engines : (GTU - Dec. 2013)
Diesel fuel is used for C.I. engines which represents the petroleum fractions that lies
between kerosene and lubricating oils.
4.8.1 Desirable Characteristics of Diesel Fuel :
Diesel fuels used for C.I. engines should have the following characteristics :
1. Knock characteristics :

 It has been shown that the increased delay period or ignition lag promotes the
knocking in C.I. engines.
 The fuel cetane (hexadecane) with chemical formula C16H34 is a straight chain
paraffin having good ignition qualities and it is assigned arbitarily a rating of 100
cetane number.
 The cetane number for members of other hydrocarbon families are less than
those for n-paraffins, in the order of n-paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics.
 Hence, high cetane rating of the fuels, apart from affecting ignition delay, it also
affects the starting, warm up and quality of ignition exhaust.
2. Starting characteristics :

The fuel should help in starting the engine easily. It requires that the fuel should
have high volatility to form a combustibile mixture. It requires a fuel with high cetane rating
in order that its self ignition temperature is low.
3. Smoking and odour :

 The fuel should not promote either smoke or odour in the exhaust emissions.
 In general, higher the volatility of the fuel, better is mixing of fuel with air,
hence, more complete combustion.
  It is observed that fuel with lower cetane numbers tend to give high hydrocarbon
emissions since it increases ignition delay resulting into the start of combustion nearer
to top dead centre and incomplete combustion with loss of power and efficiency.
4. Volatility :

Evaporation and mixing of diesel fuel with air is essential for ignition and efficient combustion of
fuels in C.I. engines. Therefore, fuel used should be sufficiently volatile in the operating range
of C.I. engines i.e. upto 50% point of ASTM distillation curve shownin Fig. 2.5.2.
5. Corrosion and wear :

 Engine deposits from the fuel and oil creates serious problems in C.I. engines
caused by incomplete burning of fuel.
 These deposit tend to increase with the increase in specific gravity, viscosity
and reduced volatility.
 Sulphur compounds in the fuel tends to promote both deposit, corrosion and
wear of engine parts.
 Therefore, fuels for C.I. engines should have low sulphur content ash and
residues.
6. Ease of Handling :

 The fuel should be in liquid form that should flow easily under all operating
conditions of the engine and it should be safe from fire hazards during storage. These
requirements are measured by flash point, fire point and viscosity of the fuel.
 The fuel used should have high flash and fire points to have low fire hazards
with low viscosity to reduce friction pump work and high viscosity to do necessary
lubrication.
 Very high viscosity of fuel can render starting problems under cold conditions.
 The recommended viscosity of oil for buses and trucks is 1.8 to 2.9 centistokes,
for railway engines it is 2.7 to 3.3 centistokes and for stationary engines it is 2.7 to 6.0
centistokes.
 For properties of diesel fuels IS : 1460-1974 may be referred.
7.Cloud point : (GTU - May 2012, Dec. 2014)

The temperature at which the oil starts solidifying when being cooled is called cloud point. The
cloudiness of oil will interfere with free flow of oil in cold climates.
8.Pour point : (GTU - May 2012, Dec. 2014)

It represents the lowest temperature at which oil flows. This temperature is important when oils
are needed to be used in cold weather conditions.
4.9 Rating of Fuels for C.I. Engines (Cetane Number) : (GTU - May 2011, May 2012, Dec.
2014)
 Increased delay period or ignition lag promotes knocking in C.I. engines. The property
of ignition lag is generally measured by cetane number.
 The fuel cetane (C16H34) is straight chain paraffin with good ignition qualities and it is
arbitrarily assigned a rating of 100 cetane number.
 While the hydrocarbon fuel alpha-methyl-naphthalene (C10H7CH3) has poor ignition
quality and it is assigned zero cetane number.
 These two fuels are mixed by volume and the mixture is matched with a fuel under test
in a standard engine running under prescribed conditions.
 The cetane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage by volume of Cetane in a
mixture of cetane (C16H34) and alpha-methyl-naphthalene that produces the same delay period
or ignition lag as the fuel being tested under same operating conditions on the same engine.
 Higher the cetane number of fuel lesser will be the tendency for diesel knock.
4.9.1 Diesel Index :
An alternative method of expressing the quality of diesel fuel is called diesel index.
It is defined as :

Where,
(a) Aniline point represents the lowest temperature at which the diesel fuel is completely
miscible with an equal volume of aniline.
(b) American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity is the density of diesel oil and it is expressed
as :

The specific gravity of diesel oil is the ratio of mass per unit volume of oil to the mass
of water to the same volume at standard temperature of 15C.
4.10 Additives for C.I. Engine Fuels :

Section - II : Carburetion

4.11 Introduction :
 The spark ignition or petrol engines use usually the volatile fuels e.g. petrol, alcohol,
benzol etc.
 The mixture of fuel and air is prepared outside the engine cylinder and partly evaporated
mixture is supplied to the engine. The mixture prepared outside the cylinder is never
 homogeneous. Droplets of fuel continue to evaporate even during the suction and exhaust
strokes.
 Therefore the process of formation of mixture is very important for spark ignition
engines for the engine to operate efficiently under all operating conditions. We shall now
discuss few definitions and the induction system for S.I. engines.
4.11.1 Definition of Carburetion : (GTU - Dec. 2012, May 2014, Dec. 2014, May 2015)
The process of preparation of mixture of atomized fuel and air before admission to
cylinder is called carburetion.
The device which supplies the metered spray of fuel mixed with correct amount of air for
efficient combustion in cylinder at all operating conditions is called carburettor.
4.11.2 Basic Fuel Feeding or Induction System for S.I. Engines :

Fig. 4.11.1 : Basic fuel feeding or induction system

 The basic fuel feeding or induction system for S.I. engines is shown in Fig. 4.11.1.
Its function is to supply partly vaporized mixture of fuel and air to various cylinders of the
engine.
 It consists of supply of fuel from fuel tank and air from surroundings to carburettor in
which the fuel is partially evaporated.
  The partly evaporated fuel and air mixture from carburettor is carried through a pipe
line, called intake manifolds, to the engine cylinder.
 Partial evaporation of fuel also takes place in the intake manifolds, at the inlet valve
and remainder within the cylinder.
4.11.3 Factors Affecting Carburetion : (GTU - May 2013)
Some of the important factors which affect the process of carburetion are :
(i)Engine speed which directly affects the time available for preparation of mixture by the
carburettor.
(ii)The temperature of incoming air.
(iii)The volatility of the fuel.
(iv)Design of intake manifolds.
(i)Speed :

 The time available for formation of mixture by the carburettor is greatly affected
by the speed of the engine e.g. if an engine runs at 4000 rpm, the time available for the
process of carburetion is in the range of 0.0075 to 0.01 seconds.
 In such a short period, the fuel is required to be atomised, mixed with air,
vaporized and to be inducted into the engine cylinder. Therefore, the design of a
carburettor becomes of utmost importance to accomplish the above processes in such
a short period, particularly, with regard to design of its venturi.
(ii) Temperature of inlet air :

The temperature of air plays an important role in the vaporization process of fuel. Higher surrounding
air temperature increases the vaporization of fuel and homogeneity of mixture. However
increased temperatures reduce the volumetric efficiency, hence, the power output.
(iii) Volatility of fuel :

Complete vaporization could be achieved by using highly volatile fuels, which are expensive to
produce, or by using heat in intake manifolds to promote vaporization. However, excessive
vaporization of fuel decreases the volumetric efficiency (i.e. mass of mixture inducted into the
cylinder per stroke) is decreased. This reduces the power output of the engine.
(iv)Design of intake manifolds :

 When the multicylinder engines receive a partially vaporized mixture of fuel

and air, each cylinder does not receive the same amount of fuel. Therefore, proper
design of intake manifolds becomes essential to ensure proper distribution of fuel.
 Therefore, we conclude that proper selection of volatile fuel, design of
carburettor and intake manifolds affects the carburetion process under various
operating conditions of the engine.
4.12 Air-Fuel Ratio and Mixture Requirements :
 A hydrocarbon fuel mainly consists of carbon and hydrogen as its constituents.
 Petrol fuel used in S.I. engine is mainly octane (C8 H18) for which the chemically
correct or stoichiometric mixture of air-fuel ratio is 15.12 : 1 by mass approximately.
This mixture gives most rapid combustion of fuel, almost the greatest power and reasonable
economy of fuel.
 Rich mixtures give more power in the ratio of 11 : 1 to 15 : 1 of air and fuel and weak
or lean mixtures of about 16 to 18 : 1 gives better fuel economy.
 Rich mixtures having A.F. ratio below 11 : 1 and lean mixtures above 20 : 1 cannot be
burnt effectively.
4.13 Mixture Requirements at Different Loads and Speeds :
 It is the function of carburettor to form a homogeneous mixture of very fine liquid fuel
particles and air in desired proportions (A.F. ratio 11 to 18 : 1), as nearly as constant as
possible, under unsteady conditions such as sudden throttle opening and closing, acceleration
and deceleration, at various loads on the engine, starting, idling and initiate maximum power.
 The carburettor must provide a different proportion of fuel and air for various
conditions of running of the engine.
The various requirements of S.I. engine are as under :
(a) Maximum power.
(b) Minimum specific fuel consumption or maximum economy.
(c) Starting, idling and low load running.
(d)Acceleration.
(e) Part load running range-cruising.
 Fig. 4.13.1 shows the air-fuel requirement at various throttle opening.
 The curve (a – b – c – d) can be divided into three basic ranges. Curve (a – b) represents
the idle and no load running, curve (b – c) the cruising range and the curve (c – d) the high
power range. Now we shall discuss the various requirements as outlined above in details.
 Fig. 4.13.1 : Effective throttle opening (%) air-fuel ratio requirements
4.13.1 Maximum Power :
 The maximum power would be obtained if all the oxygen present in the cylinder is fully
utilized.
 In actual practice the mixture of fuel and vapour is never homogeneous and it is further
diluted by the residual gases.
 It is possible that some parts of the O2 present in the cylinder may not find fuel for
burning due to non-homogeneity of mixture if the mixture supplied is chemically correct.
 It would reduce the power developed by the engine. Therefore a little rich mixture of
air-fuel ratio 12.5 to 13.5 : 1 (approximately) is necessary to ensure that all the oxygen
present is fully utilized and such a mixture will give maximum combustion temperatures and
power as shown in Fig. 4.13.2

Fig. 4.13.2 : Effect of air-fuel ratio on power output and efficiency at full throttle and constant speed

4.13.2 Maximum Economy of Fuel :

  For the maximum economy of fuel consumption it is necessary that all the fuel present
in the cylinder is burnt completely.
 To ensure the effective burning of fuel it is necessary that a little excess air is required
to be supplied to ensure complete combustion of fuel since the mixture is not homogeneous.
 It is seen that air-fuel ratios in the range of 16.5 to 17.5 : 1 gives maximum economy
of fuel i.e. it gives minimum specific fuel consumption as shown in Fig.4.13.3.

Fig. 4.13.3 : Effect of air-fuel ratio on specific fuel consumption at various throttle openings
4.13.3 Starting, Idling and Low Load Running :
 The engine is said to idle when no external load is applied on the engine and at this
condition the throttle valve is almost closed.
 Under idling conditions the power developed by the engine is just sufficient to
overcome the various friction losses of the engine.
 Low load running is usually taken in the range of zero to 20% of the rated power of
the engine.
 At the time of starting and idling the engine, the working temperatures are low.
Therefore, the carburettor is not able to vaporize the fuel and the mixture reaching the
cylinder is lean. This may lead to non-initiation of combustion in the cylinder.
 To ensure minimum fuel vapour in the cylinder rich mixtures are necessary to initiate
the combustion.
 Further, under the conditions of idling and low load running the throttle valve is almost
closed due to which the pressures in the intake manifolds are much lower than atmospheric
pressure while the pressure inside the cylinder is approximately atmospheric pressure at the
end of exhaust stroke.
 When the inlet valve opens during the suction stroke, there shall be back flow of
residual gases into the intake manifolds.
 When the piston moves outwards, the residual gases are drawn along with the fresh
charge. Therefore the actual mixture inside the cylinder would contain large percentage of
residual gases in the fresh charge i.e. the cylinder mixture is too diluted and it is at low
temperatures. This diluted mixture is not able to initiate proper combustion.
  In order to offset the dilution of fresh charge due to residual gases and low temperatures,
it is necessary to supply rich mixtures during starting, idling and low load running of engines.
 Usual air-fuel ratio requirements is about 11 to 12 : 1 as represented by the curve (ab)
in Fig. 4.13.1.
4.13.4 Acceleration :
 Under normal running of engine the fuel that leaves the carburettor is not completely
vaporized and a part of the liquid remains in the intake manifolds as liquid film because the
liquid particles have larger inertia compared to vaporized fuel.
 It does not create any problems under steady state running of engine since the fuel of
previous stroke in the intake manifolds vaporizes and supplied to the engine in the
subsequent stroke.
 When the engine is to be accelerated suddenly by opening the throttle valve, the liquid
fuel lags behind in the intake manifolds due to its large inertia. As a result the mixture of fuel
and air reaching the cylinder is lean due to instant opening of throttle valve which is contrary
to the requirement of rich mixture during acceleration.
 In order to compensate this ill effect and to provide the needed rich mixtures during
acceleration, a suitable mechanism calledacceleration pump is provided in the
carburettors.
4.13.5 Part Load Running - Cruising Range :
 Curve (bc) of Fig. 4.13.1 shows the part load running of engine which is in the range
of 20 to 75% of rated power.
 As the load on the engine is increased beyond 20% of load, the throttle valve is opened
gradually with the increase in load. It reduces the inlet pressure and the problem of dilution
of fresh charge by the residual gases is also reduced.
 The air-fuel ratio increases and it ensures economical running of the engine.
 It is observed that air-fuel ratio of about 17 : 1 is kept in cruising range for a single
cylinder engine. However, comparatively slightly rich mixtures with air-fuel ratio of
16: 1 are necessary in case of multicylinder engines because of problem of unequal
distribution of fresh charge to various cylinders.
4.14 Requirements of a Good Carburettor :
A carburettor has been defined as a device which supplies the metered spray of fuel mixed
with correct amount of air for efficient combustion in cylinder at all operating conditions. The
required operating conditions have been dealt in section 4.13. In view of this, therequirements
of a good carburettor are :
(a)To meter the liquid fuel so as to produce the required air-fuel ratios at all operating conditions like
during idling, low load running, cruising range and maximum power range.
(b)Energy to be supplied to change the fuel from liquid to vapour state since the fuel in liquid form
or drops will not burn efficiently in an engine.
(c)Prepare the homogeneous mixture of fuel and air as far as possible.
(d)Provide rich mixtures for ease of starting the engine.
(e)Provide the required rich mixture during acceleration.
4.15 Simple Carburettor : (GTU - May 2011, Dec. 2012, Dec. 2014, May 2015)
 A simple carburettor is shown in Fig. 4.15.1. It consists of a float infloat chamber,
venturi and the main fuel jet.
 Float chamber is open to atmosphere due to which the pressure in float chamber is
atmospheric.
 Fuel is supplied to the float chamber through strainer from fuel tank with the help of
fuel pump.
 The jet tube consists of main nozzle to which fuel is supplied from the float chamber
through a main fuel jet.
 The suction of the engine draws air through the choke tube and passes through the
venturi. Since the area of cross-section at the throat of venturi reduces, the pressure at the
main nozzle reduces and the velocity of air increases (Refer section 4.18 dealt later).
 Fig. 4.15.1 : Simple carburettor

 Due to pressure differential caused at the main nozzle and the pressure in the float
chamber, the fuel from float chamber is supplied to the main nozzle which mixes with the
incoming air.
 The velocity of air past the venturi vaporizes the petrol fuel partially which is then
evaporated by the heat in the intake manifolds and the cylinder walls.
 A petrol engine is quantity governed. It means that the amount of charge delivered is
according to power delivered by the engine at a particular speed. This is achieved by a throttle
valve of butterfly type.
 When the throttle valve opens, more air flows through the venturi tube and more
quantity of fuel and air is delivered to the engine, therefore, engine develops more power.
 Reverse is the action when the throttle valve closes.
Nozzle lip, h :

The pressure at the throat under fully open throttle condition lies between 4 to 6 mm of
Hg below atmospheric. In order to avoid overflow of the fuel from nozzle, the main nozzle tip
is kept slightly higher than the level of fuel in float chamber. The difference of level of tip of
main nozzle and fuel level in float chamber is called nozzle lip.
If h is the nozzle lip and (p)a is the pressure drop due to flow of air, then the pressure
drop available for flow of fuel will be,
(p)f = (p)a – f  h  gwhere, f is the density of fuel ...(4.15.1)
4.15.1 Drawbacks of a Simple Carburettor :
A simple carburettor has the drawbacks outlined below :
1.It provides the required air-fuel ratio only at one throttle position. At other throttle positions, the
mixture is either richer or leaner depending upon the throttle valve is opened more or less.
2.It provides increasing richness of A/F mixture as the speed of the engine increases.
The reason for above is that as the throttle valve is opened gradually, the pressure at the venturi throat
decreases, which decreases density of air with increase in its air velocity. Whereas, the quantity
of fuel flow remains constant. Therefore, A/F ratio decreases with increase in speed of engine.
3.If the speed is too low, we get very lean mixtures which may not be sufficient to ignite the mixture.
4.15.2 Application of Simple Carburettor :
Simple carburettor is only suitable for small stationary engines to run at constant speed.
4.16 Modifications of Simple Carburettor : (GTU - Dec. 2013)
Various operating requirements of an engine have been dealt insection 4.13 while it has
been observed that the simple carburettor, discussed in section 4.15.1, cannot meet all the
requirements. Therefore, it is necessary that the simple carburettor needs to be modified to meet
the operational requirements of the engine, these modifications are being discussed below:
4.16.1 Starting Choke :
 It has been brought out earlier that the rich mixture is required at the time of starting of
the engine due to cold conditions of the engine.
 In order to achieve this, a butterfly valve called choke is incorporated before the venturi
as shown in Fig. 4.16.1.
 At the time of cold starting of the engine the choke is almost closed.
 It lowers the pressure at the venturi which is nearly equal to pressure in the intake
manifolds. This large pressure drop between the pressure in the float chamber and at the
venturi increases the mass flow rate of fuel thereby ensuring that a very rich mixture is
supplied to the engine.

Fig. 4.16.1 : Idling system

4.16.2 Main Metering and Idling System : (GTU - Dec. 2012)

 It has been stated that idling of the engine refers to no load running of the engine and
the engine requires a rich mixture.
 At no load, the throttle valve is almost closed and due to this the airflow through the
venturi is greatly reduced. It means that the pressure drop at the venturi is very low and the
main jet is not able to supply any fuel.
 In order to supply rich mixture an idling circuit is introduced in the carburettor as shown
in Fig. 4.16.1.
 It could be seen that the idle port is just located below the throttle valve.
 The low pressure existing in the intake manifolds past the throttle valve allows the fuel
to be supplied from the float chamber through the idle jet thereby enriching the mixture of
fuel and air.
  The air-fuel mixture discharged into the air stream past the throttle valve is controlled
by the idling adjustment screw.
 One or more air bleeds are provided in the upper passages as shown in Fig. 4.16.1.
These air bleeds prevent the fuel to be supplied from the float chamber when the engine is
shut-off.
 When the throttle valve opens, the pressure differential between the idling port and the
float chamber reduces. This reduction in pressure is not sufficient to lift the fuel to additional
height upto the idle jet. Therefore at part load running the idle jet becomes ineffective.
4.16.3 Acceleration : (GTU - Dec. 2012)
 It has been stated that the simple carburettor is not able to supply the required mixture
momentarily due to inertia of liquid fuel particles when the engine is to be accelerated by
opening the throttle valve suddenly. This difficulty is overcome by introducing an
accelerating pump as shown in Fig. 4.16.2.
 It consists of a piston-cylinder arrangement with a ball valve in the cylinder and a
spring.
 The piston is forced downwards into cylinder simultaneously when the throttle valve is
opened. This forces the extra petrol fuel into the venturi and the amount of fuel is controlled
by metering orifice. This way it supplies rich mixture temporarily.
 The piston is raised again due to the spring force when the throttle valve is again partly
closed.
 A ball valve is provided in the cylinder for leakage of fuel from cylinder into the float
chamber if the throttle valve is opened gradually.

Fig. 4.16.2 : Acceleration arrangement

4.16.4 Part Load Running-Economic Range (Metering Pin Method) :
  In the range of 20 to 75% load, a simple carburettor supplies rich mixture when the
engine speed increases because with the opening of throttle valve the pressure differential at
venturi increases. This increased pressure differential increases the fuel supply from main
fuel jet with the increased speed.
 In order to run the engine under maximum economy a metering pin in the main metering
orifice is provided as shown in Fig. 4.16.3.
 The movement of the pin rod in the metering orifice is controlled by a control lever by
changing the coefficient of discharge and area of flow of fuel into the main jet.
 It controls the supply of fuel flow into the venturi according to the load on the engine.

Fig. 4.16.3 : Part load running-metering pin method

4.16.5 Quality Control by Back Suction or Pressure Reduction Method :

 This method provides the required air-fuel ratios in the economic and power range.
 An orifice is provided which communicates the float chamber with the venturi above
the throat on the choke side of the carburettor.
 An automatically operated control valve is provided which regulates the pressure in the
float chamber as shown in Fig. 4.16.4.
 The maximum and minimum pressures in the float chamber correspond to fully opened
and almost closed positions of the control valve. This variation in pressure in the float
chamber regulates the rate of flow of fuel into the venturi.
 Fig. 4.16.4 : Quality control-back suction method

4.16.6 Compensating Devices : (GTU - Dec. 2013)

 A simple carburettor supplies rich mixture with increase in speed. Whereas, a
carburettor is required to supply nearly constant A/F ratio over wide range of speed and load
for its economic operation.
 Air-fuel ratio can be maintained either by increasing the supply of air or by supplying
less fuel with increase in speed.
 The devices used for maintenance of constant A/F ratio are calledcompensating
devices. These are :
(i) Compensating jet method
(ii) Emulsion tube or air bleed method
(iii) Auxiliary air valve method
(iv) Auxiliary port method
(v) Metering pin method (discussed above in section 4.16.4)
(vi) Quality control by back suction or pressure reduction method (Discussed above in section
4.16.5).
(i)Compensating jet method :
 Fig. 4.16.5 : Compensating jet

 Fig. 4.16.5 shows the arrangement of a compensating jet device. It's function is
to make the mixture leaner.
 It consists of an additional compensating jet connected to compensation well
which is open to atmosphere.
 The fuel is supplied from float chamber through a restricted orifice.
 When the air flow increases the fuel level in compensating well decreases. It
results into decrease of fuel supply through compensating jet while the main jet
increases the fuel supply.
 Net result of both the jets is to maintain the constant A/F ratio.
 The effect of compensating device on air-fuel ratio is shown in Fig. 4.16.6.

Fig. 4.16.6 : Effect of compensating jet on A/F ratio

(ii) Emulsion tube or air bleed method :

  Modern carburettors use the air bleeding device to maintain the air fuel ratio at
all speeds as shown in Fig. 4.16.7.
 It consists of a well with main metering jet at its bottom.
 The well is fitted about 25 mm below the petrol level in float chamber, therefore,
well is filled with petrol. For this reason, the main jet is also called as submerged jet.
 The jet has holes on its sides. Therefore, it is in communication with
atmospheric air.

Fig. 4.16.7 : Air bleed method

 Initially, air is drawn through the holes into the well and petrol is emulsified.
 When the throttle valve is opened, the reduced throat pressure causes the
emulsified petrol and mixes with incoming air and reduces the richness of mixture.
 As the speed increases, the holes in the central tube are progressively uncovered,
thus maintaining the A/F ratio.
(iii) Auxiliary air valve method :

 Fig. 4.16.8 shows the principle of air bleed system to maintain air-fuel ratio with
speed.
 As the throttle valve is opened, the decrease in pressure at the throat of the
venturi causes the auxiliary valve spring to push down the air valve. This allows the
additional atmospheric air from surroundings to bleed past the air valve into the main
nozzle. It prevents the mixture from becoming over rich.
 The opening of the air valve is proportionate to speed of the engine, therefore,
the fairly a constant A/F ratio is maintained.
 Fig. 4.16.8 : Auxiliary valve method

(iv) Auxiliary port method :

 An auxiliary port system is shown in Fig. 4.16.9 which is similar to auxiliary

air valve system.
 A butterfly valve is incorporated in the passage of air flow. By opening this
valve, additional air is admitted.
 Fig. 4.16.9 : Auxiliary air port method
 It also reduces the pressure differential at the throat of venturi, thereby, reduces
the mass flow rate of fuel. Thus it maintains the constant A/F ratio.
 The opening of butterfly valve is proportional to speed.
 This method is generally used in aircraft carburettors for altitude compensation
of air.
4.17 Types of Carburettors :
 Depending upon the direction of air and fuel flow, the carburettors are classified as :
(i) Updraught carburettors
(ii) Downdraught carburettors
(iii) Side draught or horizontal carburettors.
 Fig. 4.17.1(a) shows the updraught carburettor in which the air enters the carburettor
against the gravity from bottom in the upward direction.
 The disadvantage of such a carburettor is that it has to lift the sprayed fuel droplets by
air friction.
 Since the fuel droplets have the tendency to separate out from air stream due to high
inertia, it becomes necessary to design the jet tube and throat of relatively smaller area in
order to increase the air velocity to an extent it carries the fuel particles along even at low
engine speeds, otherwise, the mixture reaching the engine will be lean.
 However, with relatively smaller cross-section of jet tube, the carburettor cannot supply
the mixture at the required rapid rate at high engine speeds. Due to this the updraught
carburettors have now become almost obsolete.
 Fig. 4.17.1(b) shows the down-draught carburettor. These are usually installed at a
level higher than the intake manifolds. In these carburettors the flow of mixture is assisted
by the gravity in its passage into intake manifolds. This allows the proper flow of mixture
even at low engine speeds and at the same time the carburettor is reasonably accessible.
 Fig. 4.17.1 : Types of carburettors

 Fig. 4.17.1(c) shows the side draught carburettor. It consists of a horizontal jet tube.
Such a carburettor has the advantage where under bonnet space is limited and also the
resistance to flow is reduced due to elimination of one right angled turn in the intake
passages.
4.18 Analysis of a Single Jet Carburettor (Calculations for Air-Fuel Ratio) :
A simple through the nozzle because of pressure difference created at the venturi.
4.18.1 Air Fuel Ratio if Air is Assumed Incompressible : (MU - May 2016)
(a) Mass flow rate of air through venturi (neglecting compression) :

A venturi is a tube of varying cross-section as shown in Fig. 4.18.1.

Fig. 4.18.1 : Venturi

Consider the massflow of air across the venturi.
During the flow the air density changes with pressure and temperature. However,
following assumptions are made :
1. Air behaves like an ideal gas
2. Air is incompressible
3. Flow is frictionless adiabatic
4.Changes in potential energy is negligible.
Let, m = 1 kg, Applying steady flow energy equation (S.F.E.E) at inlet section (1 – 1)
and throat section (2 – 2) :
 But q = 0 (adiabatic process), wsf = 0 and Z2 = Z1 (assumed)
And, h = u + p.v. (where, u = Cv  T)
Therefore Equation (i) reduces to

Flow is assumed to be incompressible, therefore, T2 = T1.

It follows that u2 = u1.
Applying above condition in Equation (ii), we get,

Also, the change in density is negligible for small change in pressure. Therefore,
Density of air, a = 1 = 2. Equation (iii) becomes;

a  A1 C1 = a  A2  C2

Substituting the value of C1 from Equation (v) in Equation (iv),

Theoretical mass flow rate of air,

 In actual practice the velocity C2 at throat is generally lower due to friction and viscous
effects, also, actual area at venturi throat is lower than A2 due to presence of main jet. It reduces
the actual mass flow rate.
Coefficient of discharge, Cda :

In view of the above, we define a term coefficient of discharge for air as the ratio of
actual mass flow rate to theoretical mass flow rate. i.e.

Note : The value of C usually varies from 0.8 to 0.85.

da

(b) Mass flow rate of fuel through orifice :

Consider the flow of fuel through an orifice of cross-sectional area Af as shown in Fig.
4.18.2.

Fig. 4.18.2 : Flow of fuel through orifice

Let, h = nozzle lip i.e. difference in height of nozzle tip and fuel level in float chamber.
Cdf = Coefficient of discharge of fuel orifice.
f = Density of fuel.
Applying Bernouli's Equation (iii) and neglecting C1
 (c) Air-fuel ratio :

If the nozzle lip ‘h’ is neglected. Then from Equation (4.18.7) we get,

Note :In all equations the units of A be in m , h in m, (p) in N/m and  in kg/m .
2 2 3

Comments on A.F. ratio supplied by simple carburettor : Refer Equations (4.18.6) and (4.18.7)
1.From Equation (4.18.6) it is clear if p  h  g  f , there will not be any flow of fuel from the
orifice.
5. The flow of fuel starts when p > h  g  f.
3.At high speeds of the engine the value of p is far greater than h  g  f. In such a case the
effect of nozzle lip, h can be neglected.
4.If the density of air a is reduced, the A.F. ratio reduces i.e. mixture supplied is richer. Such a
case occurs at high altitude in case of aircrafts and in case of high speed engines.
4.18.2 Exact Air-Fuel Ratio (when Compressibility of Air is Considered) : (MU - May
2016)

(a) Massflow rate of air :

Applying S.F.E.E. given by Equation (i) above in which q = 0, wsf = 0, Z2 = Z1 and C1≃0,

Since the flow through venturi is reversible adiabatic,

Therefore, Equation (vi) reduces to :

Theoretical mass flow rate of air at throat of venturi is,

 Substituting the value of C2 and 2 in Equation (vii), we get,

Theoretical mass flow rate,

For air, Cp = 1005 J/kgK, R = 287 Nm/kgK and  = 1.4. On substituting these values
in
Equation (4.18.10),

If Cda is the coefficient of discharge for venturi and area of throat A2= Aa,

(b) Mass flow rate of fuel :

It is given by the Equation (4.18.6) as,

(c) Air-fuel ratio :

Ex. 4.18.1 :A simple carburettor has the venturi of throat diameter of 8 cm and the coefficient of discharge is 0.94.
The fuel orifice has the diameter of 0.5 cm and its coefficient of discharge of 0.7 find the air-fuel ratio if
the pressure drop amounts to 0.14 bar when (a) nozzle lip is neglected (b) nozzle lip is taken into
account and it is equal to 0.5 cm. Assume density of fuel as 780 kg/m , approach factor as 1 and density
3

of air as 1.293 kg/m .

3

Soln. :

Given : da = 8 cm, Cda = 0.94, df = 0.5 cm, Cdf = 0.7;

p = 0.14 bar = 0.14  105 N/m2, f = 780 kg/m3,

(a) When nozzle lip is neglected :

(b) When nozzle lip, h = 0.5 cm = 5  10– 3 is considered :

…[According to Equation (4.18.7)]

= 14.016 : 1...Ans.

Ex. 4.18.2 :The diameter of the main jet of a simple carburettor is 0.2 cm and the pressure drop across the venturi is
equivalent to 12 cm of water and the coefficient of discharge is 0.68. Density of petrol is 760 kg/m . Find
3

the mass flow rate of fuel into the carburettor.

 Soln. :

Given : df = 0.2 cm = 0.002 m, p = 12 cm of water, Cdf= 0.68;

Since 10.33 m of water column = 1.013  105 N/m2

Mass flow rate of fuel,

Since the nozzle lip, h is not given, on neglecting,

= 0.00286 kg/s...Ans.

Ex. 4.18.3 :The throat diameter of a carburettor is 9 cm and nozzle diameter is 5.5 mm. The air and fuel discharge
coefficients are 0.85 and 0.7 respectively. The nozzle lip is 6 mm. The pressure difference causing the
flow is 0.1 bar.

Find :

(i) Air to fuel ratio of the mixture supplied by the carburettor considering the nozzle lip.

(ii)Minimum velocity of air required to start the fuel injection through the nozzle. Take
density of air as 1.2 kg/m and density of fuel as 750 kg/m .
3 3

Soln. :

Given : da = 9 cm, df = 5.5 mm = 0.55 cm, Cda = 0.85,

Cdf = 0.7, p = 0.1 bar = 0.1  105 N/m2;
a = 1.2 kg/m3, f = 750 kg/m3,
Nozzle lip, h = 6 mm = 6  10– 3 m.
(i) Air-fuel ratio :

= 13.035 : 1...Ans.
(ii) Minimum velocity of air required :
  The flow of fuel will start only when the pressure difference created overcomes
pressure equal to nozzle lip.
  Pressure difference (p) of air must be equal to the pressure (hgf)
corresponding to nozzle lip, h.
 Let the velocity at entrance to venturi, C1 = 0. From S.F.E.E. we can write,

= 8.5776 m/s...Ans.

Ex. 4.18.4 :A four cylinder, 4 stroke engine runs at 2000 r.p.m. The bore and stroke for each cylinder is equal to 12
cm and 14 cm respectively. The carburettor used for the engine has the venturi throat diameter of 3.5
cm. Determine the suction pressure at the throat if the volumetric efficiency of the engine is 75%. The
coefficient of discharge for air flow is 0.8. Assume density of air,
 = 1.293 kg/m
a
3

Soln. :

Given : N = 2000 rpm; Number of cylinder n = 4,D = 12 cm;

stroke, L = 14 cm , Da = 3.5 cm; v = 75% = 0.75;
Cda = 0.8, a = 1.293 kg/m3.
Stroke volume for each cylinder,

 Actual volume/cylinder = 0.75  1583.36 = 1187.5 cm3

= 1187.5  4 = 4750 cm3 = 4750  10– 6 m3

  suction pressure, p = 6844.5 N/m2...Ans.

Ex. 4.18.5 :A carburettor without air filter gives a air-fuel ratio of 15.5 while the pressure measured at venturi is 0.813
bar at sea level. When the air filter was fitted, it was found that the pressure lost in the air filter amounts
to 0.04 bar when the air flow rate was 4 kg/min. Assuming coefficient of discharge as 0.96, find the
throat pressure and the air-fuel ratio when the air filter is fitted.

Soln. :

Given : A.F. ratio = 15.5 : 1 (without filter),Pressure at venturi, p1 = 0.813 bar.

Pressure lost in air filter when fitted, p2 = 0.04 bar,

Let, atmospheric pressure, pa = 1.013 bar.

Pressure drop without air filter,
p = pa – p1 = 1.013 – 0.813 = 0.2 bar.
When filter is fitted.
Pressure at venturi, p2 = pa – p1 –  p2
= 1.013 – 0.813 – 0.04 = 0.773 bar...Ans.
Pressure drop with air filter,
 p1 = pa – p2 = 1.013 – 0.773 = 0.24 bar.
 Throat pressure = pa – p1 = 1.013 – 0.24 = 0.773 bar ...Ans.
Since the pressure drop at venturi has increased, it would increase the mass flow rate of
fuel when the air filter is fitted while the mass flow rate of air remains the same. Hence it would
supply a richer mixture.
Air-fuel ratio with air filter fitted,
 Calculate the choke and the main jet diameters.
Soln. :
Given : Vs = 1.7 litre = 0.017 m3, N = 5000 rpm,
v = 75% = 0.75; A.F. ratio = 14:1,
C2 = 100 m/s; Cda = 0.8, Cdf = 0.65.

Nozzle lip, h = 6 mm = 0.006 m , p1 = 1 bar, T1 = 300 K.

Note :Since the inlet conditions at suction are given, problem is to be solved by taking compressibility into
account.

Swept volume, V = v  Vs = 0.75  0.017 = 0.01275 m3

 Volume flow rate through each carburettor,

Assume, air velocity at inlet, C1 = 0

Velocity at throat, C2 is :

 Volume flow rate at throat,

 Let, D = Diameter of choke tube ; d = Diameter of emulsion tube.

D = 2.174 cm...Ans.

Main jet diameter :

df = 0.00384 m = 3.84 mm...Ans.

Ex. 4.18.7 :A simple jet carburetor is required to supply 6 kg of air per minute and 0.45 kg of fuel of density 740 kg/m .
3

The air is initially at 1.013 bar and 27°C. Calculate the throat diameter of the choke for a flow velocity
of 92 m/s, velocity coefficient of 0.8. If the pressure drop across the fuel metering orifice is 0.75 of that
at the choke, calculate orifice diameter assuming C =0.60.(GTU - Dec. 2015, 7 Marks)
d

Soln. :

p1 = 1.013 bar, T1 = 27C = 27 + 273 = 300 K

C2 = 92 m/s, Cda = 0.8;(p)f = 0.75 (p)a
Cdf = 0.75
(i)Throat diameter, da :

Assuming approach velocity, C1 = 0 and applying S.F. E. E,

For isentropic process we can write,

 p2 = 0.9641 bar
(p)a = p1 – p2 = 1.013 – 0.9641 = 0.04889 bar = 4889 N/m2
From gas equation ; p2 = a R T2
0.9641  105 = a  287  295.79; a = 1.1357 kg/m3

da = 0.03886 m = 3.886 cm…Ans.

(ii)Fuel orifice diameter, df :

Given : Pressure drop across fuel orifice,

(p)f = 0.75  (p)a = 0.75  4889 = 3666.75 N/m2

df = 2.338  10– 3 m = 0.2338 cm = 2.338 mm…Ans.

Ex. 4.18.8 :A petrol engine consumes 6.8kg/hr. The choke diameter of the engine carburettor is 2 cm. The density of
the fuel used is 700 kg/m and A:F ratio of the mixture supplied by the carburettor is 15:1.Determine the
3

carburettor jet diameter if the top of jet is 5 mm above the petrol level in float chamber . Take
R = 287 Nm/kg-K. The Ambient pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 32C. Take C = 0.9 ,C =da df

0.7.(GTU - Dec. 2013, 7 Marks)

Soln. :

Choke diameter, da = 2 cm = 0.02 m ; f = 700 kg/m3

R = 287 Nm/kg K ; p1 = 1 bar

T1 = 32C = 305 K, Cda = 0.9 ; Cdf = 0.7
 p = 4394 N/m2
Carburetor jet diameter, d f

df = 0.00118 m = 1.18 mm…Ans.

Ex. 4.18.9 :Determine the air-fuel ratio supplied at 5000 m altitude by a carburettor which is adjusted to give an air-
fuel ratio of 14:1 at sea level, where air temperature is 27C and pressure is 1.0325 bar.

The temperature of air decreases with altitude and is given by the expression
T = Ta – 0.0065  h

Where, h is the height in meters and Ta is the temperature in C. The air pressure decreases with altitude as per the
relation h = 19200 log (1.03/p), where, p is in bar.
10

Soln. :

Given : At sea level, pa = 1.0325 bar, Ta = 27C, A.F. ratio = 14:1.

At h = 5000 m altitude :
0.0065  h = 27 – 0.0065  5000 = – 5.5C = – 5.5 + 273
= 267.5 K

or, p = 0.5655 bar

 A.F. ratio at 5000 m altitude

= 10.972 : 1...Ans.

Ex. 4.18.10 :What is nozzle lip and what is application of it ?

The dimensions of a carburettor are as follows :

 Venturi throat diameter = 20 mm with coefficient of discharge 0.85, the fuel orifice
diameter = 1.25 mm with coefficient of fuel flow 0.66, the fuel surface is
5 mm below the throat. Compute

1. The air-fuel ratio for depression of 0.07 bar when nozzle lip is neglected.
2.Air-fuel ratio when nozzle lip is considered.

3.The critical (minimum) air velocity to start the fuel if nozzle lip is provided.

Data : Density of air 1.2 kg/m and that of fuel is 750 kg/m .
3 3

Soln. :

Nozzle lip :

The pressure at the throat at fully open throttle valve position lies between 4 to 6 mm of
Hg below atmospheric pressure while the pressure in the float chamber is atmospheric.
In order to avoid dripping of fuel and its wastage, the level of liquid in the jet is adjusted
by the float chamber needle valve to maintain the level of fuel at a short distance below the tip
of discharge jet. This difference of fuel level in the float chamber and in nozzle is called nozzle
lip and it avoids the wastage of fuel.
Given :Venturi throat diameter, da = 20 mm,
Cda = 0.85, fuel orifice diameter, df = 1.25 mm,
Cdf = 0.66, nozzle lip, h = 5 mm, Depression, p = 0.07 bar,
a = 1.2 kg/m3,f = 750 kg/m3

1. A.F. ratio when nozzle lip is neglected :

2.A.F. ratio when nozzle lip is considered :

 = 13.223 : 1...Ans.

3.Critical (minimum) air velocity :

The flow of fuel will start only when the minimum velocity of air, C2 required to create
the pressure difference equals to pressure difference corresponding to nozzle lip.
 pa = h  g  f
Let the velocity of air at entry to venturi be negligible
i.e. C1 = 0

= 7.83 m/s...Ans.

Ex. 4.18.11 :A : F ratio of mixture supplied to an engine by carburettor is 15 : 1. The fuel consumption of engine is 7.5
kg/hr. The diameter of venturi is 2.2 cm. Find the diameter of fuel nozzle if the tip of nozzle is 4 mm.
Take the following additional data :

Density of fuel used = 750 kg/m ;3

(C ) = 0.82 ; (C ) = 0.7; Atmospheric pressure = 1.013 bar

d air d fuel

Atmospheric temperature = 25C.

ln. :

 df = 0.125 cm…Ans.

4.19 Automobile Carburettors : (GTU - May 2012)
Some of the important type of modern carburettors used in automobiles are :
(i)Solex carburettor(ii) Carter carburettor (iii)S.U. carburettor.
4.19.1 Solex Carburettor : (GTU - May 2012)
The solex carburettor is one of the well known carburettor for easy starting, good
performance and its reliability. It is used for various Indian Cars and Jeeps.
The schematic diagram of a Solex carburettor is shown in Fig. 4.19.1. It is down draught
type carburettor.
It consists for various fuel and air circuits. These are :
(i)Normal running(ii)Cold starting and warming
(iii)Idling and slow speed operation(iv)Acceleration.
(i) Normal running :

 In normal running circuit, the fuel is provided by the main jet (b) and the air by
the choke tube or venturi (c).
 The fuel from the main jet enters into the air bleed emulsion tube (d).
 The correct balance of air and fuel is automatically ensured by air entering
through air correction jet (f).
 The metered emulsion of fuel and air is discharged through the orifice (g) drilled
horizontally in the vertical pipe in the middle of venturi tube.
(ii)Cold starting and warming :

 The unique feature of this carburettor is to provide progressive starter.

 The starter valve is in the form of a flat disc (i) with holes of different sizes.
These holes connect the starter petrol jet (j) and starter air jet sides to the passage which
opens just below the throttle valve at (l).
 Depending upon the position of the starter lever (m) either bigger or small holes
of flat disc come opposite the passage.
 For starting richer mixture is required. So in the start position bigger holes are
the connecting holes.
 When the throttle valve is in closed position the engine suction is applied to
starting passage (l).
 The air enters from the starting air jet (k) and fuel from starter petrol jet (j). This
mixture is sufficiently rich to start the engine.
 After the engine has started, the starter lever is brought to the intermediate
position, thus reducing the amount of petrol, till it reaches the normal running
temperature. After this the starter lever is brought to the off position.
 Fig. 4.19.1 : Solex carburettor

(iii) Idling and slow speed running :

 In this circuit, the pilot jet (n) is taken from the main jet.
 At the idling, the throttle (h) is almost closed and hence engine suction is applied
at the pilot jet.
 Fuel is drawn therefrom and mixed with a small amount of air from pilot air
bleed orifice (o). This mixture is conveyed down the vertical passage and discharged
into the throttle body through the idling screw (p).
 The idling screw permits variation of the slow running jet's delivery of petrol
and allows the richness of the mixture.
(iv) Acceleration : (GTU - May 2012)

 In order to provide extra quantity of fuel during acceleration, this carburettor is

provided with a diaphragm pump system.
 When accelerator pedal is pressed for acceleration, the pump lever (t) connected
to it is also pressed. Due to this movement, the fuel is compressed and it flows through
the pump jet (u) and acceleration pump injector (s) to mixing chamber.
 When the force on lever is removed; the diaphragm retains its original position
due to spring. Due to this movement of diaphragm a suction is created, thus opening
the pump valve (e) and admitting the fresh fuel into the pump.
4.19.2 Carter Carburettor :
 A sketch of an American make Carter carburettor is shown in Fig. 4.19.2. It is a
down-draught type carburettor.
 Petrol fuel enters into the conventional type of float chamber (1). The air enters from
the top through the choke valve (12) which is kept fully open during the normal running of
the engine.
 Carter carburettor has three venturies, the smallest venturi called primary venturi (8)
lies above the fuel level in the float chamber and the other two called secondary (9) and third
(10) main venturies lie below the fuel level as shown in Fig. 4.19.2.
 The suction in primary venturi is adequate to draw petrol even at low speeds.
 Fuel from float chamber enters the venturi through the nozzle (17) at an angle in upward
direction against the air stream securing an even flow of finally divided atomized fuel.
 The fuel and air mixture descends through the secondary venturi which is surrounded
by a blanket of air stream, finally, it passes through the main venturi to the engine cylinder.
 Use of multiple venturi ensures that the fuel reaching the engine is in atomized form
even at very slow speeds causing the smooth running of the engine.
 The fuel circuit consists of a metering rod (3) actuated by a mechanism connected to
the main throttle.
 The metering rod has two or more steps of diameter.
 The difference in area of metering rod jet and metering rod controls the amount of fuel
drawn into the engine.
 Corresponding to maximum throttle opening at maximum speed, the smallest section
of the metering rod is in the jet, therefore, the maximum quantity of fuel flows to mix with
the maximum amount of air flow.
 The starting circuit consists of a butterfly valve called choke (12) in the air circuit.
 When the choke is almost closed, the pressure at the nozzle is nearly equal to suction
pressure in the engine. This large pressure drop between float chamber and at the nozzle
increases the mass flow rate of fuel while the air flow rate is minimum. It ensures the supply
of rich mixture to the engine at the time of starting.
 Once the engine is started, the spring controlled half of the choke valve is sucked open
to provide correct amount of air.
 During idling or no load running of the engine, it requires a rich mixture. In idling
condition, the throttle valve is almost closed as shown in Fig. 4.19.2.
 Fig. 4.19.2 : Carter carburettor
 The engine suction is applied to idle port (6), due to this the fuel is drawn through the
idle jet (2) and the air through bypass (11) and a rich mixture is supplied.
 During low speed operation, the throttle valve is opened further.
 The main nozzle also starts supplying fuel. Therefore, at low speeds the fuel is delivered
both by the main venturi and through the low speed port (7).
 Acceleration pump circuit is used to supply the required mixture momentarily when
the engine is to be accelerated by opening the throttle valve suddenly.
 Pump consists of a plunger (18), inlet check valve (14) and outlet check valve (15).
Plunger is connected to accelerator pedal by throttle control rod (13).
 When the engine is suddenly accelerated, the plunger moves down and forces the
required extra fuel through jet (16) into the choke tube.
 When the accelerator pedal is released, the plunger moves up and draws the fuel from
float chamber into the pump through inlet check valve for the next operation.
4.19.3 S.U. Carburettor :
 Generally the carburettors are choke type e.g. Solex, Carter and Zenith carburettors.
Whereas, the S.U. Carburettor completely differs from these since it is a constant
vacuum or depression type of carburettor with automatically variable choke.
 Fig. 4.19.3 represents the sketch of a horizontal type of S.U. Carburettor. It consists of
a piston (1) which is always loaded by a helical spring, a piston rod (2), the piston rod guide
(3) and the float chamber (10) of a conventional carburettor.
 The lower end of the piston rod carries a taper jet needle (7) which is inserted into the
main jet (9). The flat portion above the piston is called suction disc (12).
 The piston assembly moves up and down alongwith taper needle by operating a lever
from the dash board. The movement of the piston controls the air passages (5).

Fig. 4.19.3 : S.U. carburettor

 The portion above the suction disc is called the suction chamber (4) which connects the
air passage by means of suction air entrance (11).
 The lower portion of the suction disc is connected by an air rectifier hole (8) to the
atmospheric air. The air passage has a butterfly type throttle valve (6).
 The movement of piston controls the air-fuel ratio for all the operating conditions of
the engine.
 The pressure in the suction chamber depends upon the throttle opening while the
pressure below the suction disc is atmospheric.
 The position of the piston depends upon its weight and the vacuum existing (according
to throttle opening) in the suction chamber, therefore, a variable cross-sectional area of air
passage is obtained depending upon the piston position.
 This carburettor has only one jet and no separate idling jet or accelerating pump is
required.
 At the time of starting, the rich mixture is required. This can be achieved by pulling the
jet downwards with the help of lever attached to it which is operated from the dash board in
the car.
 As the throttle valve is opened, more air is allowed to flow under more suction due to
which the piston moves upwards and increases the effective jet area.
  It allows more fuel to flow into the main stream due to increased jet area. Thus
approximately the constant air-fuel ratio is maintained at different engine speeds.
4.20 Problems in Carburettor :4.20.1 Ice Formation :
 During atomization and vaporization process of fuel at the venturi, it takes its latent
heat of vaporization from the incoming air. It lowers the temperature of mixture of fuel and
air.
 In case its temperature becomes lower than the dew point of water vapour associated
with air, it may result into formation of ice on the throttle plate. Such an accumulation of ice
throttles the engine and may be harmful to the engine. Such a condition may only occur in
case the engine works at low surrounding temperatures or at high altitudes.
 Ice formation problem can be avoided by heating of intake air or by introduction of
alcohol which mixes with water and lowers its freezing point.
4.20.2 Vapour Lock :
 The vaporization of fuel in pipes, feed pump, or in the float chamber of a carburettor
may cause the problem of vapour lock.
 The vaporization of fuel may be caused due to high volatility of fuel or heating of
incoming air to avoid ice formation or due to heating of fuel pipes being too near the engine.
 In case the fuel pipe is small in cross-section and the amount of fuel drawn is large, the
resulting high velocity of fuel will cause a considerable pressure drop in line and a vacuum.
This may cause the formation of vapour bubbles at the highest point of a tube bend and
interrupt the gasoline flow from the fuel tank or fuel pump.
 The lack of fuel flow may stop the engine. In case of automobiles the vapour lock may
occur on a hot day, or during running of engine in low gear with wide throttle opening or
during the steep climb.
4.21 Mechanical Fuel Pump for S.I. Engines :
 The function of a fuel pump is to draw the fuel from the tank through pipe line and
supply to the carburettor.
 The schematic diagram of a mechanical fuel pump for spark ignition engines is shown
in Fig. 4.21.1.
 The diaphragm arm of the fuel pump is usually driven by the eccentric on the camshaft.
 The pump consists of a flexible diaphragm which is operated by a pull rod through a
diaphragm lever.
 When the lever is engaged and pushed upwards it pulls down the diaphragm in its
casing. It creates a partial vacuum in the upper chamber which results into the flow of fuel
from the tank.
  When the lever is disengaged on its return stroke the diaphragm is pulled up which
increases the pressure in the chamber. It closes the inlet valve and the fuel flows out through
the outlet valve to the carburettor.
 Some S.I. engines use electrical fuel pump.

Fig. 4.21.1 : Mechanical fuel-pump

4.22 Electrical Fuel Pump :
 Sectional view of an electric fuel pump is shown in Fig. 4.22.1. When the breaker points
come in contact, the fuel from tank via intake valve (1) is drawn into suction chamber due to
the suction created by the movement of diaphragm upwards.
 Now as the breaker points are separated, the diaphragm moves downwards under the
spring force, thus it pushes the fuel from pumping chamber to the carburettor through the
delivery valve (2).

Fig. 4.22.1 : Electric fuel pump

4.23 Altitude Compensation :
  The pressure p and temperature, T at high altitudes can be related by the following
equations :

t = ta – 0.00675  h...(4.23.2)
where, ta = Temperature of air at sea level in C
h = Altitude in meters
 Accordingly, when an aircraft operates at high altitude, the pressure and temperature of
air is reduced compared to sea level condition. It follows that the density of air supplied by
the carburettor at high altitudes is reduced.
 A carburettor supplies the air and fuel by volume and not by mass. In view of this, the
mass of air taken into the engine decreases caused by decreased density of air as the altitude
increases. Consequently, the mixture supplied by carburettor becomes richer and power
developed by the aircraft engine is reduced.

where,  = Density of air at given altitude

a = Density of air at sea level.
 In view of the above, it becomes necessary to provide some mixture control system to
adjust the fuel flow to compensate the reduced density of air at high altitudes to maintain the
constant A.F. ratio.
Mixture control system :

Mixture control system can be classified according to their principle of operation. These
are :
1.Needle type : It restricts the flow of fuel through the metering system of carburettor.
5. Back suction method : In this, the effective suction on the metering system is reduced. It is
achieved by aneroid bellows which move a tapered rod from the orifice near the venturi throat
as the altitude increases.
3.The air port type : It allows additional air to be supplied to the carburettor between the main
discharge nozzle and the throttle valve as discussed in section 4.16.6(iv).
4.24 Gasoline Injection in S.I Engines (Drawbacks of Carburettor System) :
 Modern tendency is to use gasoline injection in S.I engines inspite of development of
efficient carburettors which are cheap and reliable.
  Reasons for use of gasoline injection system are due to the following inherent
drawbacks of the carburettors :
1.Low volumetric efficiency due to restrictions of mixture flow across the venturi and other
metering elements in air passage.
2. Non-supply of exact A.F ratio at all loads.
3. Distribution of mixture is non-uniform to cylinders in case of multicylinder engines due to
resistance to mixture flow in unequal length of intake manifolds.
4. Economy of fuel is affected during idling and low load running of the engine.
5.It limits the use of compression ratio, however, the C.R by fuel injection can be increased by
1 to 1.5.
6.Possibility of back firing at low speeds particularly in multi-cylinder engines.
7. Exhaust emissions are high.
8.Problem of ice formation at low temperatures.
A gasoline injection system eliminates most of the above drawbacks of a carburettor.
4.25 Types of Gasoline Injection systems in S.I. Engines :
In case of C.I engines the fuel is injected directly into the cylinder, before the end of
compression stroke whereas, the fuel in case of S.I engines is injected during suction stroke
near the inlet port or in the intake manifolds in low pressure injection system and directly into
the cylinder in high pressure injection system.
Thus the fuel injection system can be classified as follows :

4.25.1 Continuous Injection System : (GTU - May 2013)

  In this system, a rotary fuel pump under a pressure of 1 to 1.5 bar injects the fuel through
a nozzle continuously into air supply.
 The amount of fuel injected is governed by the air throttle opening. The fuel supply
increases with the increase in throttle opening. No timing device is necessary in this system.
Various types of continuous injection system are :
(a)In case the fuel is injected near the inlet port, it is calledcontinuous port fuel injection
(PFI) system. The timing of injection is controlled by electionic unit (ECU), depending
on the load and speed of the engine. It is shown in Fig. 4.25.1(a).
(b)In continuous intake manifold injection systems, the fuel is injected at pressure of 2 bar
as shown in Fig. 4.25.1(b).

Fig. 4.25.1 : Injection methods in S.I engines

(c)In gasoline direct injection (GDI) system, the fuel pump injects the gasoline directly into the
cylinder as shown in Fig. 4.25.1(c). The system uses an electronic control unit (ECU) and a
solenoid operated fuel injector to meter the fuel.
The ECU uses various sensors located on the engine components. It receives inputs from
sensor in the form of voltage signals which is analysed and adjusts the air-fuel ratio and
injection timing.
Various sensors used are :

(i)Throttle position sensor located on throttle plate to sense its movement.

(ii)The engines coolant temperature sensor to sense the temperature of coolant. It helps to
adjust fuel-air supply at the time of cold starting and idling.
(iii)Air flow sensor located at intake manifold to monitor the air flow rate.
(iv)Engine exhaust Temperature sensor to measure O2 content in exhaust.
(v)Manifold pressure sensor mounted on intake manifolds and it helps to adjust flow of air-
fuel mixture in to the engine.
(vi)Air inlet temperature sensor mounted on intake manifolds to sense the temperature of
inlet air and helps to adjust air-fuel ratio.
(vii)Camshaft position sensor mounted on camshaft which senses the rotation of camshaft
and adjusts the fuel injection timing.
(viii) Humidity sensor located on intake manifolds to measure humidity of intake air.
(ix)Knock sensor mounted on cylinder head to detect detonation.
Advantages of GDI system :

(i)Improves volumetric efficiency of the engine.

(ii)Improves atomisation and vapourigation of fuel and it is independent of reduce gap spacing
speed.
(iii)Ease of cold starting and low load running.
(iv)Specific fuel consumption is reduced i.e. it gives better vehicle mileage.
(v)Variation is A.F. ratio is reduced.
(vi)Exhaust emissions are reduced.
(vii)Gives better performance on gradients.
Disadvantages of GDI system :

(i)High initial cost.

(ii)Higher maintenance cost.
(iii)Injector choking is possible.
Advantages of continuous injection system :

1.It increases the atomisation of fuel.

2.It provides uniform A.F. ratio to all the cylinders.
3.The volumetric efficiency is high due to cooling effect of the charge caused by the
evaporation of the injected fuel.
4.25.2 Timed Injection System :
 It is similar to injection system used in C.I. engines. It employs separate injector for
each cylinder.
 This system is not employed now-a-days because of the strict, restrictions on exhaust
emissions and its high fuel consumption.
 4.26 M.P.F.I. System for Modern Automobile Engines : (GTU - Dec. 2011, May 2012, May
2013, Dec. 2014)
 M.P.F.I. means Multi Point Fuel Injection system is one in which each cylinder has
a separate fuel injector to supply/spray fuel into cylinder. Whereas, in a single point fuel
injection (S.P.F.I.) system, only one centrally located fuel injector is used to supply/spray
fuel to all cylinders.
 M.P.F.I. system is the ultra modern technology which is used in modern automobile
engines. In the beginning, this system was developed only for aeroplane engines, but now
this system is widely used in light vehicles. This system is the combination of electrical,
electronics, computer and mechanical science.
 Daewoo Matiz is the first vehicle equipped with M.P.F.I. system in Indian automobile
industry.
 M.P.F.I. system uses pressure from an electric fuel pump to spray fuel into engine
intake manifold. It provides correct A.F. ratio at all operating conditions of the engine. The
suction pressure of that engine is used to spray fuel into engine in this system unlike
carburettors in which engine vacuum is used to feed the fuel.
M.P.F.I. system has following main components :

1.A computer called Electronic Control unit (ECU) :

It controls the ignition timing and quality of fuel to be injected.
2.A set of sensors to monitor ambient, coolant and exhaust gas temperatures, exhaust O2 content,
intake pressure, throttle position, speed etc.
3.A solenoid injector :
The general layout of M.P.F.I. system is shown in Fig. 4.26.1.
In the Fig. 4.26.1, a single injector is mounted on the intake port of each cylinder. Fuel
is sent under pressure by the fuel pump from fuel tank. The fuel is distributed to each of the
injectors. Fuel injection is carried out simultaneously in each injector once in every rotation.
This is shown in Fig. 4.26.1 by various stages i.e. stages (1) to (4).
 Fig. 4.26.1 : General layout of M.P.F.I. system
4.27 Classification of M.P.F.I. System :
The M.P.F.I. system is classified into two types :
(i)D-M.P.F.I. system.
(ii)L-M.P.F.I. system.
4.27.1 D-M.P.F.I. System :
 This system is the manifold fuel injection system.
 In this system, the vacuum in the intake manifold is first sensed.
 In addition, it senses the volume of air by its density. The block diagram of
D-M.P.F.I. system is shown in Fig. 4.27.1.
 As air enters into the intake manifold, the pressure sensor detects the vacuum and sends
information to the ECU.
 The speed sensor also sends signal about RPM of the engine to the ECU.
 Fig. 4.27.1 : D-M.P.F.I. system

 The ECU sends the signal to the injector to regulate the amount of gasoline supply for
injection.
4.27.2 L-M.P.F.I. System :
 This system is a port fuel-injection system.
 In this system the fuel metering is regulated by the engine speed and the amount of
air that actually enters the engine. The block diagram of
L-M.P.F.I. system is given in Fig.4.27.2.
 As air enters into the intake manifold, the air flow sensor measures the amount of air
and sends the signal to the ECU and the speed sensor sends the signal of RPM to ECU.
 The ECU in turn sends the signal to the injector, in order to regulate the amount of
gasoline to be injected into the manifold.

Fig. 4.27.2 : L-M.P.F.I. system

4.27.3 M.P.F.I. System Components :
The various components and their flow of signals/information of a Multi-point Fuel
Injection (M.P.F.I.) system is shown by block diagram in Fig. 4.27.3. It has three main control
systems as follows :
1. Fuel Injection control2. Idle Air control3.Ignition Timing control.
 Fig. 4.27.3 : Components of M.P.F.I. system

4.27.4 Fuel Injection Control :

 The injector drive time is controlled so that the optimum air-fuel mixture is supplied to
the engine to correspond to continually changing engine operation condition.
 A single injector is mounted on the intake port of each cylinder.
 Fuel is sent under pressure by the fuel pump from the fuel tank, with the pressure being
regulated by the fuel pressure regulator as shown in Fig. 4.27.4.
 The fuel thus regulated is distributed to each of the injectors.
 Fuel injection is normally carried out simultaneously in four injectors, once in every
rotation.
 The engine-ECU provides a richer air-fuel mixture by carrying out “open-loop�? when
the engine is operating under low temperature conditions, in order to maintain engine
performance.

Fig. 4.27.4 : Fuel injection system

  In addition the engine - ECU controls the air fuel mixture by using the oxygen sensor
signal to carry out “closed-loop�? control in order to obtain the optimal air-fuel ratio that
provides the maximum cleaning performance by the catalytic converter.
 Under this fuel injection control there are other control functions such as :
(a) Fuel pump control :

Turns the fuel pump relay on, so that the current is supplied to the fuel pump when the
engine is cranking or running.
(b) AC relay control :

Turns the compressor clutch of the air-conditioner on and off.

(c) Fuel priming control :

Turns on the fuel pump for about 7 seconds to built up the fuel pressure as soon as the
ignition switch is turned on.
(d) Purge control solenoid valve control :

Turns the Purge control solenoid valve on and off when an activation is received from
the ECU.
4.27.5 Idle Air Control :
The idle speed is kept at the optimum speed by controlling the amount of air that by-
passes the throttle valve in accordance with changes in the idling conditions.
The engine-ECU drives the idle speed control motor to keep the engine running at the
pre-set idle target speed in accordance with the engine coolant temperature and air-conditioner
load, in addition, when the air-conditioner switch is turned off to on while engine is idling, the
idle speed control (ISC) motor operates to adjust the throttle valve bypass air amount in
accordance with the engine load conditions in order to avoid fluctuations in the engine speed.
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.27.5.
 Fig. 4.27.5 : Idle air control system

4.27.6 Ignition Timing Control :

The signal generator located in the system turns on to off to control the current through
the primary circuit of the ignition coils. The engine - ECU determines the optimum ignition
timing from the engine speed, intake volume, engine coolant temperature and atmospheric
pressure. The arrangement of ignition timing control is as shown in Fig. 4.27.6.
OUTPUT DATA (For trouble shooting) :

The RAM data inside the engine - ECU that is related to the sensors and actuators can be
read by means of the monitor (diagnostic equipment). If a malfunction is detected a blink signal
is also given to the “check engine soon�? light.
When the engine is running, the light blinks slowly when engine temperature is over 92C
or voltage below 12.2 volts over or 15 volts. On seeing the blinks, action is to be taken as per
the Table 4.27.1.
Table 4.27.1
 Fig. 4.27.6 : Ignition timing control

4.27.7 Advantages of M.P.F.I. System :

1.More uniform A.F mixture will be supplied to each cylinder, hence the difference in power
developed in each cylinder is minimum. Vibration from the engine equipped with this system
is less, due to this life of engine components is improved.
2.No need to crank the engine twice or thrice in case of cold starting as happens in the carburettor
system.
3.Provides immediate response in case of sudden acceleration/deceleration.
4.Since the engine is controlled by ECU (Engine Control Unit), more accurate amount of A.F mixture
will be supplied and as a result complete combustion will take place. This leads to effective
utilization of fuel supplied and hence low emission level.
5.Power developed by the engine is better compared to carburetion system.
6.Specific fuel consumption is low and mileage of the vehicle improves.
7.Provides better volumetric efficiency due to fewer restrictions in the intake system.
Disadvantages :

1.System is costly.
2.System needs elaborate arrangement requiring large number of components and sub-systems.

Section - III : Fuel Injection in CI Engines

4.28 Fuel Injection System in C.I. Engines :

 In case of compression ignition engines only air is sucked during its suction stroke.
 After compressing the air in the compression stroke, the fuel is injected under high
pressure of about 70 bar and above before the end of compression stroke with the help of
fuel pump.
 The C.I. engines demand that the fuel injection system should be able to atomise the
fuel into fine particles, to inject the fuel at desired rate to provide the fuel as per the load and
speed on the engine, to distribute the fuel uniformly throughout the combustion chamber and
the injection system should start and terminate instantaneously.
 Therefore, the fuel injection system becomes the most vital component in the working
system.
 The performance of the engine i.e. its power output, fuel economy, efficiency etc. is
vastly affected by the performance of the fuel injection system.
4.28.1 The Requirements of a Fuel Injection System :
The main requirements of a fuel injection system for compression ignition engines are :
(i) Meter the correct quantity of fuel to be injected per cycle as per the load and speed of the engine.
(ii) Timing the injection of fuel correctly during the cycle so that maximum power is obtained at
minimum fuel consumption.
(iii) The rate of injection of fuel should be controlled such that it results into desired heat release rate
during the combustion process.
(iv) It should atomise the fuel in fine particles.
(v) The spray pattern should be such that it results into rapid mixing of fuel with air.
(vi) To ensure the uniform distribution of fuel throughout the combustion chamber.
(vii)To ensure uniform distribution of metered fuel into each cylinder of a multi-cylinder engine.
(viii) The injection of fuel should start and terminate instantaneously. It should avoid any dribbling
of fuel droplets into cylinder.
4.28.2 Layout of Fuel Injection System : (GTU - May 2014)
Labelled layout of fuel system in C.I. engines is shown in Fig.4.28.1.
 Fig. 4.28.1 : Fuel injection system
4.29 Types of Injection Systems :
The fuel injection systems for diesel engines can be divided based on type of fuel delivery
as follows :

4.30 Air Injection System :

In case of air injection, the fuel is injected by means of high pressure air at about 70 bar
into the combustion chamber. It needs a compressor to supply compressed air and the fuel
pump to draw the desired fuel from fuel tank both to be supplied to the injector.
Advantages :

1.It provides good atomisation of fuel.

2.Heavy viscous fuels which are cheap can be used.
3.Fuel pump needs to develop only small pressure.
Disadvantages :

1.It cannot be used for portable engine due to requirement of air compressor and, if the system is
used it reduces power output and mechanical efficiency.
2.Air compressor needs extra maintenance.
3.System is bulky and expensive.
This system is not used now a days.
 4.31 Solid Injection or Airless Injection System : (GTU - Dec. 2013)
 In case of solid injection system, fuel is directly injected into cylinder without the aid
of compressed air. For this reason, this system is called solid or airless mechanical system.
 In this system the air is first compressed in the cylinder to a high temperature due to
high compression ratio employed by C.I. engines.
 High temperatures of air help in vapourising the fuel when injected.
 Since, the fuel does not vapourise at ordinary temperatures, also, the fuel supplied needs
to be atomized and mix with the air. Hence, it requires high injection pressures over
70 bar.
Main components of solid injection system are :
1.Fuel tank.
2.Fuel filters.
3.Fuel feed pump to supply fuel to injector.
4.Injection pump to meter and pressurise the fuel and supply to injector.
5.Governor to ensure that fuel is injected in accordance with variation in load.
6.Injector to inject fuel into the cylinder.
 The solid injection system consists of mainly a fuel pump and a fine nozzle.
4.31.1 Types of Solid Fuel Injection System :
Fuel injection system are divided into two groups :
1.Mechanical injection
2.Electronic injection.
Mechanical injection is further classified as :
(a) Common rail direct injection (CRDI) system : In this system the fuel is injected through
a mechanically controlled valve using the fuel stored in a receiver under high pressure.
(b) Individual pump system : It has a separate metering and compressing pump for each
cylinder of engine.
(c) Distributor system : It uses a single pump for metering and compressing the fuel and a
distributor for distributing the fuel to the various cylinders.
4.31.2 Common-Rail Direct Injection (CRDI) System : (GTU - May 2012, Dec. 2012)
 The system is shown schematically in Fig. 4.31.1.
 In this system the fuel from the tank is first supplied to common header
called accumulator with the help of high pressure pump.
 Fuel from accumulator is led into the engine cylinders through tubing to the injectors.
 A spring loaded high pressure relief valve maintains a constant pressure in the system
and it returns the excess fuel of the header to the fuel tank.
  The fuel is sprayed into the cylinders through a nozzle whose opening and closing is
controlled by a needle valve.
 The upward and downward motion of needle valve is controlled by the motion of
the cam.
 When the cam is during its dwell period, the spring forces the needle valve into the
nozzle passages and prevents the admission of fuel into the cylinder.
 The lift of a cam pushes the push rod upwards and this motion is transmitted to the
needle valve through the rocker arm and lever.

Fig. 4.31.1 : Common rail system

 The fuel is always kept in the space above the valve seat from the header and sealed
from top through the packing gland.
 When the needle valve lifts, the high pressure fuel is passed through the nozzle to the
cylinder.
 The wedge is operated either manually or by a governor which controls the amount of
fuel to be injected in accordance to the power requirement of the engine since the duration
of its opening depends upon its position.
 The fuel pressure in the accumulator can be varied by adjusting the spring pressure in
high pressure relief valve.
Advantages :

1. This system is simple and easy for maintenance.

2. It can control the fuel supply according to load and speed of the engine.
3. It has only one pump needed for a multicylinder engine.
Disadvantages :
1.System needs accurate design and workmanship since the total motion of the needle valve is very
small.
2. There is a likelihood of developing leakage at the valve seat.
3. Injection pressures used are in the range of 200 – 350 bar pressure.
4.31.3 Individual Pump System : (GTU - Dec. 2012)
 This system is usually used in modern C.I. engines.
 The fuel injection is affected by a separate fuel pump and a nozzle for each cylinder.
 The demand on the fuel pump are very severe since it has to meter the correct amount
of fuel at the correct timing. The system is shown in Fig. 4.31.2.
 Fuel from tank is supplied to low pressure (L.P.) pump through filter (F – 1). This pump
raises the pressure to about 2.5 bar and through filter (F – 2) supplies the fuel to various
individual pumps (P1 to P4) which would meter and compress the fuel.
 Pumps are connected to cam shaft drive (C) which maintains the timing of fuel to be
supplied.
 The filters are provided to remove any dirt, it helps in preventing the wear of the closely
fitted parts of the pump. ‘L’ is the control device to control the amount of fuel supply
according to the load on the engine.
 Fuel from pump is supplied to nozzles N – 1 to N – 4 to various cylinders.
 Pressure requirements vary from 100 bar to 300 bar pressures.
 Fig. 4.31.2 : Individual pump system
4.31.4 Distributor System : (GTU - Dec. 2012)

 The system is shown in Fig. 4.31.3

Fig. 4.31.3 : Distributor system

 In this case only a single pump (P) is used to meter the fuel and raise the high pressure.
Further distribution of the fuel is done by the distributor (D) to various nozzles. The
remainder working is similar to individual pump system.
4.31.5 Electronic Injection : (GTU - May 2014)
 Electronic injection system uses the electronic sensors for precise metering of fuel.
Such a system is called “Electronic Diesel Control (EDC)�? system. The various sensors
used are engine speed, crankshaft position, temperatures of intake & ambient air and
lubricating oil, mass flow rate of air, accelerator pedal position.
 The sensors feed the data to an electronic control unit (ECU). Which determines the
amount of fuel to be injected depending upon the engine speed, throttle position and other
parameters.
Advantages of electronic system :

1.Reduces fuel consumption and gives better mileage.

2.Reduces exhaust emissions.
3.Improves engine power
4.Prevents overheating of engine during braking and idling conditions of the engine.
Now a days EDC systems are preferred over mechanical systems in modern C.I. engines.
4.32 Fuel Injection Pumps :
A.Objectives of a fuel pump :

1.To deliver accurately metered quantity of fuel.

2.High pressures in the range of 100 bar to 300 bar needed depending upon the C.R. of engine
to achieve required atomisation of fuel.
3. Fuel must be injected and terminated at the correct timing.
B. Type of injection pumps :

1.Jerk type injection pump e.g. Bosch fuel injection pump.

2.Distributor type injection pump.
4.32.1 Bosch Fuel Injection Pump : (GTU - Dec. 2011, May 2012, May 2014, May 2015, May
2016)
 Fig. 4.32.1 shows the Bosch fuel injection pump. Sometimes, it is also called as Helix
bybass pump since the working principle of both is same.
 This pump is cam operated, spring return plunger pump of constant stroke type.
 Its special features are effective method of regulating the quantity of fuel to be delivered
to the cylinder. This is achieved by means of helical groove cut on the plunger.
 Spill ports always remain full of fuel since it is connected to the fuel line.
 Each pump consists of a steel pump barrel in which fits accurately a steel pump plunger.
 Fig. 4.32.1 : Bosch fuel pump
 A spring loaded delivery valve is fitted at the upper end of the barrel. Various positions
of plunger are shown in Fig. 4.32.2.
 Fuel flows by gravity from a fuel sump in the pump unit body. During the downward
motion of the plunger, a partial vacuum is created and as a result the fuel flows from the
sump through the intake port (a) into the barrel as shown in Fig. 4.32.2(a).
 The plunger moves vertically in its barrel with a constant stroke. During the upwards
stroke of the plunger, it covers the intake port and compresses the fuel which flows past the
delivery valve as shown in Fig. 4.32.2(b).
 To enable the pump to vary the quantity of fuel delivered, the plunger is provided with
vertical channel called plunge helix (b) extending from its top edge to an annular groove (c)
at a short distance down the plunger. This annular groove has its upper edge curved upwards
to a helical shape for almost half the plunger circumference as shown in Fig. 4.32.2.
 The rotation of the plunger controls the delivery of fuel. Figs. 4.32.2(c) and (d) shows
that if the plunger is rotated slightly, the pressure is released earlier and the total effective
stroke of the plunger is reduced.
 Fig. 4.32.2(c) shows the position when the pump chamber is always open to the inlet
port via the plunger helix. In this position there is no delivery of fuel and the engine can be
stopped.
 Fig. 4.32.2

Types of plunger helix in use are :

Fig. 4.32.3 : Types of plunger helix

(i)Plunger with normal helix [Refer Fig. 4.32.3 (i)] as discussed in section 4.32.1 has the start of
injection in constant time in each cycle where as the end of injection varies with load.
(ii)Plunger with reverse helix [ Refer Fig. 4.32.3 (ii) ] is similar in action as in case of normal helix.
However, it causes shorter delay and allows some retardation in combustion at low loads.
(iii)Plunger with variable start and end of injection is shown in Fig. 4.32.3 (iii). It can be used to
vary the time for start of injection of fuel and the time for end of injection.
4.32.2 Distributor Type Fuel Pump :
 Principle of working of a distributor type fuel injection pump is shown in Fig. 4.32.4.
 In this the fuel distribution to cylinders is achieved by a rotor.

Fig. 4.32.4 : Distributor type fuel injection pump

 The rotor has a central passage and two sets of radial holes.
 One set of radial holes is A connected to pump inlet to central passage and the other set
of radial holes (B) is connected to delivery line and injectors to various cylinders.
 The number of radial holes on each side equals to the number of cylinders of the engine.
These holes are located at different heights.
  When the pump plungers move away from each other, the fuel from inlet port A is
drawn into the central passage. It is then delivered via the outlet port B to the cylinder
corresponding to the passage coinciding with the outlet port.
 These type of pumps are small in size and light in weight compared to other types of
injection pumps.
4.33 Fuel Injector or Fuel Atomiser : (GTU - May 2014)
Fuel from pump is supplied to the fuel injector. Its functions are :
(i)To atomize the fuel and distribute such that it makes a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel.
(ii)To prevent the fuel to be injected directly on the piston or cylinder walls.
(iii)To provide instantaneous starting and stopping of the fuel.
Fig. 4.33.1 shows the cross-section of a Bosch fuel injector. The salient aspects are :
 Fig. 4.33.1 : Bosch fuel injector
The nozzle holes are normally closed by the spindle and spring. Delivery pipe pressure
forces up the spindle during injection and when the pressure falls, the spindle abruptly
interrupts injection. The injection pressure is regulated by adjusting the nuts above the spring.
The quantity of fuel injected may be regulated by the duration of opening of the valve or by
varying the fuel pressure in the system.
4.34 Types of Nozzles : (GTU - Dec. 2012, May 2013, May 2015, Dec. 2015)
 Nozzle is the part of an injector through which the liquid fuel is injected into the
combustion chamber.
  The type of nozzle used in an injector depends on the type of combustion chamber used
in an engine.
 The design of a nozzle should be such that the liquid fuel leaving the nozzle is atomized
which helps in proper mixing of fuel and air in the combustion chamber.
 Injection pressures should be such that the nozzle disperses the fuel in all parts of the
combustion chamber without reaching the surrounding walls. Otherwise, any fuel reaching
the walls tends to decompose and it produces the carbon deposits and smoky exhaust.
 Various types of nozzles used in diesel engine are shown in Fig. 4.34.1 these are as
follows :
(i) The pintle nozzle
(ii) The single hole nozzle
(iii) The multi-hole nozzle
(iv)The pintaux nozzle.
(i) Pintle nozzle :

These nozzles have a thin shanks or ends in the form of pin which protrudes through the
mouth of the nozzle as shown in Fig. 4.34.1(a). By varying the shape of this pin we can obtain
either a hollow cylindrical jet of high penetration effect or a wide angle spray under low
injection pressures of 80-100 bar with a spray cone angle of 55 – 60. Advantage of this type
of nozzle is that it avoids dribbling of fuel in the combustion chamber.
(ii) Single hole nozzle :

In this type of nozzle the fuel is injected into the combustion chamber through a single
hole bored through the nozzle body and closed by the nozzle valve as shown in Fig. 4.34.1(b).
Spray cone angle obtained ranges from 5 to 20 from a hole diameter of 0.2 mm. These
nozzles are suitable for open combustion chambers. The disadvantage of this nozzle is that it
gives a small spray cone angle due to which it does not provide a very good mixing of fuel and
air unless high injection pressures are used. Also, these nozzles have a tendency to dribble.
(iii) Multiple hole nozzle :

These nozzles have multiple holes bored at the tip of the nozzle as shown in Fig.
4.34.1(c). Its advantage is that it ensures proper mixing of fuel in case of open combustion
chambers even when the air velocities are low. The number of holes vary from 4 to 8 and its
size varies from 0.2 mm to 0.35 mm. The disadvantage of these nozzles is that it requires high
injection pressures in the range of 180 to 200 bar.
(iv) Pintaux nozzles :

It is a pintle type of nozzle with an auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle body shown in Fig.
4.34.1(d). The auxiliary hole injects the fuel in a direction upstream the direction of air before
 the main injection starts. Its advantage is that it reduces the delay period due to better heat
transfer between fuel and air, therefore, it results into better cold starting performance at a
temperature 20 to 25C lower than multiple hole nozzles.

Fig. 4.34.1 : Types of nozzles

4.34.1 Fuel Spray Formation :

The fuel is injected under pressure through the nozzle holes. This fuel disintegrates into
fine droplets inside the cylinder due to the resistance offered by the high density air present
inside the cylinder.
The formation of fine droplets in the cylinder depends on
(i)Relative motion of fuel and air
(ii)The physical properties of fuel and air
(iii)Spray angle from nozzle depends on density of air
(iv)The outlet velocity of fuel is low and flow of fuel is stream lined if the length to diameter (L/d)
ratio is high and it is turbulent with low (L/d) ratio.
It should be noted that larger sized droplets will have higher penetration compared to fine
droplets. On the other hand, the fine droplets help in quick mixing with air with evaporation of
fuel.
The penetration of the spray depends on the following
(a)Products of the diameter and the velocity of droplet which is proportional to its momentum.
(b)The density of air in the cylinder.
Apart from the formation of fine droplets of fuel i.e. its atomisation and the penetration
of the spray, the spray direction is also important. In case the fuel is injected upstream of air
due to high relative velocity between the fuel and air, it results into fine atomisation and
reduced delay period (important from knocking considerations which shall be discussed later).
But the combustion of these initial droplets results in surrounding the fresh droplets of fuel
injected subsequently. Thus the new droplets does not get required O2 from air present for its
combustion. It results into the poor efficiency and smoky exhaust.
It is suggested that low injection pressures with large orifice diameters can be used for
upstream injection. It may provide better efficiency at part loads and ease of starting.
However, down-stream injection is used wherever it is found the upstream injection is
not suitable.
4.35 Quantity of Fuel and Size of Nozzle Orifice :
Let : Cf = Velocity of fuel
Cdf = Coefficient of discharge of fuel orifice
h = Pressure difference between the injection pressure in meter of fuel column
Q = Volume of fuel injected per second
d = Diameter of fuel orifice
N = Speed in r.p.m
n = Number of orifices
pi = Fuel pressure at the inlet to injector, N / m2
pc = Cylinder pressure, N / m2
f = Fuel density, kg / m3
Fuel jet velocity at the exit of orifice,

The velocity of fuel required for proper atomisation and mixing of fuel is of the order of
400 m/s. This velocity is expressed in terms of h as :

The volume of fuel injected per second,

Ni = N for two stroke engine

 = Duration of fuel injection in crank angle degrees.
Ni represents the injections per minute.
Ex. 4.35.1 :Determine the velocity of injection of fuel in solid injection system when the difference in oil pressure and
cylinder pressure is 75 bar. Assume the specific gravity of fuel as 0.905 and coefficient for discharge
for orifice is 0.86.

Soln. :

Given : pi – pc = 75 bar = 75  105 N / m2, Cdf = 0.86

Specific gravity of fuel = 0.905
 Density of fuel, f = 0.905  1000 = 905 kg / m3
Velocity of injection of fuel,

Ex. 4.35.2 :A eight cylinder, four stroke diesel engine develops 180 kW at 4000 rpm. Its brake specific fuel
consumption (b.s.f.c) is 0.21 kg/kWh. Calculate the quantity of fuel to be injected per cycle if the specific
gravity of fuel is 0.86.

Soln. :

Given : Number of cylinders = 8, P = 180 kW,N = 4000 rpm,

b.s.f.c = 0.21 kg/kWh,
Specific gravity = 0.86
 Fuel consumed/cylinder/hr,

= 3.94  10– 5 kg = 0.0394 gm

= 0.0458 cc...Ans.

Ex. 4.35.3 :A six cylinder, four stroke C.I engine develops 500 kW at 4800 rpm and consumes 0.2 kg/kWh. Determine
the diameter of single orifice injector if the injection pressure is 200 bar and cylinder pressure is 40 bar.
The period of injection is 30C of crank rotation. Assume, specific gravity of fuel as 0.89 and coefficient
of discharge as 0.9.

Soln. :

Given :P = 500 kW, N = 4800 rpm, b.s.f.c. = 0.2 kg/kWh,

pi = 200 bar, pc = 40 bar,  = 30,
Specific gravity = 0.89, Cdf = 0.9;
Number of cylinders, n1 = 6
Fuel consumed / hr = b.s.f.c.  Power of engine

= 6.944  10– 4 kg = 0.6944 gm

= 0.7803 cc

= 1.042  10– 3 seconds

= 170.66 m/s = 170660 cm/s

 or, Orifice diameter, d = 0.0305 cm = 0.305 mm...Ans.

Solution :

Given : P = 15 kW, N = 2000 rpm, b.s.f.c = 0.24 kg/kWh,

 = 30, pi = 130 bar, pc = 45 bar,Cdf = 0.9
Specific gravity of fuel,

= 0.0025 seconds.

Volume of fuel injected/cycle,

= 6.93  10– 8 m3 / s

Ex. 4.35.5 :A four stroke, 6 cylinder oil engine operates on A.F. ratio = 20. The diameter and stroke of cylinder are
10 cm and 14 cm respectively. The volumetric efficiency = 0.8 The condition of air at the beginning of
compression are 1 bar, 300 K.
 Determine (i) the maximum amount of fuel that can be injected in each cylinder per cycle
(ii) If the engine speed is 1500 rpm, injection pressure is
150 bar, air pressure during fuel injection is 40 bar and fuel injection is carried out for
20 of crank rotation, determine the diameter of the fuel orifice assuming only one orifice
is used.

Take,  = 760 kg / m , C = 0.67

f
3
df

Soln. :

Given :6 cylinder, 4 stroke engine;

A.F ratio = 20,D = 10 cm, L = 14 cm,
v = 0.8, p = 1 bar,T = 300 K,
N = 1500 rpm,pi=150 bar, pc = 40 bar,
 = 20,f = 760 kg / m3, Cdf = 0.67
(i) Maximum amount of fuel injected/cylinder/cycle :
Volume of air supplied/cylinder/cycle, Va = Stroke volume Volumetric efficiency

From gas equation, pVa = ma  RT1

(1  105 )  (8.8  10– 4 ) = ma  287  300
Mass of air supplied / cylinder / cycle,
ma = 1.022  10–3 kg

= 5.11  10– 5 kg / cylinder / cycle…Ans.

(ii)Diameter of fuel orifice :

 Mass of fuel supplied per second to each cylinder,

mf1 = f  Af  Cf
  Diameter of orifice, d = 5.8  10– 4 m
= 0.58 mm…Ans.

Ex. 4.35.6 :A six cylinder four stroke CI engine developing a power output of 270 kW at 1000 rpm has a fuel
consumption of 0.25 kg/kWh. The injection takes place over 20 crank angle with pressure across the
injector orifice of 100 MPa, Calculate rate of fuel injection in mg/s through each hole of four hole injection
fitted in the engine cylinders and thermal efficiency of the engine.

Soln. :

Number of cylinder, n1 = 6 ;B.P. = 270 kW

(pi – pc) = 100 Mpa = 1000 bar ; Number of holes in each nozzle = 4
(i)Thermal efficiency of the engine, b :

(ii)Rate of fuel injection in mg/s through each hole :

Fuel consumption/cylinder/hr

Fuel consumed per cycle

= 3.75  10– 4  106 mg/cycle = 375 mg/cycle

Amount of fuel injected/orifice in mg/s

= 1801 mg/s…Ans.
Summary
 Important basic properties of fuels required for I.C. engines operation are high C.V.,
good combustion properties, safety from fire, low carbon deposits, stability, low toxicity,
easy starting and non-polluting.
 Usually liquid petroleum and gaseous fuels are employed for I.C. engines.
 Basic hydrocarbon groups in petroleum in order are paraffins, olefins, naphthenes and
aromatics.
 Common characteristics of petroleum fuels are :
(a)For antiknock characteristics, normal paraffins are best fuels and aromatics are the worst
fuel for S.I. engines and reverse is the order for C.I. engines.
(b)Boiling temperature increases with increase in number of carbon atoms in each group of
fuels.
(c)Heating value of hydrocarbon increases with increase in ratio of hydrogen to carbon atoms.
 Gasoline is used for S.I. engines because it vapourises easily and makes homogeneous
mixture with air, cheap, non-corrosive, do not forms gum, high C.V. and posses antiknock
characteristics.
 Important properties of the fuel are :
 Volatility of a fuel is determined by ASTM distillation test, Reid vapour test and EAD
test. Volatility of fuel affects the design of intake manifolds, starting and warm up, engine
acceleration, crankcase dilution, vapour lock, evaporation loss, antiknock properties, gum
and varnish deposits and sulphur content.
 Octane number is the percentage of octane in the mixture of iso-octane and
n-heptane by volume. It indicates the ability of fuel to resist detonation in S.I. engines.
 Dopes are compounds when added in small quantities have pronounced effect on anti-
knock characteristics of the engine.
 Tetra ethyl lead and tetra methyl lead are suitable for S.I. engines and Amyl Nitrate and
Amyl Nitrite are suitable for C.I. engines as dopes/additives.
 Performance Number (PN) of a fuel is defined as :

where, KLi.m.e.p represents the knock limited indicated mean effective pressure.
  Highest useful compression ratio (HUCR) represents the compression ratio at which
the fuel can be used in an engine without detonation under standard operating conditions.
 Diesel fuels are used for C.I. engines. Fuel should have high cetane number, high
volatility for easy starting, not to promote smoke and odour, anti-corrossive and flow easily
under all operative conditions.
 Cetane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage by volume of cetane fuel
(C16 H34) in a mixture of cetane and alpha methyl naphthelene (C11H10) that produces the same
ignition lag under standard operating conditions.
 Diesel index is another way expressing the quality of diesel fuel.

Section I : Carburetion

 The process of preparation of mixture of atomized fuel and air is called carburetion.
 The device which supplies the metered spray of fuel mixed with correct amount of air
for efficient combustion in cylinder at all operating conditions is called carburettor.
 Fuel feeding system for S.I. engines consists of fuel tank, carburettor, throttle valve
and intake manifolds.
 Various mixture requirements of S.I. engine are :
(a) Maximum power : Rich mixtures with air-fuel ratio 12.5 to 13.5 : 1
(b) Maximum economy : Lean mixtures 16.5 to 17.5 : 1
(c) Starting, idling and low load running : Rich mixtures 11 to 12 : 1
(d) Acceleration : Rich mixtures provided with the help of accelerating pumps.
(e) Part load running-Cruising range : Lean mixtures 17 : 1 for single cylinder engines and
16 : 1 for multicylinder engines.
 Main components of a simple carburettor are float chamber with float, main fuel jet,
venturi and the choke tube. Drawback of this carburettor is that it supplies rich mixtures with
the increase in air speed.
 Starting choke, when closed, provides rich mixtures at the time of cold starting of the
engine.
 Idling system consists of an idle port located just below of throttle valve. During idling,
the low pressures existing in intake manifolds helps in providing the rich mixture through
idle jet.
  Acceleration system consists of an accelerating pump whose plunger is controlled by
spring force and supplies excess fuel through metering orifice.
 Various compensating devices are used to maintain constant air-fuel ratio with
variation in speed since a simple carburettor tends the supply richer mixtures with increase
in speed.
Modern carburettors use the following compensating devices :
(i) Compensating jet
(ii) Emulsion tube or air bleed
(iii)Auxiliary air valve
(iv) Auxiliary air part
(v) Metering pin method for part load running.
(vi) Quality control by back suction.
 A.F. ratio of a simple carburettor is :
(a) When compressibility of air is neglected :

…[According to Equation (4.18.7)]

(b)When compressibility of air is considered :

 Various modern automobile carburettors used are :

(i) Solex carburettor(ii) Carter carburettor(iii) S.U. carburettor
 Problems associated with carburetion are :
(i)Ice formation may take place in case temperature of mixture at venturi becomes less than
dew point of water vapour associated with air.
(ii)Vapour lock, may be caused due to vapourisation of fuel in pipes, feed pump or float
chamber in carburettor.
 At high altitudes, the pressure and temperature at height h are :

t = ta – 0.00675  h ; (ta = temperature of surrounding air at sea level)

Due to reduced density of air at high altitudes, the actual A.F. ratio is reduced.
 The mixture control systems are :
(a) Needle type
(b) Back suction method
(c) Air-port-type
 The function of fuel pump is to draw fuel from tank through pipe line and supply to
carburettor.
 Fuel pumps are mechanical and electrical type.
 The function of fuel injection system is to provide atomised fuel in the form of spray
according to the load and speed of the engine and to distribute it uniformly throughout the
combustion chamber of a C.I. engine.

Section - II : Fuel Injection in C.I. and Engines

 Modern engines use fuel injection system in S.I. engines also. It is due to inherent
drawbacks of the carburettor like non-supply of exact A.F ratio at all loads and speeds,
unequal distribution of A.F ratio in multicylinder engines, high s.f.c, back firing, low
volumetric efficient and high exhaust emissions.
 Types of Gasoline injection system in S.I. engines are :
(i)Continuous port and intake manifold injection system : A pump under pressure of 1 to
1.5 bar injects fuel through a nozzle continuously into air supply.
(ii) Timed fuel injection system : (Obsolete today due to high fuel consumption and high
exhaust emissions.)
(iii)Gasoline direct injection (GDI) into cylinder.
 Advantages of continuous injection system are that it increases atomisation of fuel,
provides uniform A.F ratio and improves volumetric efficiency.
 M.P.F.I. System for S.I. Engines involves the injection of fuel under low pressure into
each cylinder by separate injectors.
(a) It’s main components are computer (ECU), sensors and solenoid injector.
(b) It is classified as :
(i) D-M.P.F.I. system in which fuel is injected in the intake manifolds by sensing vacuum,
density of air and speed of engine.
(ii)L-M.P.F.I. system regulates the fuel injection by sensing speed. It is a port fuel injection
system.
 M.P.F.I. System components are fuel injection control, idle air control and ignition
time control.
 Advantages of M.P.F.I. system over conventional system are :
(i) more uniform A.F ratio
(ii) high volumetric efficiency
 (iii)more power
(iv) less s.f.c
(v) provision for sudden acceleration / deceleration
(vi) low exhaust emissions
(vii)better mileage
(viii)no need to crank the engine in case of cold starting.
 Fuel injection systems are of two types :
(i) Solid or airless injection system
(ii) Air injection
 In solid injection system air is first compressed to a high pressure and temperature and
used for injecting the fuel at 70 bar and higher pressures. These are of three types :
(a) Common rail system
(b)Individual pump system
(c) Distributor system.
 Nozzle is a part of an injector through which fuel is injected to combustion chamber,
these are pintle, single hole, multiple hole and pintaux types. The use of pintle nozzles avoid
the dribbling of fuel in the combustion chambers. Single hole nozzles are suitable for open
combustion chambers, since these give small spray cone angle with inadequate mixing of
fuel and air.
 Quantity of fuel and size of nozzle orifice :
Fuel jet velocity,

where, Ni = Number of strokes/min

 = Fuel injection time in crank angle degrees.
Exercise
[ Note : For answers refer the section numbers indicated in bracket. ]

Section I

Theory :

Q. 1Enumerate the desirable properties of a fuel for I.C. engines. [Section 4.1.1]
Q. 2 How the fuels are classified ? Is it possible to use solid fuels in I.C. engines ? If no, what are associated
problems ? [Sections 4.2 and 4.2.1]

Q. 3 Classify liquid fuels. How the hydrocarbons are classified into various groups.
[Section 4.3]

Q. 4 Enumerate the common characteristics exhibited by families of hydrocarbons.

[Section 4.3.5]

Q. 5 Discuss the ideal properties of gasoline for S.I. engines. [Section 4.4.3]

Q. 6 Discuss the effect of volatility on :

(i) Acceleration [Section 4.4.3 (2)]

(ii) Starting [Section 4.4.3 (1)]

(iii) Warm up [Section 4.4.3 (1)]

Q. 7What is vapour lock ? [Section 4.4.3 (4)]

Q. 8 Discuss the effect of high sulphur content in fuels on performance of I.C. engines. [Section 4.4.3 (8)]

Q. 9Define and explain the following terms in nut shell.

1. HUCR [Section 4.6]

2. Octane number [Section 4.5]

3.Performance number [Section 4.5.2]

4.Cetane number [Se[Section 4.9]

Q. 10Define : Octane number, Cetane number and HUCR. Discuss the method to determine Octane number
of a fuel. [Sections 4.5, 4.5.2, 4.6 and 4.9]

Q. 11What are the ideal characteristics of a fuel for C.I. engines ? [Section 4.8.1]

Q. 12What do you understand by dopes ? Name some of the additives used for S.I. and C.I. engine
fuels. [Sections 4.7 and 4.10]

Section II : Carburetion

Theory :

Q. 1What do you mean by carburetion ? [Section 4.11.1]

Q. 2What are the requirements of a good carburettor ? [Section 4.14]

Q. 3Explain the fuel flow path in petrol engines. [Section 4.11.2]

Q. 4Explain the various factors affecting carburetion. [Section 4.11.3]

Q. 5Explain the following :

 (i)Rich mixture

(ii)Lean mixture
(iii)Stoichiometric mixture.

What are the limits of burning the rich and lean mixtures in S.I. engines.[Section 4.12]

Q. 6What are A.F. ratio requirements of a spark ignition engine under varying operating conditions ? why
? [Section 4.13]

Q. 7With the help of a neat sketch explain the working of a simple carburettor. Why is this type not used in
actual S.I engines ? [Sections 4.15 and 4.15.1]

Q. 8Sketch a typical induction system of a petrol engine and explain the A.F. ratio requirements of a petrol
engine from no load to full load.[Sections 4.11.2 and 4.12 and 4.13]

Q. 9Explain with the help of neat pencil sketch operation of a carburettor having starting, idling and main jet
system. [Section 4.19.1]

Q. 10Explain the mixture strength required while accelerating and at the time of cold starting. [Sections 4.13.3
and 4.13.2]

Q. 11What are mixture requirements for steady state and transient conditions for the S.I. engine ? [Sections
4.12 and 4.13]

Q. 12Explain why rich mixture is required for the following :

(i)idling

(ii)maximum power
(iii)sudden acceleration. [Sections 4.13.2 and 4.13.1 and 4.13.3]

Q. 13Explain the reason for increase in thermal efficiency with weak mixtures in S.I. engines. [Sections 4.13
and 4.13.2]

Q. 14Give your comments and explain a petrol engine is a quantity governed.[Section 4.15]

Q. 15Discuss the working of a simple carburettor with the help of a neat sketch. What modifications are required
in simple carburettor to meet the requirement of cold starting and low load running of the engine
?[Sections 4.15 and 4.16.1 and 4.16.4]

Q. 16What do you understand by the term compensation as applied to carburettors ? Explain various methods
of compensation. [Section 4.16.6]

Q. 17What do you understand compensation in carburettor ? Is it necessary to provide compensation system

is the carburettors ? With a neat sketch explain the working of compensating system. [Sections 4.16.6
and 4.16.6(i)]

Q. 18What is meant by slow running jet ? How does it compensate the A.F. requirement of
S.I. engine ? [Section 4.16.2]
Q. 19What is a choke and throttle valve ? What are their functions ?[Sections 4.15 and 4.16.1]

Q. 20What is an emulsion tube ? How does it help to control the uniform A.F. ratio with increase in speed to
engines ? [Section 4.16.6(ii)]

Q. 21Discuss various types of carburettors. [Section 4.17]

Q. 22Show that the A.F ratio by a simple carburettor is given by

where, A = area of venturi,

a

A = area of fuel jet and h = nozzle lip. [Section 4.18.2]

f

Q. 23Explain the working of a solex carburettor. [Section 4.19.1]

Q. 24Draw a neat sketch of a Carter carburettor and explain its working.[Section 4.19.2]

Q. 25Explain the working of a S.U. Carburettor with the help of a neat sketch.[Section 4.19.3]

Q. 26Explain the working of an electric fuel pump used for S.I. engines.[Section 4.12]

Q. 27What do you understand by “altitude compensation�? ? Explain.

Explain, how the mixture is controlled at high altitudes by the carburettor.[Section 4.13]

Numericals :

Q. 1A four cylinder, four stroke engine having cylinder diameter 6 cm, 10 cm stroke runs at 2400 rpm. The
volumetric efficiency is 80 %. If the pressure difference causing the flow is 0.157 bar, find the required
throat diameter of the venturi.

If the carburettor is required to supply an air-fuel ratio of 16 : 1, find the diameter of nozzle orifice.
Assume : C = 0.85, C = 0.7,  = 1.26 kg/m ,  = 730 kg/m
da df a
3
f
3

[Ans. : 1.31 cm; 0.7358 mm]

Q. 2If Q. 1 the nozzle lip is 6 mm, find the diameter of nozzle orifice required.

[Ans. : 0.7363 mm]

[Hint : Apply Equation (4.8.5)]
Q. 3A simple jet carburettor has to supply air at the rate of 5 kg/min. Surrounding air is at 1.013 bar and 27 C.

The velocity coefficient for the venturi is 0.8 and the air flow velocity is 90 m/s. Calculate the required throat
diameter of venturi by considering compressibility of air. Assume, C = 1005 J/kg K and  = 1.4 p

[Ans. : 3.28 cm]

Q. 4A simple carburettor has the venturi throat diameter of 10 cm and coefficient of discharge is 0.9. The fuel
orifice diameter is 0.6 cm and its coefficient of discharge is 0.7. Find the A.F. ratio if the pressure drop
across the venturi is 0.18 bar.

Assume, nozzle tip = 6 mm,

 = 1.3 kg/m ,  = 740 kg/m .

a
3
f
3

[Ans. : 14.99:1]

[Hint : Refer Example 4.18.1 (b)]

Q. 5The throat diameter of the venturi of a simple carburettor is 3 cm and that of fuel orifice 1.5 mm. The nozzle
lip is 5 mm. If the pressure drop across the venturi amounts to
0.1 bar find :

(i) A.F. ratio supplied by the carburettor

(ii) The critical velocity of air required to start the fuel flow.

Assume, C = 0.8, C = 0.65,  = 1.2 kg/m and  = 740 kg/m
da df a
3
f
3

[Ans. : (i) 19.861 : 1 (ii) 7.78 m/s]

[Hint : Refer Example 4.18.3]

Q. 6A six cylinder, 4 stroke engine runs at 4000 rpm. The bore and stroke of each cylinder is 12 cm and 14 cm
respectively. The throat diameter is 4 cm and the volumetric efficiency is 0.8.

Determine the suction pressure required.

Assume,  = 1.3 kg/m and C = 0.9

a
3
da

[Ans. : 32614.4 N/m ] 2

[Hint : Refer Example 4.18.4]

Q. 7A simple carburettor supplies the A.F ratio of 17 : 1. The throat diameter is 2.4 cm. The mass flow rate of
fuel is 8 kg/hr. Assume,  = 750 kg/m ,  = 1.2 kg/m , C = 0.8, C = 0.65
f
3
a
3
da df

Neglecting the nozzle lip and compressibility of air, find :

(i) Air flow rate in kg/s(ii) Pressure drop across the venturi
 (iii) Fuel orifice diameter.

[Ans. : (i) 0.03778 kg/s (ii) 4540.5 N/m (iii) 1.25 mm]
2

Q. 8A carburettor without air filter supplies A.F ratio of 16 : 1. When the pressure measured at venturi is 0.8
bar.

When the air filter was fitted, the pressure lost in filter amounts to 0.03 bar and the air flow rate is 300 kg/hr.

If C = 0.9, find the throat pressure and the A.F ratio with air filter fitted.
da

Assume, p = 1.013 bar.

a

[Ans. : 0.76 bar; 14.98 : 1]

[Hint : Refer Example 4.18.5]

Q. 9A carburettor is designed to provide an A.F. ratio of 14 at sea level. If the same carburettor is required to
work at an altitude of 5000 m, find the A.F ratio at this altitude given by the same carburettor.

Assume :
p = 1.013 bar, T = 300 K;
a a

T = T + 0.0065 h
a

where, h is altitude in m and p is in bar.

[Ans. : 11:1]

[Hint : Refer Example 4.18.9]

Section III : Gasoline Injection, Fuel Injection in C. I. Engines and

MPFI System for S.I. Engines

Theory :

Q. 1Discuss the reasons for adopting fuel injection system for S.I. engines. What are various types of petrol
injection system ? [Sections 4.24 and 4.25]

Q. 2Discuss various methods of continuous injection system used in S.I. engines.[Section 4.25.1]

Q. 3Why M.P.F.I. system is used in modern automobiles in S.I. engines ?[Section 4.27.7]

Q. 4Draw a neat sketch of a general M.P.F.I. system and explain its working.[Section 4.26]

Q. 5What are the main components of M.P.F.I. system ? [Section 4.27]

Q. 6How the M.P.F.I. system classified ? Explain the working principle any one of them.[Sections 4.27 and
4.27.1]
Q. 7Explain with the help of block diagram a M.P.F.I. system. [Section 4.27.3]

Q. 8What are various controls of a M.P.F.I. injection system used in S.I engine ? Explain them with the help of
block diagrams. [Sections 4.27.3, 4.27.4, 4.27.5 and 4.27.6]

Q. 9What are the advantages of M.P.F.I. injection system over conventional system ?[Section 4.27.7]

Q. 10Write brief explanatory note on multipoint fuel injection system (MPFI) for S.I. engines.[Section 4.26]

Q. 11What are the requirements of a fuel injection system in C.I. engines ?[Section 4.28]

Q. 12Discuss the types of fuel injection system used in C.I. engines. Why air injection system not used now-a-
days ? [Sections 4.29 and 4.30]

Q. 13With a diagram explain the working of a common-rail fuel injection system. Obtain an expression for the
amount of fuel injected per cycle.[Sections 4.29.2 and 4.35]

Q. 14Explain with the help of neat sketch the working of a Diesel engine fuel injection pump.[Section 4.32.1]

Q. 15Give brief classification of diesel injection systems with explanation of any one system. [Sections 4.29,
4.31.1 and 4.31.3]

Q. 16Explain the working of individual pump system used in C.I. engine.[Section 4.31.3]

Q. 17Differentiate between individual pump system and distributor system of injection of fuel in C.I.
engines. [Sections 4.31.3 and 4.31.4]

Q. 18Explain construction and working of a Bosch fuel injection pump.[Section 4.32.1]

Q. 19Explain the working of distributor type fuel injection pump with a neat sketch.[Section 4.32.2]

Q. 20Draw sketches showing the constructional features of different type of nozzles used in automobile diesel
engines, explaining the function of each. [Section 4.34]

Numericals :

Q. 1A eight cylinder, 4 stroke C.I. engine develops 1000 kW at 3600 rpm. s.f.c is
0.22 kg/kWh. Injection pressure is 240 bar and cylinder pressure is 50 bar. The period of injection is
30 of crank rotation. Determine the diameter of single orifice injector required. Assume, C = 0.9 and
df

specific gravity of fuel as 0.88.

[Hint : Refer Example 4.35.2]

[Ans. : 3.768 mm]

Q. 2A single cylinder four stroke diesel engine running at 650 rpm uses 2.2 kg/hr of fuel (sp. gravity 0.875). It
has a single hole nozzle and the injection period is 28 of crank travel. If the average injection pressure
is 150 bar and average air pressure is 30 bar during the injection, calculate the fuel orifice diameter.

Assume, C = 0.88.
d
 4.36 University Questions and Answers :

May 2011

Q. 1Define octane and Cetane No. (Sections 4.5, 4.9) (7 Marks)

Dec. 2011

Q. 2Draw neat and labeled diagram of multi point fuel injection system for modern automobile engines
and explain its working. (Section 4.26)(7 Marks)

Q. 3With neat sketch explain working principle and constructional detail of Bosch fuel injection
pump. (Section 4.32.1)(7 Marks)

May 2012

Q. 4Define the following terms :

(i)Cloud point (Section 4.8(7))

(ii)Pour point (Section 4.8(8))

(iii)Cetane number (Section 4.9)

(iv)HUCR (Section 4.6)(7 Marks)

Q. 5Write a note on mpfi system for modern automobiles. (Section 4.26)(7 Marks)

Q. 6With a line diagram explain the working of common rail fuel injection system.(Section 4.31.2)(7
Marks)

Q. 7State the different types of carburetors and explain working of any one of them.(Sections 4.19,
and 4.19.1)(7 Marks)

Q. 8Explain construction and working of bosch fuel pump. (Section 4.32.1)(7 Marks)

Dec. 2012
 Q. 9What is the function of carburetor in an SI engine? Briefly explain with a neat sketch the operation
of simple float type carburetor. (Sections 4.11.1 and 4.15)(7 Marks)

Q. 10 Describe with suitable sketches the following systems of carburetor.

(i)Main metering system (Section 4.16.2)

(ii) Idling system (Section 4.16.2)

(iii)Acceleration pump system (Section 4.16.3)(7 Marks)

Q. 11 Describe with the help of suitable sketches:

(i)Jerk pump system (Section 4.31.3)

(ii)Common rail system (Section 4.31.2)

(iii) Distributor system (Section 4.31.4)(7 Marks)

Q. 12 Describe different types of injection nozzles and discuss their relative advantages and
disadvantages. (Section 4.34)(7 Marks)

May 2013

Q. 13 What are the factors affecting carburetion ? (Section 4.11.3)(7 Marks)

Q. 14 Differentiate between multipoint injection and direct injection.

(Sections 4.25.1(c) and 4.26)(7 Marks)

Q. 15 Explain the types of nozzles used in CI engines. (Section 4.34)(7 Marks)

Dec. 2013

Q. 16 State basic requirements of diesel fuel. (Section 4.8)(7 Marks)

Q. 17 A petrol engine consumes 6.8kg/hr. The choke diameter of the engine carburetor is
2 cm. The density of the fuel used is 700 kg/m and A:F ratio of the mixture supplied by the
3

carburetor is 15:1.Determine the carburetor jet diameter if the top of jet is 5 mm above the petrol
level in float chamber . Take R = 287 Nm/kg-K. The Ambient pressure and temperature are 1 bar
and 32C.Take C = 0.9 ,C = 0.7.(Ex. 4.18.8)(7 Marks)
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Q. 18 Explain with neat sketch different devices used to meet the requirements of an ideal
carburetor. (Sections 4.16 and 4.16.6)(7 Marks)

Q. 19 Explain with neat sketch air-less injection system. (Section 4.31)(7 Marks)

May 2014
 Q. 20 What are the criteria for the selection of I.C. Engine fuels ? (Section 4.1.1)(7 Marks)

Q. 21 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using gaseous fuels in I.C. Engines. (Section
4.2.2)(7 Marks)

Q. 22 What is the function of a carburetor ? What is carburetion ?(Sections 4.11 and 4.11.1)(7 Marks)

Q. 23 Explain the construction and operation of a simple carburetor with the help of a diagram. (Section
4.15)(7 Marks)

Q. 24 What are the main components required in a fuel injection system ?

(Section 4.28.2) (7 Marks)

Q. 25 Describe the construction of a jerk pump type fuel injection pump ?

(Section 4.32.1)(7 Marks)

Q. 26 Describe the construction and working of a fuel injector nozzle with the help of a
diagram. (Section 4.33)(7 Marks)

Q. 27 Describe the working principle of an electronically controlled fuel injection system.(Section

4.31.5)(7 Marks)

Dec. 2014

Q. 28 Define the following terms : Cloud point, pour point, Cetane number and HUCR.(Sections 4.8(7),
4.8(8), 4.9 and 4.6)(7 Marks)

Q. 29 What is the function of carburetor in an SI engine? Explain the operation of simple float type
carburetor with a neat sketch. (Sections 4.11.1 and 4.15) (7 Marks)

Q. 30 Draw neat and labeled diagram of multi point fuel injection system for modern automobile engines
and explain its working. (Section 4.26)(7 Marks)

May 2015

Q. 31 What is carburetor? Explain any one type of carburetor with neat sketch.(Sections 4.11.1 and
4.15)(7 Marks)

Q. 32 Explain types of nozzles used in CI engines. (Section 4.34) (7 Marks)

Q. 33 Explain simple jet type carburetor with neat sketch. (Section 4.15)(7 Marks)

Q. 34 Explain fuel pump used in CI engines. (Section 4.32.1)(7 Marks)

Dec. 2015
 Q. 35 A simple jet carburetor is required to supply 6 kg of air per minute and 0.45 kg of fuel of density
740 kg/m . The air is initially at 1.013 bar and 27°C. Calculate the throat diameter of the choke
3

for a flow velocity of 92 m/s, velocity coefficient of 0.8. If the pressure drop across the fuel
metering orifice is 0.75 of that at the choke, calculate orifice diameter assuming C =0.60. (Ex.
d

4.18.7)(7 Marks)

Q. 36 Draw neat sketch of pintaux nozzle and discuss its merits. (Section 4.34)(7 Marks)

Q. 37 With neat sketch explain construction and working of solex carburetor.

(Section 4.19.1(iv))(7 Marks)

May 2016

Q. 38 Discuss the significance of distillation curve. (Section 4.4.2)(7 Marks)

Q. 39 Explain construction and working of bosch fuel pump. (Section 4.32.1)(7 Marks)

Q. 40 Derive an expression for air-fuel ratio for

(1)Neglecting compressibility of air (Section 4.18.2)

(2) Considering compressibility of air (Section 4.18.1) (7 Marks)
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