BOE

FLOW METERS
When discussing flow metering, a number of terms, which include Repeatability, Uncertainty, Accuracy
and Turndown, are commonly used.

Repeatability
This describes the ability of a flow meter to indicate the same value for an identical flow rate on more than
one occasion. It should not be confused with accuracy i.e. its repeatability may be excellent in that it shows
the same value for an identical flowrate on several occasions, but the reading might be consistently wrong
(or inaccurate). Good repeatability is important, where steam flow metering is required to monitor trends
rather than accuracy. However, this does not dilute the importance of accuracy under any circumstances.

Uncertainty
The term 'uncertainty' is now becoming more commonly referred to than accuracy. This is because accuracy
cannot be established, as the true value can never be exactly known. However 'uncertainty' can be
estimated and an ISO standard exists offering guidance on this matter (EN ISO/IEC 17025). It is important to
recognize that it is a statistical concept and not a guarantee. For example, it may be shown that with a large
population of flow meters, 95% would be at least as good as the uncertainty calculated. Most would be much
better, but a few, 5% could be worse.

Accuracy
This is a measure of a flow meter’s performance when indicating a correct flow rate value against a 'true'
value obtained by extensive calibration procedures. The subject of accuracy is dealt with in ISO 5725.

The following two methods used to express accuracy have very different meanings:

• Percentage of measured value or actual reading

For example, a flowmeter's accuracy is given as ±3% of actual flow.

At an indicated flowrate of 1 000 kg/h, the 'uncertainty' of actual flow is between:

1 000 - 3% = 970 kg/h
And
1 000 + 3% = 1 030 kg/h

Similarly, at an indicated flowrate of 500 kg/h, the error is still ±3%, and the 'uncertainty' is between:
500 kg/h - 3% = 485 kg/h
And
500 kg/h + 3% = 515 kg/h
• Percentage of full scale deflection (FSD)
A flowmeter's accuracy may also be given as ±3% of FSD. This means that the measurement error
is expressed as a percentage of the maximum flow that the flowmeter can handle.

As in the previous case, the maximum flow = 1 000 kg/h.

At an indicated flowrate of 1 000 kg/h, the 'uncertainty' of actual flow is between:

1 000 kg/h - 3% = 970 kg/h
And
1 000 kg/h + 3% = 1 030 kg/h

At an indicated flowrate of 500 kg/h, the error is still ±30 kg/h, and the actual flow is between:
500 kg/h - 30 kg/h = 470 kg/h an error of - 6%
And
500 kg/h + 30 kg/h = 530 kg/h an error of + 6%

As the flowrate is reduced, the percentage error increases.

A comparison of these measurement terms is shown graphically in Figure 4.2.1

 Fig. 4.2.1 Range of error
Turndown
When specifying a flowmeter, accuracy is a necessary requirement, but it is also essential to select a
flowmeter with sufficient range for the application.

'Turndown' or 'turndown ratio', 'effective range' or 'rangeability' are all terms used to describe the range of
flowrates over which the flowmeter will work within the accuracy and repeatability of the tolerances.
Turndown is qualified in Equation 4.2.1.

The turndown of the flowmeter selected is given as 4:1. i.e. The claimed accuracy of the flowmeter can be
met at a minimum flowrate of 1 000 ÷ 4 = 250 kg/h.

When the steam flowrate is lower than this, the flowmeter cannot meet its specification, so large flow errors
occur. At best, the recorded flows below 250 kg/h are inaccurate - at worst they are not recorded at all, and
are 'lost'.

In the example shown in Figure 4.2.2, 'lost flow' is shown to amount to more than 700 kg of steam over an 8
hour period. The total amount of steam used during this time is approximately 2 700 kg, so the 'lost' amount
represents an additional 30% of total steam use. Had the steam flowmeter been specified with an
appropriate turndown capability, the steam flow to the process could have been more accurately measured
and costed.

If steam flow is to be accurately metered, the user must make every effort to build up a true and complete
assessment of demand, and then specify a flowmeter with:

• The capacity to meet maximum demand.

• A turndown sufficiently large to encompass all anticipated flow variations.

Where:

qv = Volumetric flowrate (m/s)

A = Cross-sectional area (m2))
u = Velocity (m/s)

Cumulative height of molecules above the hole

Fig. 4h =

It can therefore be seen that:

Potential energy in molecule 1 = m g h = Pressure energy in molecule 2.

Fig. 4.2.6 The plug is removed from the tank

Molecule 3 has no pressure energy for the reasons described above, or potential energy (as the fluid in
which it is placed is at the same height as the hole). The only energy it has can only be kinetic energy.

At some point in the water jet immediately after passing through the hole, molecule 3 is to be found in the jet
and will have a certain velocity and therefore a certain kinetic energy. As energy cannot be created, it
follows that the kinetic energy in molecule 3 is formed from that pressure energy held in molecule 2
immediately before the plug was removed from the hole.

It can therefore be concluded that the whole of the kinetic energy held in molecule 3 equals the pressure
energy to which molecule 2 is subjected, which, in turn, equals the potential energy held in molecule 1.

The basic equation for kinetic energy is shown in Equation 4.2.8:

 Equation 4.2.8
Where:
.

The orifice plate flowmeter and Bernoulli's Theorem

When Bernoulli's theorem is applied to an orifice plate flowmeter, the difference in pressure across the
orifice plate provides the kinetic energy of the fluid discharged through the orifice.

Fi
g. 4.2.8 An orifice plate with vena contracta
As seen previously, the velocity through the orifice can be calculated by use of Equation 4.2.10:

Equation 4.2.10
However, it has already been stated, volume flow is more useful than velocity (Equation 4.1.4):

Equation 4.1.4
Substituting 'u' from Equation 4.2.10 into Equation 4.1.4:

In practice, the actual velocity through the orifice will be less than the theoretical value for velocity, due to
friction losses. This difference between these theoretical and actual figures is referred to as the coefficient of
velocity (Cv).

Also, the flow area of the vena contracta will be less than the size of the orifice. The ratio of the area of the
vena contracta to that of the orifice is called the coefficient of contraction.
The coefficient of velocity and the coefficient of contraction may be combined to give a coefficient of
discharge (C) for the installation. Volumetric flow will need to take the coefficient of discharge (C) into
consideration as shown in Equation 4.2.11.

Equation 4.2.11
Where:

qv = Volumetric flowrate (m3/s)

C= Coefficient of discharge (dimensionless)
A= Area of orifice (m2)
g= Gravitational constant (9.8 m/s2)
h= Differential pressure (m)

This may be further simplified by removing the constants as shown in Equation 4.2.12.

Equation 4.2.12
Equation 4.2.12 clearly shows that volume flowrate is proportional to the square root of the pressure drop.

Note:
The definition of C can be found in ISO 5167-2003, 'Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure
differential devices inserted in circular cross-section conduits running full'.

ISO 5167 offers the following information:

The equations for the numerical values of C given in ISO 5167 (all parts) are based on data determined
experimentally.

The uncertainty in the value of C can be reduced by flow calibration in a suitable laboratory.

The Pitot tube and Bernoulli's Theorem

The Pitot tube is named after its French inventor Henri Pitot (1695 - 1771). The device measures a fluid
velocity by converting the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid into potential energy at what is described as a
'stagnation point'. The stagnation point is located at the opening of the tube as in Figure 4.2.9. The fluid is
stationary as it hits the end of the tube, and its velocity at this point is zero. The potential energy created is
transmitted though the tube to a measuring device.

The tube entrance and the inside of the pipe in which the tube is situated are subject to the same dynamic
pressure; hence the static pressure measured by the Pitot tube is in addition to the dynamic pressure in the
pipe. The difference between these two pressures is proportional to the fluid velocity, and can be measured
simply by a differential manometer.

The simple
Pitot tube principle
Bernoulli's equation can be applied to the Pitot tube in order to determine the fluid velocity from the
observed differential pressure (ΔP) and the known density of the fluid. The Pitot tube can be used to
measure incompressible and compressible fluids, but to convert the differential pressure into velocity,
different equations apply to liquids and gases. The details of these are outside the scope of this tutorial, but
the concept of the conservation of energy and Bernoulli's theorem applies to all; and for the sake of
example, the following text refers to the relationship between pressure and velocity for an incompressible
fluid flowing at less than sonic velocity. (Generally, a flow can be considered incompressible when its flow is
less than 0.3 Mach or 30% of its sonic velocity).