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Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 13 (2015) 123e130
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Original article

A hard/heavy intensity is too much: The physiological, affective,

and motivational effects (immediately and 6 months post-training)
of unsupervised perceptually regulated training
Gaynor Parfitt*, Tim Olds, Roger Eston
Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition, and Activity, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
Received 29 April 2015; revised 27 August 2015; accepted 5 October 2015
Available online 24 November 2015

Abstract

Background/Objective: There are several practical and theoretical advantages to perceptually regulated training, including its simplicity of use
and potential to influence exercise motivation. The study objective was to examine if perceptually regulated training at ratings of perceived
exertion (RPE) of 13 and 15 resulted in significant increases in aerobic fitness, reductions in metabolic risk factors, and changes in motivational
constructs following an 8-week training program and at follow up 6 months after.
Methods: Following stratified randomization based on estimated aerobic capacity and sex, sedentary volunteers (n ¼ 63; men ¼ 21) were
allocated to one of three groups: RPE 13, RPE 15, and control. The participants completed baseline, post-training, and 6-months post-training
assessments for aerobic fitness, metabolic risk factors, and motivational constructs. The participants' acute exercise training responses (affect,
competence, enjoyment, and work rate) were also recorded.
Results: The data support the fitness and motivational construct hypotheses but not the metabolic risk factor hypothesis. Aerobic fitness increased
from the baseline to post-training in both RPE groups, with the increase maintained 6 months post-training only in the RPE 13 group. Exercise
autonomy increased over the training program, with exercise competence and affect more positive in the RPE 13 group than in the RPE 15.
However, the training programs did not reduce the metabolic risk factors, and attrition levels were high. Unsupervised training at RPE 13 and
RPE 15 did improve fitness, but as hypothesized, this was not maintained in the RPE 15 group 6 months post-training.
Conclusion: The motivational processes associated with RPE 13 regulated exercise (greater competence and autonomy and more positive affect)
potentially explain the maintained fitness in this group.
Copyright © 2015, The Society of Chinese Scholars on Exercise Physiology and Fitness. Published by Elsevier (Singapore) Pte Ltd. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: aerobic fitness; affect; competence; exercise intensity production; ratings of perceived exertion; self-determination

Introduction the RPE is used to regulate intensity in an exercise training

Borg's ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) scale1 can be
used to regulate exercise intensity.2e4 This method of exer-
cise intensity regulation may offer a number of practical and
theoretical advantages for exercise training. Pragmatically, if
* Corresponding author. University of South Australia, GPO Box 2471,
Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia.
E-mail address: gaynor.parfitt@unisa.edu.au (G. Parfitt).
context, then as the individual becomes fitter, he or she will
automatically increase the work rate to achieve the RPE
level.4,5 This mitigates the need to assess and reassess
physiological variables, such as heart rate, lactate levels, or
maximal oxygen uptake, to confirm if the RPE-regulated
exercise intensity has produced a training effect. This
makes the method user-friendly, inexpensive, and simple to
administer and use. In programs where exercise intensity is
prescribed based upon a heart rate bandwidth or a percentage

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesf.2015.10.002
1728-869X/Copyright © 2015, The Society of Chinese Scholars on Exercise Physiology and Fitness. Published by Elsevier (Singapore) Pte Ltd. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
124 G. Parfitt et al. / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 13 (2015) 123e130
of maximal oxygen uptake, these physiological variables
need to be reassessed to ensure that the prescribed training
intensity is modified to meet the physiological adaptation.
From a theoretical perspective, perceptually regulating
exercise intensity can improve the motivation to exercise.
According to the self-determination theory,6 autonomy (i.e.,
control) and competence are two of the three psychological
needs required to support the development of intrinsic moti-
vation. RPE-regulated exercise affords the individual control
of the intensity for a specific RPE level. The individual
chooses the intensity and is autonomous in changing it to meet
his or her individual perception throughout the exercise ses-
sion. When exercise intensity is prescribed, this autonomy is
not present. Further, this control provides a sense of achieve-
ment and maintains competence throughout the session: the
individual is actively involved and able to increase or decrease
the intensity as necessary. When exercise intensity is pre-
scribed, it may be perceived to be appropriate or otherwise too
easy or too hard; neither of the latter perceptions would sup-
port the development of competence and motivation. In
addition, affective responses (feelings of pleasure/displeasure)
during exercise are intensity dependent and predict exercise
behavior in the succeeding 6 months and 12 months.7,8 Wil-
liams' model,9 which integrates self-determination theory and
hedonic theory (that behavioral decisions are made based upon
the pleasure experienced),10 makes a case for self-paced ex-
ercise and explains the affective and motivational conse-
quences of perceptually regulated exercise. When prescribed
exercise rather than allowed to self-regulate, people have more
variable and less positive affective responses,11 even when the
prescribed exercise intensity matches the self-regulated in-
tensity.12 Autonomy and affective response are positively
associated,13 and achievement, ability to cope, and perceptions
of control explain differences in affect in low-activity adults.14
Further, in a graded exercise test to volitional exhaustion, if
the exerciser is in control of changes in exercise intensity,
affect during the test is more positive than when he or she is
not in control.15
Studies that have used RPE to perceptually regulate exer-
cise intensity in a training program include a 4-week study16
with a 2-year follow up17 on residential cardiac patients;
studies of breast cancer patients18 and survivors19; and an 8-
week study of previously sedentary women.4 These studies
have specified RPE levels of between 11 and 15 and reported
improvements in physical performance, with some evidence to
support the motivational influence of this method of training.
In particular, Parfitt et al4 demonstrated that perceptually
regulated exercise corresponding to RPE 13 is perceived to be
“pleasant” during training. Over the 8-week training program
in Parfitt et al's study, the affective responses recorded during
training indicated that the participants felt “good” while
exercising at a physiologically confirmed moderate to
vigorous exercise intensity.
Although evidence and a theoretical explanation exist for
why perceptually regulated exercise has beneficial affective
outcomes and is hence likely to improve adherence, there is
very little research regarding the longer-term efficacy of a
perceptually regulated training program to increase and
maintain aerobic capacity and produce other health-related
exercise benefits. There may be a delicate balancing act be-
tween exercise at an intensity which is pleasant (and hence
encourages adherence) and exercise at an intensity which
optimizes health-related benefits. Indeed, as exercise intensity
increases above the ventilatory threshold, affective responses
decline.11
Parfitt et al4 support the effect of RPE-13 supervised
training on fitness, health variables, and affect (fitness
increased significantly, mean arterial pressure decreased, and
affect remained positive) immediately following an 8-week
training program. However, that study did not track out-
comes beyond the 8-week program. We do not know if those
effects were maintained at 6 months. The 8-week training
program was also supervised on a one-to-one basis, and
therefore, the translation and generalizability of RPE 13-
regulated training to more natural gym environments (where
one-to-one supervision is not available) is unknown. Further-
more, we do not know if perceptually regulated training at
RPE 15 (hard/heavy) will improve health-related benefits.
There is evidence that exercise at varying intensities have
different effects on health-related outcomes. DiPietro et al20
found that vigorous-intensity exercise is more beneficial in
improving insulin sensitivity, and Moholdt et al21 observed
that peak oxygen consumption [as measured by percentage
heart rate maximum (%HRmax)] increased more markedly
after higher-intensity training in patients with coronary artery
disease. However, Midgley et al22 reported that long-interval
training at 100% maximal capacity is extremely efficacious
in improving fitness, albeit, barely sustainable by the
participants.
Theoretically, perceptually regulated training clamped at
either 13 or 15 on the RPE scale (the former indicating
moderate exercise intensity23 and the latter vigorous exercise
intensity24,25) should significantly increase aerobic fitness and
reduce cardiac risk factors. Furthermore, as perceptually
regulated training permits the participant to dictate the pace,
intensity, and increments in intensity of the exercise and
thereby achieve a sense of autonomy, motivation to exercise
should become more intrinsic and influence long-term adher-
ence to exercise behavior.9 Additionally, self-regulation should
support the maintenance of positive affect, although affect
should be lower at higher exercise intensities.11 Consequently,
affect should be lower during RPE 15 than RPE13 exercise.
This study therefore aimed to extend previous research and
compare the effects of an 8-week unsupervised, perceptually
regulated treadmill training program at RPE 13 and RPE 15 on
fitness and other health measures immediately following and 6
months after completion of the program. A secondary purpose
of this study was to assess the affective state (participants'
pleasure/displeasure) during training and the motivational ef-
fect of training at RPE 13 and RPE 15. It was hypothesized
 G. Parfitt et al. / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 13 (2015) 123e130
that perceptually regulated training at RPE 15 would lead to
greater immediate improvements in aerobic fitness and car-
diovascular health, but that at 6 months, the effects would
persist in the RPE 13 perceptually regulated training group
and dissipate in the RPE 15 group. Further, it was hypothe-
sized that affective and motivational processes would be more
positive during and following the RPE 13 perceptually regu-
lated training.
Methods
Participants
Sixty-three (men ¼ 21) sedentary volunteers (40.8 ± 9.1
years; 83.5 ± 16.6 kg; 169.7 ± 8.9 cm) were recruited from the
local community. The participants were classified as sedentary
if they did not meet the current physical activity guidelines (at
least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity activity, 5 or more days
a week, in bouts of at least 10 minutes). The volunteers read
and signed an informed consent form approved by the Uni-
versity Ethics Committee and completed the Adult Pre-
exercise Screening System26 prior to participation.
Measures
RPE and affect
Borg's 6e20 RPE scale1 was used throughout the study.
The participants were encouraged to focus on their overall
perception of “whole body” exertion when reporting their
RPE. Two levels of RPE were selected for the training in-
tensities: RPE 13 and RPE 15. These levels were selected
based on previous research,23 as they should elicit intensities
that would be classified as moderate and vigorous and lead to
fitness gains.
The participants were also asked to report on their affective
state at the end of each minute using Hardy and Rejeski's
feeling scale,27 an 11-point, single-item, bipolar scale. The
feeling scale ranges from þ5 to e5, with anchors provided at
zero and all odd integers (þ5 ¼ very good; þ3 ¼ good;
þ1 ¼ fairly good; 0 ¼ neutral; 1 ¼ fairly bad; 3 ¼ bad;
5 ¼ very bad). This scale correlates with other similar
valence scales.28,29
Motivation
The participants completed the perceived competence and
interesteenjoyment items from the Intrinsic Motivation In-
ventory (IMI)30,31 and the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise
Questionnaire 2 (BREQ-2)32 to assess motivational processes
during training and following the intervention. The IMI was
completed after a training session in Week 1 to assess the
acute motivational response to training. The BREQ-2 was
completed at baseline, following training, and 6 months post-
training, and the relative autonomy index was computed to
directly assess the participants' levels of perceived autonomy
to exercise. Both questionnaires are scored on a Likert scale
and exhibit good reliability and validity.30,32 Further, scale
reliability was confirmed in the current populations
125
(competence ¼ 0.91; interesteenjoyment ¼ 0.84; BREQ-
2 ¼ 0.80e0.89).
Procedures
This study required the participants to visit the exercise
physiology laboratory (temperature, ~24 C; relative humidity,
~40%) on three occasions: baseline assessment, post-training,
and 6 months post-training. On the first visit, basic anthro-
pometric data, including height (wall-mounted stadiometer,
Surgical & Medical Products, Adelaide, Australia); body mass
(Tanita BC-418, Tanita Corp., Tokyo, Japan); resting blood
pressure (Dinamap Pro 100 automated sphygmomanometer,
GE Medical Systems Information Technologies, Inc., Mil-
waukee, WI, USA); and a finger-prick blood sample to test for
total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and blood
glucose levels (CardioChek PA point-of-care device, PTS
Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN, USA) following overnight
fasting were completed. The participants also completed a
submaximal graded exercise test on a motorized treadmill (JT-
4000 treadmill, JNB Sports, Kyungkido, South Korea).
The exercise test was based on the BalkeeWare treadmill
graded exercise test protocol. The participants were required
to walk on the treadmill at an initial speed of 4 km/h on a
gradient of 0% for 3 minutes. The speed was then increased to
5.4 km/h and the gradient to 2%. Every minute thereafter, the
RPE and feeling rating were recorded, and the gradient was
increased by 1% at the same speed of 5.4 km/h until
the participants reached 80%HRmax (where HRmax ¼
208  0.7  age)33 or 17 on the RPE scale. A submaximal
protocol allowing the estimation of maximal oxygen con-
sumption (VO2max) was selected to avoid undue physiolog-
ical strain and negative affect.15
During the submaximal test, online respiratory gas was
measured using a breath-by-breath automatic gas analysis
system (Metamax 3B, Cortex Biophysik, Leipzig, Germany).
Changes in oxygen uptake were recorded continuously
throughout the tests (MetaSoft 3.1 software, Cortex Bio-
physik). Prior to every test, the system was calibrated against
known concentrations of cylinder gases (15% oxygen, 5%
carbon dioxide) and a 3 L calibration syringe (for flow vol-
ume) in accordance with the manufacturer's guidelines. Heart
rate was continuously monitored using a wireless chest strap
telemetry system (T31, Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland). All
physiological outputs were concealed from the participant. We
extrapolated from the measured heart rate and oxygen uptake
in the submaximal protocol to the age-predicted HRmax to
estimate the VO2max.
The RPE and feeling scales were mounted on the wall
directly in front of the participants, and each participant
received standardized instructions on how they should identify
and report their overall level of exertion1 and affective
valence.27 Following the test, the participants were block-
randomized and stratified by sex and VO2max to one of
three conditions: control (n ¼ 21; men ¼ 7), RPE 13-regulated
training (n ¼ 21; men ¼ 7), or RPE 15-regulated training
(n ¼ 21; men ¼ 7).
126 G. Parfitt et al. / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 13 (2015) 123e130

Exercise training intervention Results

Following the stratified randomization based on estimated
aerobic capacity and sex, the participants were allocated to the Descriptive data across the three groups following the
control, RPE 13, and RPE 15 groups. The control group par- stratified randomization are displayed in Table 1. The groups
ticipants were instructed to continue their normal physical were statistically different in terms of total cholesterol at
activity habits (before the study began) for 8 weeks. The baseline.
training groups were invited to attend a gym for up to three
occasions per week for 30 minutes each time for 8 weeks. In Intention-to-treat analysis
the first session, the participants were shown how to adjust the
speed and gradient on the treadmill and were reminded that The repeated measures intention-to-treat analysis for the
they should make any adjustments necessary to ensure that estimated VO2max resulted in a time (F(2,120) ¼ 5.39,
they perceived the intensity to be at RPE 13 (somewhat hard) p < 0.01, h2p ¼ 0.08) main effect and a time-by-group
or RPE 15 (hard/heavy) on the Borg 6e20 scale, depending on interaction that approached significance (F(4,120) ¼ 2.31,
group randomization. In subsequent sessions, staff in the gym p ¼ 0.06, h2p ¼ 0.07). Figure 1 illustrates the changes in the
reminded the participants to perceptually regulate the intensity estimated VO2max from baseline to 6 months following the
(RPE 13 or RPE 15) and were available in the gym to answer intervention across the three groups.
any questions. During an exercise session in Week 1 and Week A time main effect was recorded for mean arterial pressure
4, acute data (affect, heart rate, treadmill speed, and gradient) (F(1.6,96.3) ¼ 18.9, p < 0.01, h2p ¼ 0.24), due to reductions in
were recorded every 5 minutes, and perceived competence and pressure from baseline (94 ± 11) to 8 weeks and 6 months
enjoyment (assessed with the IMI) were measured after the post-intervention (89 ± 10 and 89 ± 9, respectively). Further,
session. the statistical difference at baseline for cholesterol remained
All gym sessions were completed using motorized tread- throughout the study with a group main effect (F(1,60) ¼ 4.43,
mills (97T Integrity treadmill, Life Fitness, Rosemont, IL, p < 0.05, h2p ¼ 0.13) and with cholesterol lower in the RPE
USA). The display screen of the treadmill (time, distance, 13 group (4.9 ± 1.2) than in the control (5.8 ± 0.8) and RPE 15
speed, and gradient) was masked from the participant with a (5.4 ± 1.2) groups. No other intention-to-treat analyses were
laminated copy of the RPE scale. The participants had no prior significant.
experience with perceptual scaling prior to participation. The
sessions were not individually supervised. Each participant Per-protocol analysis
received standardized written and verbal instructions on how
to report the “overall” feelings of exertion.1 All physiological Over the duration of the study, attrition levels were high,
outputs were concealed from the participant. with complete data gathered from only 34 participants
(control ¼ 14, RPE 13 ¼ 11, RPE 15 ¼ 9). Twelve participants
Data analysis in the RPE 15 group did not complete the study; 11 of the
original 21 failed to complete the 8-week training program.
From the recorded treadmill speed and gradients chosen by Seventeen participants in the RPE 13 group completed
the participants, indirect measures of VO2 were calculated training, and 11 attended the 6-months post-training assess-
using the American College for Sports Medicine's metabolic ment. The participants who completed the training program
equation.34 The statistical software package SPSS 21.0 for attended the gym for training between 10 and 24 times (RPE
Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) was used to analyze 13 ¼ 19.4 ± 5.7 sessions, RPE 15 ¼ 17.5 ± 3.7 sessions).
the data. For all analyses, the alpha was set at p < 0.05. The per-protocol analyses resulted in a significant interac-
The data were initially analyzed using an intention-to-treat tion for the estimated VO2max (F(3.4,52.4) ¼ 3.19, p < 0.05,
analysis to examine the efficacy of the intervention. In cases of h2p ¼ 0.17). The RPE 13 group improved from baseline and
missing data, the “last observation carried forward” method
was adopted. Per-protocol analyses were conducted for par- Table 1
ticipants who had completed the study as intended. To Descriptive data.
examine the acute affective (feeling scale), motivational Controla RPE 13a RPE 15a
(competence, interesteenjoyment), and physiological (work
Height (cm) 169.5 (9.6) 169.5 (7.5) 170.1 (8.6)
rate and %HRmax) responses recorded during two of the Mass (kg) 80.6 (17.2) 83.2 (25.6) 86 (15)
training sessions, an additional RPE group (RPE 13, RPE 15) BMI (kg/m2) 28 (5.7) 28.7 (7.9) 29.5 (3.3)
by time (5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, 20 minutes, 25 VO2max (mL/kg/min) 30 (5.9) 31.5 (7.5) 31 (5.7)
minutes, 30 minutes) mixed model analysis of variance Cholesterol (mM/L)* 5.6 (0.6) 4.8 (1.2) 5.3 (1.2)
(ANOVA) or t tests were conducted. Where sphericity was HDL 1.6 (0.5) 1.3 (0.5) 1.4 (0.5)
HDL/cholesterol ratio (mM/L) 0.3 (0.1) 0.29 (0.12) 0.26 (0.1)
violated, the GreenhouseeGeisser epsilon was used. Effect Blood glucose (mM/L) 4.7 (0.5) 4.9 (0.7) 5.1 (0.4)
sizes associated with F statistics (ANOVAs) were expressed as
*p < 0.05 at baseline.
partial eta squared (h2p) defined as small (0.01), medium BMI ¼ body mass index; HDL ¼ high-density lipoprotein; RPE ¼ rating of
(0.06), and large (0.14).35 perceived exertion; VO2max ¼ maximal aerobic capacity.
a
All data are presented as mean (standard deviation).
 G. Parfitt et al. / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 13 (2015) 123e130 127

37 p < 0.05, h2p ¼ 0.11) and group (F(1,30) ¼ 4.45, p < 0.05,
35
Control (ITT) h2p ¼ 0.13) main effects. Affect declined over the 30-minute
training session (1.9 ± 1.5 to 1.2 ± 1.8) and was more positive
VO2max (mL/kg/min)

33
31
29
27
25
Baseline Post-training 6 mo post-
training
Figure 1. Maximal aerobic capacity means for the intention-to-treat and per-
protocol condition-by-time analyses. RPE ¼ rating of perceived exertion;
VO2max ¼ maximal aerobic capacity.
maintained the improvement, while the RPE 15 group initially
improved from baseline to 8 weeks but then returned to
baseline levels (Figure 1). This interaction reflected the nature
of the approaching interaction in the intention-to-treat ana-
lyses. A significant time main effect for mean arterial pressure
(F(2,62) ¼ 18.5, p < 0.01, h2p ¼ 0.37) and group main effect
for cholesterol (F(1,27) ¼ 6.86, p < 0.01, h2p ¼ 0.34) reflected
the same pattern of results as in the intention-to-treat analyses.
Analysis of the BREQ-2 indicated a time main effect
(F(2,62) ¼ 5.4, p < 0.01, h2p ¼ 0.15) for the relative autonomy
index, with scores increasing from baseline (43.3 ± 24.1) to 8
weeks (49.3 ± 19.7) and no further change 6 months post-
training (50.8 ± 22.8). The condition-by-time interaction
was not significant, although the time main effect appears to
be largely due to the increase in the relative autonomy index in
the RPE 13 and RPE 15 participants (Table 2).
Acute responses during training session
A repeated measures ANOVA on the affective responses
during training resulted in significant time (F(1.7,52.3) ¼ 3.8,
RPE 13 (ITT)
RPE 15 (ITT) in the RPE 13 group (2.1 ± 1.6) than in the RPE 15 group
Control (PP) (1 ± 1.6). There were no significant differences ( p < 0.05)
RPE 13 (PP)
between the actual work rate (expressed as %VO2max
RPE 15 (PP)
computed from the speed and gradient of the treadmill)34 and
the percentage of the maximum heart rate during training
(RPE 13 ¼ 74% ± 11% VO2max, 79% ± 9.5% HRmax; RPE
15 ¼ 78% ± 15% VO2max, 83% ± 10% HRmax).
Analysis of the IMI subscales following the training session
indicated that competence was significantly ( p < 0.05) higher
in the RPE 13 group (40.6 ± 6.9) than in the RPE 15 group
(34.4 ± 10.1). The scores for interesteenjoyment were not
significantly different (RPE 13 ¼ 40.1 ± 6.5, RPE
15 ¼ 34.8 ± 12.2).
Discussion
The objective of the study was to examine if perceptually
regulated training at RPE 13 and RPE 15 significantly
enhanced aerobic fitness, reduced metabolic risk factors, and
increased exercise autonomy following an 8-week training
program and at 6-months follow up. The data partially support
the hypotheses, with significant improvement in aerobic fitness
maintained in the RPE 13 training group but a return to
baseline post-training in the RPE 15 group. Exercise auton-
omy also increased over the training program, with acute
motivational responses (exercise competence and affect) more
positive in the RPE 13 group than in the RPE 15. However, the
RPE 15 training did not lead to significantly greater immediate
improvements in aerobic fitness or reduce metabolic risk
factors. There was a reduction in mean arterial pressure, but
this was common in all three groups, with no differences
between them.

Table 2
Means (standard deviations) for the group-by-time analyses of the per-protocol analysis.
Control RPE 13 RPE 15
Baselinea Post-training 6 mo Baselinea Post-training 6 mo Baselinea Post-training 6 mo
post-training post-training post-training
VO2max (mL/kg/min)d,* 28.8 (4.9) 29.2 (4.4) 29.2 (4.5) 33.0 (7.7) 35.4 (7.2) 35.7 (6.9) 29.7 (5.2) 32.9 (5.8) 29.3 (4.3)
BMI (kg/m) 28.0 (5.2) 27.8 (5.0) 27.3 (4.6) 25.7 (5.8) 25.8 (5.8) 25.7 (5.8) 28.3 (3.5) 28.2 (3.5) 28.3 (3.6)
Cholesterol (mM/L)b,** 5.8 (0.7) 6.3 (0.7) 6.0 (0.8) 4.7 (1.2) 4.7 (1.1) 4.8 (1.1) 5.3 (1.2) 5.3 (1.0) 5.7 (1.1)
HDL (mM/L) 1.5 (0.4) 1.5 (0.5) 1.5 (0.3) 1.3 (0.4) 1.3 (0.4) 1.3 (0.5) 1.3 (0.5) 1.2 (0.4) 1.3 (0.6)
HDL/cholesterol ratio 0.26 (0.09) 0.24 (0.07) 0.25 (0.06) 0.29 (0.10) 0.28 (0.10) 0.28 (0.10) 0.27 (0.10) 0.23 (0.08) 0.25 (0.12)
(mM/L)
Blood glucose (mM/L) 4.8 (0.5) 4.5 (0.6) 4.6 (0.5) 4.7 (0.5) 4.6 (0.5) 4.7 (0.4) 5.0 (0.5) 4.8 (0.3) 4.8 (0.6)
Mean arterial pressure 95.7 (8.5) 89.1 (7.8) 86.7 (6.9) 96.1 (12.0) 86.7 (11.6) 88.1 (12.2) 93.4 (10.8) 86.4 (10.7) 91.6 (6.9)
(mmHg)c,**
Relative autonomy indexc,* 38.6 (15.6) 41.6 (15.0) 41.9 (19.9) 49.0 (24.4) 56.7 (18.2) 62.4 (19.4) 43.8 (24.4) 52.3 (25.0) 50.7 (26.4)
*p < 0.05.
**p < 0.01.
BMI ¼ body mass index; HDL ¼ high-density lipoprotein; RPE ¼ rating of perceived exertion; VO2max ¼ maximal aerobic capacity.
a
These baseline means differ from those presented in Table 1 as they are computed from only the participants who completed all three data points.
b
Group main effect.
c
Time main effect.
d
Group-by-time interaction.
128 G. Parfitt et al. / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 13 (2015) 123e130
The increases in aerobic fitness in the RPE 13 and RPE 15
groups following the 8 weeks of training were approximately
7% and 11%, respectively. A greater increase in the RPE 15
group had been hypothesized, as the exercise intensity elicited
at RPE 15 should be greater than that at RPE 13 and would
therefore provide a more potent training stimulus to improve
aerobic fitness. According to the average speed and gradient of
the treadmill, the relative exercise intensities produced for the
RPE 13 and RPE 15 groups were 74% and 79% VO2max,
respectively. These work rates match previous observations2
and most likely explain the slightly greater (although statisti-
cally nonsignificant) improvement in aerobic fitness in the
RPE 15 group. The improvement in aerobic fitness in the RPE
13 group (7%) is smaller than that observed by Parfitt et al4
(17%)dwho applied a similar RPE 13-regulated treadmill
protocolddespite the higher elicited %VO2max during RPE
13 training in the current study (74% vs. 64%). However, a
critical difference of Parfitt et al's study was their consistent
1:1 supervision throughout each of the three 30-minute ses-
sions/wk for 8 weeks. This likely explains the 17% improve-
ment in %VO2max in their study. The participants in the
current study were guided to complete three training sessions a
week but were required to attend the gym for exercise on only
one of these sessions. Further, the supervision was minimal:
gym staff were available to support the individuals only if
requested to, which more closely reflect a natural gym, where
there is minimal supervision, unless booked in advance.
A decline in aerobic fitness in the RPE 15 group 6 months
following training, compared with the post-training VO2max
in the RPE 13 group, which was sustained after 6 months, was
hypothesized. While not measured in this study, it is likely that
a level of aerobic activity was maintained by the participants
in the RPE 13 group, accounting for the difference, particu-
larly as they reported significantly more positive affect during
the RPE 13-regulated training sessions compared with the
RPE15 group. The acute affective response during exercise
predicts exercise behavior at 6 months and 12 months.7,8
Indeed, a one-unit difference in the feeling scale (the
average difference recorded in this study) has been equated to
at least 38 minutes a week of more moderate to vigorous
physical activity 6 months later.11
Although the total cholesterol was lower at baseline in the
RPE 13 group, the cholesterol values did not change for the
control group or for either RPE training group. The HDL
values also remained similar for each group at each time point,
with HDL fractions (HDL/total cholesterol) also remaining
similar and within the desirable range for each group.36 It is
probable that the lack of change in cholesterol and HDL is
attributable to the quality of the overall sustained intensity and
adherence to the exercise program, the insufficient duration of
the exercise program (<150 min/wk), or the fact that the
cholesterol values were already within the desirable range and
would be less susceptible to change through an exercise pro-
gram. These explanations may also apply to the lack of change
in blood glucose levels.
A significant observation in this study is the high level of
dropout, particularly in comparison with Parfitt et al,4 where
there was no dropout. As previously described, Parfitt et al
used a 1:1 closely supervised training protocol and only one
training intensity (RPE 13), both of which likely influenced
the dropout statistic. The higher dropout and lower adherence
to the exercise program, particularly in the RPE 15 group, may
be attributable to the lower affect and lower perceived
competence. Training at RPE 15 was perceived to be signifi-
cantly less pleasant than training at RPE 13, and the partici-
pants in the RPE 15 group also felt significantly less
competent during trainingdboth of which influence intrinsic
motivation.6
The psychological data provide some support for the
rationale that RPE-regulated training can influence motiva-
tional processes. The significant increase in the relative au-
tonomy index over the study period, particularly in the RPE 13
participants, is testament to the fact that the participants
moved from being largely externally regulated to exercise to
being more intrinsically regulated. While it is highly unlikely
that the participants would become truly intrinsically moti-
vated (because the byproducts of exercise, such as breath-
lessness and sweating, are not in themselves enjoyable),
allowing the participants to control what they were doing
enabled them to move along the self-determination contin-
uum.6 This, along with the higher competence during training,
presumably enabled those who remained in the study to
continue to exercise over the 6 months post-training to
maintain their levels of aerobic fitness.
Based upon the principles of hedonics10 and in support of
Williams's model,9 perceptions during training in Week 1 of
the program could have contributed to the decision to com-
plete (or not) the training program. According to hedonic
theory and the peakeend rule,37 behavioral decisions are made
based upon how pleasant or unpleasant an experience is,
particularly the peak and end experiences. A subsequent
analysis (that coded the participants based on program
completion rather than training group) was run to examine any
differences between completers and dropouts. The data
revealed a significant (F(1.83,55) ¼ 3.89, p < 0.05, h2p ¼ 0.12)
outcome (completed, dropped out) by time (5 minutes, 10
minutes, 15 minutes, 20 minutes, 25 minutes, 30 minutes)
interaction for affect across the 30-minute training session.
Those who dropped out of the study (irrespective of RPE
training group) had a significantly lower affective response in
the last 15 minutes of the 30-minute RPE-regulated training
session.
Limitations
The study had some limitations, the most significant of
which was the level of attrition. Participants from all three
groups dropped out across the duration of the study, the most
from the RPE 15 group. Although six (two from the RPE 15
group) moved away, the combination of study demands and
loss of interest potentially contributed to the high level of
attrition. The unsupervised nature of the training does have
high ecological validity and potentially highlights the tradeoff
between level of supervision, initial compliance with training,
 G. Parfitt et al. / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 13 (2015) 123e130
and long-term adherence. The 1:1 supervision adopted by
Parfitt et al4 resulted in initial compliance but theoretically
could have developed supervisor dependence rather than au-
tonomy (not assessed in that study). Future research could
explore the use of perceptually regulated training and a
tapering of supervision to maximize compliance with training
and long-term behavior change. Maximal aerobic fitness was
estimated in the study to avoid the negative affective response
produced in a maximal test,15 but it is acknowledged that there
is error when extrapolating to an individual's HRmax.33 As a
result, fitness may have been under- or overestimated for some
individuals, although across the study this should have been a
systematic error. The participants were not asked to keep a
record of what they did over the 6-month post-training period,
and it is therefore unclear whether the maintenance of fitness
in the RPE 13 group was due to continued volitional exercise
over the period. Subsequent research could objectively
monitor behavior both during the training period and after it to
check compliance and the long-term impact of the training on
exercise behavior.
Conclusion
The results support that RPE 13 and RPE 15-regulated
exercise improves fitness over an 8-week training period;
however, the improvement in the study was maintained only in
the RPE 13 group at 6 months post-training. Acute affective
responses were more positive and competence was higher in
the RPE 13 group than in the RPE 15 group during and
following exercise. These motivational process responses and
the changes in relative autonomy theoretically explain the
continued exercise behavior in the RPE 13 group. The training
did not reduce metabolic risk factors, either because the ex-
ercise dose was not high enough (the improvements in fitness
although significant were not high) or because the data were
within normal ranges.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Funding/support
This research was funded by a research development grant
from the Sansom Institute for Health Research, Division of
Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide,
Australia.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Belinda Norton, the
research assistant who collected the data for the study.
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