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FORMALIST APPROACHES
Formalist approaches to the study of language are interested in the thought
processes. Idealized sentences not obscured by the realities of speech (non-
fluency features such as hesitations, false starts, fillers, elision, ellipsis).
Constituent Grammar: interested in determining which the constituents or
categories from which word strings are formed are.
Sentence: The highest unit of syntactic analysis. The sentence is seen as a
hierarchical structure and in which there are different ranks of constituents. At the
bottom level we have the Word rank. Sentences are formed by combining words in
a specific order determined by rules:
The cat devoured the tiny mouse.
*The devoured cat the tiny mouse.
We can replace each of the words in the sentence with other words that behave in
the same way in the language and we get different meanings.
The dog devoured the tiny mouse.
The dog ate the small cat.
A sentence can be seen as a frame for the generation of new sentences.
For De Saussure a sentence can be seen as having two axes:
Syntagmatic axis
Paradigmatic axis
Along the syntagmatic axis we find that words are combined in a specific way with
other words: the system to form a string.
Along the paradigmatic axis a word can be substituted by another word provided that
they belong to the same word category.
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Words enter into paradigmatic relations with all the words in the system and in a
syntagmatic relation with other words in the system to combine and form sentences.
Each word in the string is at the point of intersection between these two axes. A
sentences can be considered as a frame consists of different slots which tell us about
the word classes. We can fill in with appropriate words to generate new sentences.
We generate them by filling in the different slots.
An orange devoured a tiny mouse
It is well-formed but it’s not acceptable because it’s nonsensical. Not possible in real
life. It violates a synthetic truth. Semantically odd. The rules of syntax allow us to
form this type of sentences. This is not enough. We need knowledge of the meaning
of words so that we know what makes sense or not. We draw information from two
components:
1. Syntactic component: the one which provides us with information about the
sequence of items. (det.) N V (det.) N.
2. We need to draw information from the lexical components: the lexicon
(information about all the words that the language has together with their
classifications and also contains information about the meanings off words
determined by the conceptual senses – semantic features -)
Animate vs. Inanimate= semantic feature. The verb will require an animate or
inanimate subject. It determines which combination with Ns are possible and which
are not.
The lexical component is important. They’re connected (syntax and semantics). Both
components are necessary.
A frame with slots to be filled with appropriate words (category and meanings).
*an orange devoured… syntactically well-formed, but semantically odd.
Sentences are constructed in terms of higher units, in terms of words, the phrase
rank.
The tiny mouse devoured the cat.
When we decide to move an element, we move it in blocks (phrases). This is
evidence for the existence of phrases.
There are two tests to prove the existence of phrases:
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The cat devoured the tiny mouse and the dog did too
‘devoured the tiny mouse’ is also a phrase because it can be replaced by the preform
‘did’. ‘the tiny mouse’ is embedded in the Verb Phrase.
NP1 VP1
VP2 NP2
Kernel sentences (canonical sentences) are sentences not altered in any way (not
questions, negation, or passive voice). These are simple declarative sentences.
Exceptions are cases of fronting or inversion.
Idealized sentences are the opposite to Kernel sentences.
Rules: rewrite rules
SNP+VP S rewrites as NP + VP
(A sentence consists of…)
NP(det.) + (adj.) + N VPV + (NP)
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Exercises:
S
NP1 VP1
VP2 NP2 PP
NP3
NP1 VP1
PP2
NP4
The experienced mountaineer planted the flag on the summit of the mountain
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Ambiguous sentences:
S
NP VP
VP NP
PP
NP
NP VP
VP NP PP
NP
NP VP
VP Cl
NP VP
VP PP PP
NP NP
NP VP
VP Cl PP
NP VP
VP PP
NP NP
NP VP
VP NP
Cl
NP VP
VP PP
NP
The English program has one instructor who has taught for twenty years.
SVO
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S
NP VP
VP NP PP
NP
1st interpretation: ‘The police are helping injured fans in the stadium’ SVO (A)
NP VP
VP NP PP
NP
2nd interpretation: ‘The police have caused injuries in fans in the stadium’. SVO(A)
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S
NP VP
VP NP
Cl
NP VP
VP NP PP
NP
The police caught the two men who robbed the bank in Brighton
1st interpretation: ‘The police caught the robbers of the Brighton bank’. SVO
NP VP
VP NP PP
Cl
NP VP
VP NP
NP
The police caught the two men who robbed the bank in Brighton.
2nd interpretation: ‘The arrest of the bank robbers took place in Brighton’. SVO (A)
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FUNCTIONAL APPROACHES
Functional approaches are more concerned with the meaning and the use of the
sentences because functionalists see language as a social phenomenon. Language
as a tool for communication; something that enables us to communicate i.e. the
ideational and recreational functions of language which allow us to conceptualize the
world around us by giving names to things. Thus we bring the world into being
linguistically. The interpersonal function is related with the way we interact with other
people or the world.
A sentence is seen as a S and a P. The S is usually what we are talking about. The
P is the claim being made about the S. The P in turn consists of other elements: V,
O, C, A. These are called functional categories.
Verb: the meaning of the main verb is what tells us what other elements we need to
form a complete sentence be it an O, A or C. There are three main categories:
Semantic roles:
A semantic role is the part played by an entity in an event. The way in which the
person is involved in the event is determined by the predicator. These are also called
Thematic roles (‘θ roles’).
The systemic function of language: For Halliday syntax and semantics are just one
thing. They can’t be separated. Verbs are processes in this approach. S, C and O are
participants and A is a circumstance. There are 6 different types of processes. According
to the process we will have different participants.
Halliday sees the clause elements as representing part of our experience (Ideational
function).
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1. The boy kicked the post.
‘The boy’ is the actor because it is the animate entity performing the
action. (same as Quirk’s ‘agent’)
‘kicked’ is a material process (dynamic doing verbs)
‘the post’ is the goal i.e. the recipient of the action.
If the sentence is changed into the passive, there is no change in roles. They
do change in grammatical function, but they retain their roles.
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Quirk’s approach on semantic roles of elements.
Typical roles:
S roles:
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11. Temporal. It designates the time of the event.
Yesterday was a holiday.
12. Eventive. Typical with deverbal nouns (nouns derived from a verb).
The Norman invasion took place in 1066. (The Normans invaded…)
13. Prop It. It has no semantic content. No participant is required. Used for:
- Time
- Distance
- Weather conditions
DO roles:
IO roles:
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Cs, Co Roles:
Attributes Characterizing
Identifying
A. Ideational Function:
The previous semantic roles are related to the ideational macrofunction of
language because their meanings have to do with how the clause elements
represent an experience in the world.
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As for your dry-cleaning, I’ll bring it tomorrow.
theme________ _____rheme_____
C. Interpersonal function:
A linguistic interaction where two or more people are involved. Here the
clause is considered as an exchange. There are two different types.
D. Poetic function:
This is the function related to the use of language to gain pleasure through
the manipulation of it.
‘see the point’ meaning ‘understand’. ‘See’ is a verb of perception yet
conversion is within the area of syntax just like fronting and ellipsis.
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