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Running Head: BEHAVIORISM AND CONSTRUCTIVISM

Behaviorism and Constructivism

Laura Buscemi
Towson University
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Life is made up of a series of learning experiences. Everything we see or know, we

learned to be true. Whether this learning was in a manner of formality or not, human nature

pushes us to continue to learn, absorb and assimilate information throughout our lives. History is

filled with great minds that have studied learning, and in turn theorized on the ways that people

process and understand. This paper will examine two of those theories, behaviorism and

constructivism, describing and comparing their understanding of learning and the learner.

Influenced by the early 19th century work of Igor Pavlov, Skinner developed his theory of

Radical Behaviorism in the mid-20th century. As a student at Harvard in 1929, Skinner was able

to meet Pavlov in person, describing himself as “turning up hero-worshipping” wherever Pavlov

would appear (Skinner, 1996). Pavlov’s greatest influence on Skinner came from his studies with

animal behavior, and what is known as classical conditioning. This process involves forming an

association between stimuli, and involves automatic behavior. From here, Skinner developed his

theory of operant conditioning, which focuses on modifying voluntary behaviors instead of

conditioning automatic ones. In operant conditioning, a stimulus precedes a response, which is

followed by a reinforcing stimulus. Operant conditioning plays greatly into how Skinner, and

Radical Behaviorists, understand learning and the learner. According to Skinner, students acquire

knowledge through an instructor providing them with reinforcement. A student is presented with

a question, they answer correctly, and are reinforced in a positive manner (Ertmer & Newby,

2013). Skinner believes a student will increase in knowledge at an accelerated rate providing the

instructor has given the student the proper environmental factors in which to learn (Skinner,

1968). The instructor will know the student has learned when the student is able to produce

correct actions or responses when prompted. A behaviorist could measure learning through an

exam or test, looking for correct responses to direct questions.

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In the 1920’s, two decades after Pavlov observed the drooling patterns of dogs, Jean

Piaget found himself observing the intelligence of children. These observations were the

foundation for Piaget’s stages of development, and an influence in his understanding of how

children learn. Piaget is considered by many to be the founding father of 20th century

constructivism (Glasersfeld, 2004). A constructivist sees the learner’s mind as producing its own

unique reality, where, in Piaget’s words, “the mind organizes the world by organizing itself” (as

cited by Glasersfeld, 2004, p. 219). Learning occurs through creating meaning out of

experience. A students studies should reflect real world application, and include experiments and

hands on projects that teach the learner new concepts. As Bednar states, for an instructor to

understand learning has taken place within an individual, “the actual experience must be

examined” (as cited by Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 55). According to constructivism, learning is

about building meaning through experiences, and since many possible meanings can be

determined through experience, there is no predetermined right answer.

How Learning Takes Place

To understand learning, we must first look at how learning takes place. According to

behaviorists, all learning is a conditioned response to environmental factors. When

understanding how learning takes place, a behaviorist is limited to only looking at learning that

is observable and measurable, and does not deal with speculations. This causes the behaviorist to

focus on learning as acts of behavioral change (Hannum, 2015). These changes are brought on

through a past understanding of the specific consequences of a behavior. Reinforcement will

increase the chance that the specific behavior will be repeated. Punishment, however, will reduce

the chance of a behavior being repeated. If a student is praised and given candy for completing

their homework, they will likely continue this behavior (Ertmer & Newby, 2013).
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On the other side of the coin, constructivism operates more on speculation, and less on

obvious right or wrong answers. Constructivist feel that experience produces meaning, and that

meaning is learning (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). Through this experience, a learner is able to

assimilate new, similar experiences to schema already established in their mind.

Accommodation, however, is necessary when existing schema does not work, and needs to be

adjusted or revised. Through these processes of assimilation and accommodation, a learner gains

and revisits new information throughout his or her life. Each life experience brings about new

learning, and constructivists recognize that knowledge is not stagnate. In education, this

encourages teachers to present students with real life experiences, allowing students to learn by

doing (Driscoll, 2005). Instead of telling students how to mix primary colored paint to create

specific secondary colors, students would be allowed to experience color mixing for themselves

to understand and create their own conclusions. Upon later discovering in science that colored

light mixes differently than pigment, students would use the process of accommodation to update

their existing schema on color mixing.

What Influences Learning

Influences towards learning fall into two basic categories, outside influences and learner

influences. Behaviorism weighs strongly on outside influences being the primary influences, and

talks very little of influences coming from the learner himself. A behaviorist sees the instructor

as leader, where the learner is a passive vessel to be filled with knowledge. The instructor will

assess the student to determine where to being instruction, as well as to determine the best

methods of reinforcement for that particular student. The instructor will then arrange instruction

so that the learner is reinforced appropriately, and that they are able to produce correct answers

or responses (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). The relationship between initial stimuli and the learner
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response can be controlled through proper reinforcement techniques, and those techniques will

create a conditioned response that will follow the learner through his or her life. To a behaviorist,

these outside influences drive learning furthest when they are used appropriately (Skinner, 1968).

Constructivism, however, sees both the intrinsic perspective of the learner as well as

environmental influences affecting the learner. Knowledge can be created through the act of

deriving of meaning from the association between the learners themselves and their

environmental influences. Constructivist know how important it is to provide a learning

environment conducive to exploration, but wants to learner to evaluate the environment from his

or her own unique perspective to achieve meaning. If a student is provided with the opportunity

to learn new words, they will be able to internalize and understand the word with use in real

world situations. The learners understanding of the meaning of the word may evolve over time,

finding it used in different ways throughout the learners life (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). A

learner may understand that the word “bad” means “not good” or “of a poor or inferior quality”

and use that word only in this context. Later experiences may find the learner using the word in

other contexts, after noticing that adding a modifier to “bad” can actually cause the word “bad”

to mean exceptionally good. In the 2010 song My Chick Bad, Ludacris doesn’t mean his

girlfriend is “of poor of inferior quality” he means the exact opposite (Bridges, Davidson,

Lindley & Maraj, 2010).

The Role of the Brain in Learning

In his 1985 article Cognitive Science and Behaviorism, Skinner compares the human

leaner to a storage battery.

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We put electricity into a battery and take it out when needed, but there is no electricity in

the battery. When we 'put electricity in', we change the battery, and it is a changed battery

that 'puts out electricity' when tapped. (Skinner, 1985).

In this sense, the brain is an empty storage battery, waiting to be filled with electricity. Once

electricity is added to the battery, it is able to perform its task of putting electricity back out. The

battery analogy is very similar to Skinner’s “Black Box” theory, where knowledge enters the

black box, something unobservable (and therefor unimportant) happens, and a correct response

comes out. The brain and its functions specific to the learner are not considered, and as Skinner

(1985) states, should be a “question to be answered by neurology, its appropriate instruments and

methods” (p. 295).

Constructivism, however, involves the learner and their brain in a big way. Since

constructivism promotes the active involvement of the learner in their own acquisition of

knowledge, the brain must remain flexible. Knowledge is continuously being re-written, and the

learner draws on and assesses previous knowledge in the pursuit of new learning (Ertmer &

Newby, 2013). In order to realize the full potential of education, teachers must be sure to engage

the student. Without the brain being actively engaged in learning, students will not be able to

develop the deep understandings that allow them to apply knowledge across a variety of content

areas and fields (Ewing, Foster & Whittington, 2011).

How the Learner Applies New Knowledge

After a learner has been provided with information, it needs to be applied to a variety of

circumstances and situations. A behaviorist would argue that knowledge transfer or application is

the result of generalization (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). Learning is applied through previously
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learned elements involving similar features. If similar processes of classification can be

recognized and applied to more than one concept that knowledge has been transferred (Ertmer &

Newby, 2013). Other than generalization, behaviorists do not really focus on students applying

or extending knowledge, as all knowledge is known and directly provided by the instructor. Each

piece of knowledge is a finite answer, and thus needs no extension on the part of the learner.

Instructors can easily assess the learner through an exam to determine if the learner has been able

to apply the provided knowledge.

Constructivism, on the other hand, focuses greatly on application and extension of

knowledge. As Bednar states in 1991, “learning always takes place in a context and that the

context forms an inexorable link with the knowledge embedded in it” (as cited by Ertmer &

Newby, 2013). Learners assimilate new information into existing schema, or modify existing

schema through the process of accommodation (Driscoll, 2005). As the learner moves through

new situations and life experiences, these real word experiences will shape the knowledge of the

learner in new and interesting ways. A constructivist teacher will have a harder time directly

assessing applied knowledge, as exams that ask for one correct response are not in the nature of

constructivism. However, an understanding of the experiences of the learner, and the meaning

derived from said experiences will allow an instructor to identify if knowledge has been applied

(Ertmer & Newby, 2013).

How Instruction is designed to Guide Learning

A behaviorist teacher would design learning to allow the instructor full control of the

learning experience. The instructor would assess the learner to determine what reinforcers would

be the most useful to encourage the learner. The instructor would then prepare lessons that pair a
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stimulus with a desired response. The learner, upon correctly completing the activity or question

from the instructor, would then be provided with the reinforcer to help prompt the learner to

continue learning at an accelerated pace (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). For example, a teacher wants

a student to memorize multiplication facts. The teacher uses flash cards, and holds one up and

waits for the student to respond. Each correct answer gives the student a tally mark, and at 5 tally

marks the student receives a piece of candy. The instructor can see the student has learned when

they can quickly recall all facts, and will instantly respond when the flash card is held up.

In designing activities for learning, a constructivist would approach the situation with the

learner “being actively involved in the learning process” (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). The

instructor is responsible for “instructing the student on how to construct meaning, as well as

effectively monitor, evaluate and update those constructions” (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). The

instructor is also responsible for providing real world experiences that are authentic and relevant

to the leaner, that also allow for application and extension of learning. The instructor acts as a

facilitator of knowledge, crafting lessons and plans so that the learner can explore and create

meaning on their own. Consider a student learning to be a doctor. The student will perform

dissections of real parts, not just read instructions in a book, or watch a lecture. The student gains

knowledge through real world experience.

Overall, both behaviorism and constructivism have their places. Classroom management,

simple facts and routines are best suited to the behaviorist approach of instruction. Actively

applying knowledge and ideas to new situations or problems however, is better learned through

the use of a constructivist approach (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). In my classroom, I choose a

constructivist approach. Learners can engage in creative situations allowing them to express
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themselves through a variety of artistic media. They are encouraged to collaborate, critique and

create. This type of learning is best suited for the skills and mindsets that my classroom supports.
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References

Bridges, C.,Davidson, D.,Lindley,Maraj, O.(2010). My Chick Bad [Recorded by Ludacris].

On Battle of the Sexes [CD]. New York City: Def Jam.

Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd Ed.). Boston: Allyn and
Bacon. (ISBN: 0205375197)

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing

critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 26(2), 43-71. doi:10.1002/piq.21143

Ewing, J. C., Foster, D. D., & Whittington, M. S. (2011). Explaining student cognition during
class sessions in the context piaget's theory of cognitive development. NACTA
Journal, 55(1), 68-75.

Glasersfeld, E. (2004). Constructivism. In The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and

Behavioral Science. (pp. 219-220). Hoboken, NJ: Johns Wiley & Sons, 2004

Hannum, W. (2015). B.F. Skinner's theory. Retrieved October 23, 2015.

Skinner, B. (1968). The technology of teaching. The Century Psychology Series.

Skinner, B. (1985). Cognitive science and behaviorism. British Journal Of Psychology, 76(3),
291.

Skinner, B. (1996). Some responses to the stimulus `Pavlov'. Integrative Physiological &
Behavioral Science, 31(3), 254.