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SPATIAL CONTINUUM.
THE SCHRÖDINGER WAVE EQUATION.
To Elizabeth
Date: 15-09-10.
1
2 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN
both directions. This picture conforms well with the findings in the cited paper [3]
where I found that oscillating nodes only are possible in an infinitely long chain
of oscillating nodes. Here the assumption has got to be modified to incorporate
very long, steadily increasing strings of nodes (which I will dub the preamble) that
culminate in a strongly inflated node (dubbed the bubble) whereupon the trailing
nodes (which I will dub the postamble) gradually decrease towards zero. In this
picture all matter has got to be viewed as composed of long, almost infinitely long
strings of oscillating nodes with a strongly excited node at its core.
A delta function of the type sin(ωt)/t seems to cover this situation well for the
oscillation of each node along the chain of nodes when t varies between − ∞ and
+ ∞. This is a calculated guess and I cannot prove it, but I will try to see what
implications it will have. The limit of the function as t approaches zero is given by
sin(ωt)
lim = ω,
t→0 t
where ω is the angular velocity of the oscillation. (See the leftmost blue graph in
Figure 1.) Let us give each node along the chain (represented by a black dot in the
graph) an integer number n such that the next node in the chain has the number
n + 1, and let the displacement from the domain of node #n at the time t be given
by:
sin[ω(t − nπ/ω)]
Dn (n, t) = k
t − nπ/ω
where k is some constant. First we notice that according to the above assumption,
when rotation is disregarded, the displacement from node #0 at the time t = 0 is
given by:
sin(ωt)
D0 (0, 0) = k lim = kω
t→0 t
while the displacements from all the other nodes in the chain are zero, i.e. the
displacement from the entire chain of nodes is kω. Half a period later node #1 is
fully inflated while the displacements from all the other nodes again are zero. In
fact this is the case for all times t = nπ/ω
sin[ω(t − nπ/ω)]
(1.1) Dn (n, nπ/ω) = lim k = kω.
t→nπ/ω t − nπ/ω
In the intermediate phases, the inflation gradually decreases while the new displace-
ment builds up in the next node. In this way the inflated node moves from node to
node with a frequency like 2f while all the other nodes along the chain oscillate be-
tween fully inflated state and fully compressed state with the same frequency. The
blue columns in Figure 1 show the the displacement from each node in successive
steps in the course of half a period.
If this shall be a viable model, however, then at least the net displacement has got
to be the same during the intermediate phases, so we write down the sum of the
1 3
Displacement
Flow
these requirements will represent a net displacement, which we could call a bubble,
moving with some speed v through space.
Since the nodes can be organized along the x-axis of a coordinate system at a
distance of λ/2 from each other, then the displacement from each node along the
x-axis can be represented by applying the Dirac’s delta function1
Z ∞
sin[2π(x − c̃t)/λ]
D(n, t) = k δ(x − n · λ/2) dx.
−∞ 2π(x − c̃t)/λ
The angular velocity ω in Equation (1.4) can be replaced by the frequency ν by the
identity ω = 2πν which yields
(1.6) E =hν,
and
hν 2π~ν
(1.7) D= = .
3(λ + 2µ) 3(λ + 2µ)
This establish the remarkable condition that the energy in any chain of oscillating
nodes is proportional to the frequency alone.
We now turn back to the amplitudes of the oscillation by each node, which by the
way are situated at a distance of half a period from each other. Between maximum
compression and inflation there has got to be a phase of inward and outward flow
of spatial mass to and from the nodes. The rate of change of the displacement from
each node will naturally be a measure of the flow, so by taking the time derivative
of the displacement we will get an expression for the flow, i.e. the flow through
a surface around the node where div u = 0. It turns out that the flow may be
We can draw a graph of the displacement from each node along the y-axis (blue
column) and the flow out of each node along the z-axis (red column). Just think of
the nodes as not moving entities and the graph as moving forward along the x-axis
just showing the displacement and flow from each node as a function of time. The
first graph in Figure 1 shows a moment when all the displacement is from just one
of the nodes, while the next tree graphs show the situation 1/8, 2/8, and 3/8 of a
period later, and the last graph shows the displacement when the next node is fully
inflated 4/8 of a period later. We notice that the excitation reaches its maximum
value two times in the course of one cycle of oscillation.
This idealized model can possibly explain some of the properties of material par-
ticles if the path is curled up in some way, and even the photon if the path is a
stretched out line, for instance the quantum and point-like property of the photon,
but it does not say anything about the electromagnetic and spin properties and why
the photon moves with the speed of light. On the contrary; an irrotational stand-
ing wave can be composed of two oppositely moving progressive waves that moves
with about the double of the speed of solenoidal waves. It is therefore necessary to
include some sorts of coupling to solenoidal oscillations into the model.
2With great deformation gradients the velocity of spatial mass points, v, is different from the
partial derivative of u with respect on time as it is taken to be in the Navier/Cauchy equation.
In fact v = ∂u/∂t + v(∇v) [1, Chapter 4] (i.e. ’The velocity of a mass element in an elastic
continuum is like the partial time derivative of u plus the change of v in the direction of v times
the norm of v’) which is accounted for in the Navier/Stokes equation
6 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN
L = ~.
This simplified thought experiment indicates that the spin of the system is inde-
pendent of the energy and therefore becomes a natural constant.
In this thought experiment the spin axes were taken to be directed along the string
of nodes, but that need not be the case. A more probable assumption is that the
axes are directed in the right and left direction along the string. Say that that is
the case and that the bubble is moving forwards with the speed of c. Then the
right and left rotation in the preamble may well generate a transversal progressive
wave. The same mechanism will also take place in the postamble, but there is a
problem: The plane polarized wave in the postamble is half a period out of phase
with the corresponding wave in the preamble.
of the fields will approximate a plane polarized wave like a laser beam. This should
be a plausible explanation of the electromagnetic property of the photon model,
but it also indicate why a photon has spin: As the rotation around the bubble
reaches its maximum value, it will point in the forward or backward direction of
the movement vector just as the spin of a real photon.
So let us put this model of a material particle to a test to see how it fits into a
realistic picture of material particles.
which can be solved by the product method. Notice that I only seek solutions that
is a superposition of standing waves around a plethora of oscillating singularities
with rotating axes all pointing in the same direction as described above.
which is the equation for the internal (not observable) oscillation of a wave packet
with energy E.
Now let us consider the particle as seen by an observer moving along with the
speed v ¿ c, and let the oscillation in the fixed coordinate system be represented
by primed coordinates
ψ(x0 , y 0 , z 0 , t0 ) = g(x0 , y 0 , z 0 )f (t0 ),
£ E0 ¤
= g(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) exp(−i t0 )
~
and
1 ∂2f
f ∇2 g =
g .
c2 ∂t2
Next transform the movements over to the unprimed coordinate coordinate system
of the observer, who is moving along with the speed −v. From the observers
standpoint the particle seems to be moving in the positive direction. It is only
in a Lorenz coordinate system that the divergence-free properties are invariant by
transformations3, so we apply the Lorenz transformations
x − vt
x0 = p ,
1 − v 2 /c2
y 0 = y,
z 0 = z,
t − vx/c2
t0 = p ,
1 − v 2 /c2
and consider the particle at the position x = 0 and time t = 0.
From the observer’s point of view the oscillation takes the form
³ −iE0 ´
f (x, y, z, t) = exp p ·t ,
~ 1 − v 2 /c2
h −i i
f (x, y, z, t) ≈ exp (E0 + 12 E0 v 2 /c2 ) · t
~
If we define m = E0 /c2 then we recognize the term 12 E0 v 2 /c2 = 21 mv 2 as the kinetic
energy, T , of the wave packet and we obtain
h −i i
f (x, y, z, t) = exp (E0 + T ) · t .
~
E0 is supposed to be the internal energy before the particle is set into motion, and
m is defined as the rest mass of the particle.
pointing in the direction of the curled-up path along the string of nodes. For each
positive q0 there is an equally great negative value somewhere else in space so the
mean value of q0 · k is zero. This amounts to the same as stating that q0 and k
are orthogonal to each other.
When we split up the energy, E, into a stationary part E0 and a kinetic part T ,
and accordingly q into q0 + k, the wave function (3.2) takes the form
h −iE0 −iT i
ψ = exp − i(q0 · r) − i(k · r) + t+ t ,
~ ~
h iE0 i h iT i
ψ = exp − i(q0 · r) − t · exp − i(k · r) − t
~ ~
∇2 ψ = ψ1 ∇2 ψ2 + ψ2 ∇2 ψ1 + 2∇ψ1 ∇ψ2 .
∂2ψ
= ψ1 ψ¨2 + 2ψ˙1 ψ˙2 + ψ2 ψ¨1 .
∂t2
With
h iE0 i
ψ1 = exp − i(q0 · r) − t ,
~
h iT i
ψ2 = exp − i(k · r) − t ,
~
With these terms inserted into the wave equation (3.1) we obtain
1
ψ1 ∇2 ψ2 + ψ2 ∇2 ψ1 = (ψ1 ψ¨2 + 2ψ˙1 ψ˙2 + ψ2 ψ¨1 ).
c2
By Equation (3.3) underlined terms cansel out and the above equation reduces to
1
ψ1 ∇ 2 ψ2 = (ψ1 ψ¨2 + 2ψ˙1 ψ˙2 ).
c2
−iE0 −iT (−i)2 T 2
c2 ψ1 ∇2 ψ2 = 2 ψ1 ψ2 + ψ1 ψ2 ,
~ ~ ~2
E0 T T
c2 ∇2 ψ2 = −2 2 (1 + )ψ2 .
~ 2E0
1 11
~2 2 ∂ψ
∇ ψ = −i~
2m ∂t
This is the free Schrödinger wave equation for a particle moving with constant
speed.
If the particle is moving in a potential field, then E0 is varying with position, but it
is possible to introduce a small energy component V such that E0 − V is constant.
To keep the total energy constant we have got to add the same component to T . We
obtain two new properties: V , which can be interpreted as the potential in which
the particle is moving, and E = V + T , which is the total kinetic and potential
energy of the particle. The wave function takes the form
h i(E0 − V ) i h iE i
ψ = exp − i(q0 · r) − t · exp − i(k · r) − t .
~ ~
If we neglect terms with E 2 and V 2 we can proceed to
(−i)2 E02 −iE0 iV −iE0 −iE
c2 ψ1 ∇2 ψ2 + c2 ψ2 ∇2 ψ1 = ψ2 2
ψ1 + 2 ψ1 ψ2 + 2 ψ1 ψ2 .
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
By Equation (3.4) the underlined terms cansel out, and we obtain
~2 c2 2
− ∇ ψ2 + V ψ2 = Eψ2 ,
2E0
or by the same procedure as above we obtain
~2 c2 2 ∂ψ2
− ∇ ψ2 + V ψ2 = i~ .
2E0 ∂t
With m = E0 /c2 and ψ2 -old replaced by ψ-new this equation takes the form
~2 2 ∂ψ
− ∇ ψ + V ψ = i~
2m ∂t
which is the the Schrödinger wave equation [5, Eq. 1.12], and like the Schrödinger
equation it is only valid for small velocities when v ¿ c. It tells us about two
12 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN
basic properties of the material particle: Its frequency and wave number. From
these properties one can find its energy and momentum, but not the position of
a free particle. Only if the particle is restricted to be inside a given volume will
it be possible to tell something about the whereabouts of the naked particle: The
property ψ is a measure of displacement, and its squared value becomes a measure
of the intensity of the deformation field. An elementary material particle in this
picture is an evacuated bubble that may be found anywhere in the wave packet
with an increasing probability along with the intensity of the field. Since it has
got to be somewhere in the restricted volume – and it surely has got to visit every
single node along the chain – the integral of ψ 2 dv all over the volume element can
be normalized to unity, and ψ 2 can thus be taken to mean the probability density
of finding the bubble in a given volume element inside the considered volume.
A considerate amount of interactions between material particles that meet the re-
quirements above, can be solved by applying this Schrödinger-like wave equation.
For example can different particles exchange momentum by superposition of the
fields around the individual particles that in turn leads to scattering by the inter-
action. Likewise will the progressive waves around particles, which are restricted
to move in closed volumes or orbits, tend to form standing waves that only can
occur at certain energy levels. By a double slit experiment the generated wave in
the surroundings of the string of nodes passes partly through both slits causing an
interference with varying field intensity of ψ 2 while the bubble itself has got to pass
through one of the slits tending to follow paths with stronger probable densities be-
yond the slits. A complete description of all possible interactions, however, is only
possible when spin is taken into account, and the equations are developed without
the restriction that v ¿ c.
References
1. Yavuz Başar and Dieter Weichert, Nonlinear continuum mechanics of solids, Springer, 1999.
2. Bjørn Ursin Karlsen, A comparison between the Linear Theory of Elasticity and the Classical
Theory of Electromagnetism, http://home.online.no/˜ukarlsen.
3. , Standing waves between singularities in an elastic continuum of infinite extension,
http://home.online.no/˜ukarlsen.
4. , Confined energy in an expanding elastic continuum compared with gravity,
http://home.online.no/˜ukarlsen, 2002.
5. Paul C.W. Davis and David S. Betts, Quantum mechanics, 2 ed., Stanley Thornes (Publishers)
Ltd, 1999.