25 - Cgna17775enc - 001

ISSN 1018-5593
PAPER RECYCLING:
An introduction to
problems and their solutions
M. A. Blanco, C. Negro and J. Tijero
EUR 17775 EN
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Edith CRESSON, Member of the Commission

responsible for research, innovation, education, training and youth
DG XII/B.1 - RTD actions: Cooperation with non-member
countries and international organisations - European
Economic Area, COST, Eureka and international organisations
Contact: Ms Francisca Serra
Address: European Commission, rue de la Loi 200 (SDME 1/50),
B-1049 Brussels - Tel. (32-2) 296 95 91; fax (32-2) 296 42 89
jÊÊÊÊÊÊk
COST E l : Paper recycling
European Commission
COST El
Paper recycling
An introduction to problems and their solutions
Edited by
M. A. Blanco, C. Negro and J. Tijero
Directorate-General
Science, Research and Development
1997 EUR 17775 EN

LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is
responsible for the use which might be made of the following information.
A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet.
It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int).
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1998
ISBN 92-828-1801-2
© European Communities, 1998
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
Printed in Belgium
PRINTED ON WHITE CHLORINE-FREE PAPER

AUTHORS
M. Angeles Blanco
Associated Professor (PhD on Industrial Chemistry)
Chemical Engineering Department, Complutense University of Madrid (Spain)
Julia Garcia
(BSc on Chemistry)
Isabel Gaspar
(BSc on Biology)
M. Concepción Monte
Associated Professor (BSc on Chemistry)
Graham Moore
Bussiness Manager (PhD on Chemistry)
PIRA International (Leatherhead, United Kingdom)
Carlos Negro
Professor (PhD on Industrial Chemistry)
Julio Tijero
Professor (PhD on Industrial Chemistry)
INDEX
Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
1. THE RECYCLING PAPER INDUSTRY 3
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Stock preparation 6
1.2.1 Pulping 7
1.2.2 Centrifugal cleaning 8
1.2.3 Screening 8
1.2.4 Deinking 9
1.2.5 Bleaching 10
1.2.6 Fractionation 10
1.2.7 Disperging 11
1.3 Wastepaper grades 11
1.4 Closed loop recycling 12
1.5 European research needs in recycling 14
1.6 Consumer and environmental questions 15
1.7 References 16
2. WATER IN THE PAPER INDUSTRY 19
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Water in the papermaking process 22

INDEX
2.2.1 Applications 22
2.2.2 Quality criteria depending on application 23
2.3 Polluting sources in water systems 26
2.3.1 Fibrous raw materials 26

2.3.2 Additives 29
2.3.3 Feed waters 31
2.4 Water system closing in the paper industry 32
2.4.1 Most frequent alternatives 32

2.4.2 Consequences 35
2.5 Conclusions 39
2.6 References 41
3. STICKIES PROBLEMS IN RECYCLING 49
3.1 Introduction 50
3.2 Potential sources of stickies: contaminants and their chemical nature . . . 52
3.2.1 Adhesives 52
3.2.2 Waxes 57
3.3 Classification of stickies 58
3.4 Formation of stickies deposits: mechanism and variables 59
3.5 Methods for quantitative characterization of stickies 62
3.5.1 Extraction methods 62

3.5.2 Density-based methods 63
3.5.3 Image analysis methods 63
3.5.4 Gravimetric determination of stickies 64
INDEX
3.5.5 Special methods 66
3.6 Methods for qualitative analysis of stickies 66
3.7 Methods for control, removal and prevention 68
3.7.1 Selection and inspection of raw materials 70

3.7.2 Mechanical control methods for stickies 70
3.7.2.1 Cleaning and screening 70
3.7.2.2 Mechanical and/or thermal dispersion 75
3.7.2.3 Fractionation 76
3.7.2.4 Flotation 77
3.7.3 Chemical methods for stickies control 77
3.7.3.1 Adsorption 78
, 3.7.3.2 Chemical dispersion 80
3.7.3.3 Fixation 81
3.7.3.4 Surface passivation 82
3.7.3.5 Cleaning solvent 82
3.8 Stickies control programme in paper mills 83
3.9 Future trends in stickies research studies 85
3.10 References 87
WHITE PITCH DEPOSITION 95
4.1 Introduction 96
4.2 Potential white pitch formers 97
4.3 Deposition mechanims 100
4.4 Problems associated to white pitch deposits 104
4.5 Study, analysis and characterization of white pitch 105

INDEX
4.6 Methods for white pitch control 109
4.6.1 Methods for white pitch removal 109

4.6.2 Methods for white pitch stabilization 110
4.6.2.1 Adsorption 110
4.6.2.2 Dispersion Ill
4.6.2.3 Fixation 113
4.6.2.3.1 Coagulation agents 113
4.6.2.3.2 Low molecular mass polymers as fixation
agents 115
4.6.2.3.3 High molecular mass cationic polymers
as a fixation agents 117
4.7 References 119
5. INORGANIC DISSOLVED SOLIDS 127
5.1 Introduction 128
5.2 Origin of salts 129
5.3 Influence of salts of fibres fraction 131
5.3.1 Salt effect on fibre swelling 132

5.3.2 Salt effect on refining 135
5.3.3 Salt effect on fibre hornification 137
5.4 Salt influence undissolved and colloidal material 137
5.4.1 Salt effect on retention agents 138
5.5 Salt influence on process efficiency 142
5.6 Salt influence on product quality 144
5.7 Conclusions 146

INDEX
5.8 References 147
6. MICROBIAL ASPECTS IN RECYCLING PAPER INDUSTRY 153
6.1 Introduction 154
6.2 Sources of microbiological contamination 158
6.3 Consequences of the microorganism activity 159
6.3.1 Formation of microbiological deposits 159

6.3.2 Processes of corrosion 161
6.3.3 The production of gases 164
6.3.4 Economical losses 165
6.4 Microbiological survey of the mill 165
6.5 The control of microbiological problems 168
6.5.1 Biocides 170

6.5.2 Dispersants 175
6.5.3 Enzymatic degradation of the biofilm 176
6.5.4 Elimination of biofilms by limitation of nutrients 176
6.6 Conclusions 177
6.7 References 179
APPENDIX: TERM DEFINITION 189

PREFACE
^Jhe m ain iâóuo for the paper induslru during the laat decades haó been com petitiveness, thió m eans
manina a better product at the lowest possible coát being friendlu with the environm ent. ^J4owever, the
hett iâáuê Facing the industru o F the 2000 id no longer αό simple as that, because social values haue to
be also considered. ^Jhe issue ofcompetitiveness has to f ind the riaht balance with suslainabititu and
environmental concerns, therefore, the added value of a final product is not onlu considered aS a
function of the process efficiencu and product quality but auo Sustainable production and minimal impact
on the environment.
J ' / i order to obtain environmental optimal waslepaperS Scenarios it is neceSSaru to improve the overall
understanding, at a basic level, of the factors that influence fibre characteristics and fibre processing
within paper and board manufacture, ^furthermore, when the water su stems are closed special attention
has to be given to the accumulation of contamtnanL· in the white water sustem and to their interaction with
the different chemicals used durino, papermahina.
^Jhis booh has been written for ail those who have an interest in paper recuclabilitu and, Specificatili,
in the problems associated to the accumulation of contaminants of organic, inorganic and microbial nature
during papormahtng, due to the ule of u/astepaper and to the closure of the water StjstemS. ^Jhe need of
this review was conceived in the frame of the C - L / O _ / /Programme of the C, L/f in the Âiclion (L.Í
fâper /recuclabilitu .
lAJe hope this worh will go Some wau towards improving the fundamental understanding of the problems
associated to the accumulation of contaminants during papermahina and, therefore, will help to Solve
practical problems at the paper mills. _yv/ least, it should be clear where the gaps in our understanding
are widest and, in consequence, where the research needs are.

PREFACE
^Jhis booh is divided in Seven chapters. ^Jhe tirsi one deals witli the recycling paper industru. ^firstly,
it is shown that the heu ¿Sous for this industru is contaminant removal and secondili the research needs are
Summarizedd. (chapter 2 preSenL· the importance of the water management during papermahina. Uhree
main topics are considered in this chapter: lite relations/up between water applications ana water
especifications, Uie alternatives to minimize water consumption and Uie problems associated to trie closure
water Sustems.
Âft this point, the problema associated to both, the use of recucled fibres and lite closure of Uie water
Sustems are well defined. Jh.ua, cltapterS 3 to Ό cover tfie main problems related to Uie recycling paper
industru: átichies, white piten, inorganic dissolved solids and microorganisms, respective lu.
Uhe melhodologu of these ciiapters ÍS similar. _7n all cased tfie Specif ic problem is defined as well as tfie
main sources and the formation mechanisms. \Jnce the problems have been defined, a review of the
identification techniques and tlie possible control Sustems are presented for Uie removal of stichtes, while
pitch and slime.
Jor all of liou with a deeper interest on t/iese subjects, a wide list of references has been introduced in
chapters 1 to Ó. JheSe references present additional data which haue not been included in this booh in
favour of a better understanding of the matter.
^rinallu, cliapter 7 is a compilation of Uie definitions of Uie most polemic terms in relation to dissolved
and colloidal material.
Ä U ci\{j> s ™OJTc c.
^Jénoeles »Slanco
{chairman L^KJS^^J^Metion C. /
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The editors acknowledge with thanks the contribution of all the authors and all the participants
of the 'Stock Preparation Chemistry. Dissolved and Colloidal Material' Working Group of the
COST Action El 'Paper Recyclability' for their collaboration. We have had the opportunity
of discussing some issues presented in this book during the COST Meetings, i.e. the term
definitions, furthermore, part of the work has been the consequence of questions that have
arise during our meetings, i.e. the different deposition mechanisms, techniques to predict
stickies, secondary stickies destabilization, etc.
Therefore, we would like to thank the European Commission for the oportunity of this type
of R&D cooperation through the COST Programme.
On the other hand, we would also like to thank the "Comisión Interministerial de Ciencia y
Tecnología" (CICYT) for its support through the Project QUI96-0927 which allows us to
contribute to the research activities in the frame of the COST Programme.
Finally, our thanks to the Complutense University of Madrid and specially to our Department
for their understand ine.
CHAPTER I
THE RECYCLING
PAPER INDUSTRY
G. MOORE AND M.A. BLANCO
THE RECYCLING PAPER INDUSTRY
'The European Paper Industry today represents the 27 % of total world production of paper
and board, covers 107 % of the European consumption of paper and board and it is based
mainly on renewable raw material resource. The paper industry utilized 38 mill, tons of waste
paper as a raw material for the production of paper and board which corresponds to 50 % of
the total use of fibrous raw materials in the EU contries.
Wastepaper use has continued to grow globally over the last 5 decades. Key to the utilization
of wastepaper is contaminant removal. This is essential to the wastepaper operation and one
of the most important factors influencing the economics of the recycling operation, through its
direct bearing on the yield and overall total costs.
nis chapter presents a general overview of the main stock preparation processes and involves
a review of the different wastepaper grades. The specific research needs of the European
Recycling Industry and some consumer and environmental questions are also considered in this
chapter. '
G. MOORE & M.A. BLANCO
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Although recent growth has been enhanced by growing environmental concerns, wastepaper
has always been a key raw material for the paper industry, particularly for many countries of
the EU (table 1.1).
Table 1.1.
Wastepaper use and utilization rate (in nine EC countries).
Year Total P&B production (MT) Total wastepaper consumption (MT) Utilization rate (%)
1950 7.0 1.9 27.1
1960 13.3 4.2 31.6
1970 20.7 7.7 37.2
1980 24.2 10.5 43.4
1990 33.7 16.8 49.9
1991 38.9 20.2 51.9
1992 39.8 21.1 52.8
1993 41.6 22.4 53.7
1994 44.7 24.8 55.4
1995 46.1 26.5 57.4
1996 49.3 28.9 58.5
Key to the utilization of wastepaper is contaminant removal. Unsuccessful contaminant

removal reduces paper or board machine efficiency and lowers product quality. The level of
contamination expected in wastepaper grades to be used has a major effect on the complexity
of a processing line and hence its capital costs.
There are three main sources of contamination:
paper mill additives, such as mineral fillers, chemicals and polymers.

• conversion process additives, such as printing inks, plastics and foils, adhesives,
staples, pins and other chemicals.
• consumer and waste collection debris, such as food and microorganisms, grit and baling
wire.
There is also the water collected at depots and in transit which increases the bulk and weight
of the bales and the effective price of the content. Contamination is increasing with more
complex paper, printing and packaging products, including new chemical additives, fillers and
coatings, new inks, colouring agents, plastics and foil liners and laminations, and adhesives.
The objectionable and prohibited contrary materials are listed in table 1.2.
Table 1.2.
List of contraries.
Objectionable materials Prohibited materials
Vegetable parchment Metals (excluding pins and staples)

Greaseproof papers String
Synthetic adhesives Glass
Pins and staples Textiles
Security inks Wood
Splicing tapes Sand and building materials
Wet strength Plastics laminates/Plastic materials
Synthetic inks Synthetic papers
Laser print Waxed papers/Boards
Carbon papers Bituminized union papers
Rubbings of any description
Source: PIRA International
Objectionable materials - those papers or materials that are so manufactured or treated or are in
such a form as to be unsuitable for inclusion in the grades specified. The percentage of
objectionable materials detailed within the schedule (of wastepaper grades) are those applied
bearing in mind the grade of wastepaper in question and with realistic evaluation of the extraction
possibility during wastepaper sorting and processing work. They are not intended to be absolute,
but to indicate the reasonable maximum of objectionable material within any one bale of a
particular grade.
Prohibited materials - those items that can cause serious damage to papermaking machinery and
which under no circumstances should be allowed to be included within the majority of the grades
specified.
The objective of the wastepaper processor is to obtain appropriate grades of waste with the
minimum contamination acceptable for the grades of paper that are produced, i.e. the
maximum amount of contamination must have been sorted out of the waste before it is fed to
the pulper.
Objectionable materials are regarded as being inevitably present in some degree in certain
wastepaper grades, but plastic laminates/plastic materials are absolutely prohibited for the main
grades, and any kind of complex packaging waste which includes these materials, such as milk
cartons, is usually not acceptable for most stock preparation systems. Increasingly machinery
is however, becoming available for handling prohibited materials, for example pulpers which
can handle foil-coated milk carton waste.
1.2 STOCK PREPARATION
Whatever the grade of paper produced from recycled waste, its appearance and strength are
improved by the removal of contaminants. However, the end product to some extent
determines what material is objectionable - ink for example, is not regarded as a contaminant
in fluting medium but is regarded as such in newsprint and printings and writing grades, and
while mineral fillers are not regarded as contaminants in printing and writings, they are
regarded as such in tissue production.
The use of recycled instead of virgin pulp has disadvantages in the production of the final
paper product. The disadvantages are that it can reduce the smooth running of the paper web,
reduce the burst strength, vary the colour and reduce the cleanliness and brightness of the
finished paper. All these disadvantages can and are being reduced by improving stock
processing efficiency.
Adhesive particles known as stickies are an universal problem in wastepaper processing since
their presence in the final paper web can cause breakages and downtime of machinery for
cleaning, replacement of machine clothing and resetting of machines. Stickies are particularly
bad for lightweight grades of paper produced on high-speed machines, such as tissue and
newsprint; and these speeds are continually being increased. Removal of stickies can also
sometimes hinder the effectiveness of the deinking process since it requires large pulp particle
size, while deinking requires a much smaller particle size, particularly if the wash deinking
process is involved.
Stickies can arise from a number of sources. Primary stickies can develop early in the system
from binders used in coating mixes which agglomerate into particles, but above all from the
new types of adhesives, such as the contact adhesives used in conversion. Secondary stickies
can arise as a result of chemical interactions between different substances in the waste. The
main means of removal are mechanical in the early stages of cleaning and screening, when the
particles are large, and at the end of the process line by disperging (dispersing) using heat and
pressure.
Recycled stock preparation has evolved over many years, initially out of virgin pulp
technology. A comprehensive recycled paper stock preparation system, including deinking and
bleaching, for the production of a high grade stock of publication quality can involve many
subprocesses. Brightness of 77-83% can be achieved with 100% recycled deinked pulp,
depending on the quality of the initial wastepaper used, compared with 87-88% for high-
quality virgin pulps.
All processing stages are not included in all systems. Process systems are specific to each of
the many different grades of paper which can be made from recycled stock, with many
individual local variations for similar end products. The minimum number of processes is three
-pulping, centrifugal cleaning and screening- although some kind of refining or dispersion is
usually required before direct conversion. These processes, however, can cover a large
number of subprocesses with localized recycling of the pulp at some of the stages; for
example, stock preparation of corrugated materials can include several types of screens and
cleaners, deflakers, stock chests, deckers, presses, asphalt dispersion vessel and agitator.
The leading equipment and chemicals suppliers are constantly improving process technology
in areas such as fibre yield from input stock, space saving for the many complicated processes
involved, energy costs, water usage including its more efficiency recycling and cleaning,
effluent treatment and disposal, chemical treatment and maintenance costs. By these means,
mills are constantly trying to reduce material, capital and labour costs.
1.2.1 Pulping
Dewired bales or loose waste are fed via a conveyor belt into the pulper. The pulper slushes
the raw material to a pumpable condition without damaging the fibres, and dilution is to
consistencies ranging from 3-18%. Large contraries, such as wires and pieces of wood, are
also removed at this stage, often through the bottom of the tank via special add-on equipment,
a prescreening function which is assuming increasing significance. Pulpers are classified by
consistency and according to whether they are of intermittent (batch) or continuous operation.
Pulping may be entirely mechanical, but high wet strength materials may need high
temperature and/or chemicals. Pulping determines the effectiveness of many later stages, such
as the screening out of stickies and the size of ink particles for flotation deinking. Since about
1970, high consistency (12-18%) batch pulping machines have been developed by the large
equipment suppliers to give better control over fibre condition, size of contrary particles, low
specific power consumption (and steam consumption if heat is used) and more efficiency
chemical action for deinking or slushing of wet strength materials.
Less complex pulpers for lower grade products, such as corrugated materials and using mixed
wastes, have also been developed, and here the emphasis has been on continuous, higher
volume operation and capacity, for example the use of the low power consumption, presoaking
drums.
1.2.2 Centrifugal cleaning
The stock is next passed through a series of centrifugal cleaners first to remove the heavy
contaminants such as staples and stones, thus ensuring minimal damage in the subsequent stock
preparation system - this is done at around 4-6% consistency. At a later stage after screening,
low consistency (0.6-1.0%) centrifugal cleaning is again used to remove smaller contaminants
such as stickies and ink flakes. The cleaners vary, but typically they are vertical, conical tubes
with varying bores, with inlet and outlet at the top. There have been many developments of
these cleaners, but generally energy usage is high, a high level of maintenance is required and
operator knowledge is critical. Surveys of usage suggest erratic performance of these
installations, with few systems working efficiency at all stages and stickies removal varying
in the range of 10-60%.
1.2.3 Screening
Pressure screening (i.e. pressure feeding the pulp through holed or slotted screen baskets to
reduce the number and minimize the size of the remaining contaminant particles) tends to be
more effective and economical of energy than centrifugal cleaning. The development of high
consistency pulping has helped the process. Oversize contaminants are rejected in a tailing
secondary screening stage which often employs another energy-using, relatively ineffective
process of vibrating screens. These are increasingly being replaced by cascade screening
systems or purging pressure screens. Surveys have shown that slotted screening is particularly
effective for stickies removal, with good installations removing 50-70% of these at optimum
stock consistencies of 1.0-1.2% above which screen blockages occur. There are many varieties
of screening and sorting machines which are constantly being developed mainly of the rotary
type, and from which the new fractionating machines have been developed.
1.2.4 Deinking
During pulping, ink particles are released from the fibres. If the pulp is for use in publication
papers, tissue or certain other special papers where brightness is important, the particles are
removed either by the washing or by the flotation deinking process, or by a combination with
washing following flotation. Probably 70% of the world's installations use the flotation process
because of its high yield (85-90%) lower chemical costs, low closed circuit water consumption
and reduced effluent problems. Nevertheless, wash deinking removes up to 95% of the ash and
produces a higher strength of finished paper. However, a combined plant with washing
following flotation has all the advantages of both and is a marginal investment expense on the
use of flotation alone.
In wash deinking, dispersant chemicals are added to the pulper to assist mechanical breakdown
of the ink particles. The pulp is then diluted to low consistency and thickened over a mesh
which traps the large fibres while small ink particles and water pass through. Large volumes
of ink contaminated water are produced which require cleaning before recycling, using a
micro-flotation system. Effective washing through the mesh requires small sized ink particles
of less than 10-15 microns.
Flotation deinking requires ink particles larger than 5-10 microns, being efficient up to 50
micron particles and operating optimally on 30-40 micron particles. Typically in this process
there can be up to four chemical additions during pulping and an additional special collector
chemical after screening and before deinking:
• sodium hydroxide to provide mild alkaline conditions dispersing sizings and coatings
quickly, swelling the fibres rapidly and releasing the ink particles into suspension.
• sodium silicate to disperse the released ink and stabilize some of the other chemicals.
• hydrogen peroxide which helps brightness by suppressing the yellowness of alkaline

action on groundwood fibres.
• calcium chloride to react with the collector chemical.
• a collector chemical which can be one of or a combination of three chemicals: a fatty

acid, a soap, and a synthetic material.
Chemical reaction and storage towers are expensive additional items of equipment at the
pulping stage. The chemically treated suspension finally passes into flotation cells or chambers
typically 2-3 m in diameter where it is aerated with small bubbles to which the ink particles
attach, rising to the surface as a scum which is removed usually by suction from vacuum shoes
under which the mixture rotates. The highly concentrated ink is then dewatered before being
put to waste.
Developments in this field include improved collector chemicals, better and more economic
loop chemical mixing systems at the pulping stage, disc deflakers before the deinking stage
which mechanically detach printing ink particles from the fibre, improved multiple flotation
cells with higher air intake and different methods of ink waste removal, and application of new
technologies as enzymatic deinking.
1.2.5 Bleaching
Less intensive than for virgin fibre, secondary fibre bleaching is normally a single stage, using
hydrogen peroxide or sodium hydrosulphite for wood containing papers and sodium
hypochlorite for woodfrees. For higher brightness, a second stage is required for woodfrees
using chlorine or chlorine dioxide before the sodium hypochlorite. Bleaching can be carried
out either during the pulping stage, but more effectively using a bleach tower, or after
deinking at the dispersing stage, and for peroxide bleaching at both stages. At both bleach
tower and dispersing stages, simple mechanical mixers and pump systems are required.
1.2.6 Fractionation
Fractionation is a relatively recent refinement to the stock preparation process which usually
10
precedes the disperging stage and has been used mainly in packaging materials lines rather
than deinking lines. This mechanical process separates the fibres into long and short fractions,
the latter including fines and ash, dumping each to separate storage chests. The two fractions
can then be used for different paper grades, such as liner and fluting, or the long fibre fraction
can be separately treated and remixed with the short to reduce usage of energy and chemicals,
or the short fibre portion is simply dumped (although rarely, since disposal is expensive).
The system reduces the energy and material costs of refining and disperging, for example by
reducing the quantity of fibre which has to pass through the asphalt dispersion machine in the
corrugated materials stock preparation line, or through the disc refiner or disperger. It also
reduces potential damage to the short fibre stock.
1.2.7 Disperging
The final stock preparation stage -disperging- applies powerful mechanical forces to reduce
the remaining contaminants (for example, any remaining ink particles, waxes, hot melt glues
and stickies) to minimal optical visibility levels, dispersing them throughout the pulp. A typical
system is cylindrical, consisting of a rotor with raised bars on its outside surface turning inside
a drum, with the pulp compressed between the two at 10-40% consistencies and at
temperatures of 65-90°C.
Dispersion increases strength and gives uniform appearance; the high temperatures sterilize
the stock, and the system permits the efficient use of peroxide bleach. However, energy and
maintenance costs are high, although they may be reduced by fractionation. In addition there
is no removal of contaminants, and brightness may be reduced by more even dispersion of the
darker particles.
1.3 WASTEPAPER GRADES
Wastepaper merchants sort wastepaper into various groups and grades. This is essential to
reduce its variability and contaminant level. It is also necessary as not all wastepaper types can
be used to make all products (for example, brown packaging in the waste used for the
manufacture of printing grades would not be acceptable).
11
Due to its inherent variability, wastepaper cannot be sorted into individual types (for example,
offset litho, laser printed papers, etc). It is therefore sorted into grades with each grade
containing a heterogeneous collection of wastepaper types.
There are many different wastepaper grading structures in operation and many tend to be
country-specific. One such example in operation is the CEPI list of European Standard
Qualities of Recovered Paper, table 1.3.
1.4 CLOSED LOOP RECYCLING
Different types of recycled paper require different types of wastepaper in their furnish. To a
degree the wastepaper types tend to be 'closed loop', i.e. old newspapers are recycled into
newsprint, old corrugated containers and cardboard boxes into case materials, high quality
deinking grades such as computer printout tend to be used for printings and writings.
However, most grades of recycled paper need small 'injections' of 'pulp substitutes' and above
all of virgin pulp as well. For example, hard white envelope cuttings and hard white shavings
are waste 'clippings' generated in the papermaking process by the mills themselves.
Without these injections of high quality fibre, the overall fibre quality of world wastepaper
supplies would deteriorate. Theoretically, recycling of the same stock of paper four or five
times (i.e. producing a 75-80% utilization rate in the target world recycling situation) produces
unacceptably short fibres and weak paper.
The feasible utilization rate, however, depends on the feasible 'recovery/collection' rate which
varies according to the type of waste involved and the geography/demography of the collection
regions involved:
• Types of waste. For example, most tissue grades are irrecoverable. The lowest quality
mixed grades are unrecyclable and must go to landfill, or increasingly to incineration.
Many books and magazines are hoarded.
Geography/demography. Collection is most efficient in areas with dense urban

populations, such as the east and west coasts of the USA, the various European
conurbations and Japan.
12
Table 1. 3.
European standard qualities of recovered paper.
Group A- Ordinary qualities Group B- Medium qualities Group C- High qualities Group I)- Kraft qualities
AO Mixed recovered paper Bl Old News CI Mixed light coloured printers DO Brown corrugated
(unsorted) B2 Over issue news shavings Dl Corrugated kraft I
Al Mixed papers and boards B.i White lined board cuttings C2 Mixed light coloured woodfree D2 Corrugated karft II
(unsorted) B4 Mixed coloured shavings printers shaves D3 Used kraft sacks
A2 Mixed papers and boards B5 Bookbinders shavings C3 Coloured tabulating cards D4 Clean used kraft sacks
(sorted) B6 Bookbinders shavings without C4 Nonimpact printed woodfree D5 Used kraft
A3 Board cuttings adhesive white continuous stationery D6 New kraft
A4 Old supermarket B7 Coloured letters C5 Buff tabulating cards D7 Unbleached kraft
packagings B8 White woodfree books X
C6 Mixed white letters m
A5 Old corrugated containers B9 Bookquire C7 White woodfree letters 7>
m
A6 New shavings of BIO Coloured best periodicals and C8 White woodfree continuous o
corrugated board magazines -t
stationery n
A7 Over issue periodicals and Bll White carbonless copy papers C9 While woodfree continuous
magazines B12 Coloured carbonless copy stationery free from colouring χ
A8 Over issue pamphlets free papers CIO Printed white multiply board o
from adhesive bindings BI3 Bleached PE coated board Cll Unprinted white multiply board
A9 Mixed news and pamphlets B14 PE coated board C12 White newsprint
AIO Mixed news and pamphlets B14b Ussed PE coated board C13 White magazine paper
free from adhesive bindings B15 Woody continuous stationery C14 While woody coated paper D
All Mixed pams and magazines C15 White woodfree coated paper -
A12 Shredded office recovered C16 White woody shavings Η
TZ
C17 Mixed white shavings -I
C18 White woodfree shavings
C19 White woodfree uncoated
shavings
C20 White shavings
C21 White shavings free from
adhesive bindings
Source: Confederation of European Paper Industries (CEPI)

1.5 EUROPEAN RESEARCH NEEDS IN RECYCLING
Recently, the Confederation of European Paper Industries (CEPI) has listed the specific needs
for research of the European Pulp and Paper Industry. Based on this report, we have
summarized the main research needs related to recycling as follow:
• Methods for the determination of the recyclability of paper and board products to
support the development of new types of printing inks, converting additives, adhesives,
etc.
• Elucidation of mechanisms for loss or gain of funtionality for various types of fibres
subjected to repeated recycling. Methods to prevent or recover the loss.
• Development of methods for characterization of fibres from new sources, e.g.

household and office waste.
• Development of new ink separation technologies and an improvement of those not based
on flotation or washing. Versions of screening and membrane technologies, for
example, may have application.
• Optimization of the pulping and papermaking processes with a view of retaining the
properties and recyclability of the fibres (process adaptation for recycling low grade
waste paper recovered by new collection systems).
• Specific cleaning and screening systems are required to deal with the loss of cleanliness
of recycled fibres.
• Specific bleaching systems are required to deal with the loss of brightness of recycled
fibres.
• Upgrading of recycled fibres by, for instance, mechanical means, heat treatment, etc.
• Means for fulfilling quality requirement of recycled fibres for food contact by the
avoidance or removal of heavy metals, of odorous compounds and by means for
securing microbiological cleanliness.
14
• The focus of research in the chemical section must be on the impact, which the strive
towards a zero effluent mill could have on existing technologies.
Thus, there is a pressing need to step up development of both processes and products.
1.6 CONSUMER AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUESTIONS
In recent years there has been a strong environmental push to increase the proportions of waste
used in the manufacture of different paper grades. Packaging grades already have a high
proportion of wastepaper raw material and are the most difficult to increase further throughout
the world, although in North America and Scandinavia there is still a considerable way to go.
Newsprint and tissue have the second highest proportions of wastepaper fibre, levels that are
growing rapidly. Printings and writings grades have the lowest proportion with the most
customer resistance to reducing quality. The environmental movement has broken down this
resistance, and bleaching and cleaning technology improvements are helping.
Contrary to popular brief, it has been suggested that recycling may be more damaging to the
environment. The energy requirements of stock preparation systems, pollution effects, water
and atmospheric emissions and mills' impact on the landscape have all to be compared with
the effects of using virgin pulp. Incineration with energy recovery is also increasingly
becoming an acceptable alternative in Europe. All these factors are likely to put a brake on
the development of wastepaper use for paper manufacture in the future.
15
1.7 REFERENCES
McKinney RWJ (1995) Technology of Paper Recycling. Blackie Academic and Professional
Pulp and Paper Beyond 2000 (1995) PIRA International
The European Pulp and Paper Industry and Its Research Needs (1996) Confederation of
European Paper Industries, CEPI. Belgium
16
CHAPTER 2
WATER IN THE PAPER

INDUSTRY
C. NEGRO AND J. TUERO
WATER IN PAPER INDUSTRY
'Water management in the paper industry is of major importance since it has an effect on the
overall efficiency of the process due to its wide variety of uses and applications. The latest
trends towards a greater use of recycled and/or alternative fibres, increase in chemical
additives in the manufacturing process, use of lower quality process waters and limitations to
water industrial consumption render efficient water management an increasingly difficult task.
In order to study and analyze the problems that water reuse presents to the paper industry,
specially due to the accumulation of dissolved and colloidal materials, this chapter considers
in the first place the various applications of water in the paper industry and the quality-use
requirements to be fulfilled, followed by a study of the main polluting sources in process water;
it also analyzes the main options to minimize water consumption in paper industry and, finally,
it states the problems associated to the closing-up of process water systems. '
19
C. NEGRO &. J. TUERO
2.1 I NTRODUCTI ON
Present environmental limitations have caused a decrease in the consumption of resources for
industrial use. The paper and board industry is a clear example of this trend, as shown in its
evolution towards the use of recycled and/or alternative fibres as raw material, a lower water
consumption and a reduction in quality of mill feed water (Badar, 1993; Mjöberg et al., 1993;
Webb, 1994a; Atchinson, 1995; Inman, 1995).
As a result of a better management of urban and agricultural solid waste, the use of recycled
paper and agricultural waste (straw, hemp, husk, etcetera) is becoming more and more
important in papermaking. F igure 2.1 shows the variations in consumption of different types
of pulp during the 1975-1994 period, as well as the forecast for the year 2000. The average
increase has been 4% in the use of secondary fibres and 7% in alternative fibres for the last
few years. These values are considerably higher than the annual increase of total pulp
consumption of around 2.5% (Mjöberg et al., 1993; Breiman and Papens, 1995).
O Alternative fibres
□Secondary fibres
B Virginfibrefrom wood
1975 1988 1994 2000 (*)

(*) Estimated values year
Figure 2.1.
Pulp consumption in papermaking (1975-2000).
20
The use of recycled fibres as raw material in the paper industry presents many environmental
and economic advantages. However, it has also serious disadvantages due to the wide variety
of pollutants that such raw materials introduce in the process. These problems are worsened
as a consequence of the closing-up of process water systems, whose immediate consequence
is the accumulation of dissolved and colloidal material in the system and the increase of
suspended solids and temperature (Heller, 1979; Meersmann, 1991; Mallouris, 1994).
A larger number of additives is used in the papermaking process in order to solve problems
associated with secondary fibrous raw materials as well as the closing-up of process water
systems. Initially, such additives function as they were designed for. However, they become
potential polluting agents when they are introduced again in the process with the recycled
fibres, representing a new disadvantage in the long run.
Yet not all consequences are negative in the closing-up of process water systems in paper and
board mills. As opposed to the disadvantages mentioned, when a proper water management
is carried out, the closing-up of water systems also brings many advantages, among which the
following can be mentioned (Moore and Guest, 1982; Brink, 1993; Webb, 1995):
Economic advantages: lower feeding water costs, lower costs in the treatment
of feeding water and effluent, lower operation costs,
etcetera.
• Advantages in the process: more stable operating conditions; lower fibre, fine, filler
and additive losses; improvement in drainage efficiency
due to temperature increase, allowing a higher speed for
the machine and increasing consequently productivity;
possible improvement in sizing efficiency, etcetera.
Environmental advantages: less impact on the environment due to a lesser need of

natural resources, lower effluent emission, energy
saving, etcetera.
All this shows the need in the paper industry for tools which provide better water management
so as to find a balance between the advantages and disadvantages associated with the use of
recycled fibres and the closing-up of water systems (Brabyn et al., 1985; Schweiger and Rudd,
1994; Sadawarte, 1995). This chapter studies water quality-use criteria in the paper industry;
it also surveys process water polluting sources; it analyzes the most frequent alternatives to
21
C. NEGRO & J. TUERO
minimize water consumption; and, finally, it provides solutions to the major problems
associated with the closing-up of water systems.
2.2 WATER IN PAPERMAKING PROCESS
2.2.1 Applications
The main use of water in papermaking is as a means of dispersion and transport for fibrous
raw materials and additives throughout the various stages in the production process, from
pulping to forming. Water is also used as a heat exchange fluid, for vacuum pump sealing
systems, for steam production, as a lubricant agent, etcetera. In table 2.1 the main uses of
water in this industry are summarized.
Table 2.1.
Uses of water in papermaking.
Uses Function Examples
Process water Transport Transport of fibres, additives and fillers

Dilution Consistency control, additive preparation
Wetting Wetting of the wire

Lubricant Breast roll, wire tensionning roll, conducting
roll, uhle box, etc
Water for showers and jets Trimming Trimming web
Cleaning Cleaning of wire, felt, rolls
Dilution Headbox
Cooling Conducting rolls, upper roll, mechanical parts
Antifoam Flotation cells, headbox
Cooling water Cooling Pump systems, lubrication fluids, calendering
Boiler water Steam Dryers

production
Sealing water Sealing Vacuum boxes, pumps
Cleaning water Transport Cleaning of machine, deposits, pipes
22
The volume of consumed water depends on many factors, which explains the dissimilarity of
the available data. The three main factors are: type of fibres used as raw material, type of
manufactured product and the technology of the production process (Springer and Ortega,
1981; Miner and Unwin, 1991; Lunsing and Haan, 1993; Mc Kinney, 1995).
Regarding manufactured products, water consumption in latest technology mills is between:
Board: 2-8 mVt of product.

Newsprint: 5-15 nxVt of product.
Tissue paper: 10-20 m3/t of product.
Printing and writing paper: > 20 m3/t of product.
It should be pointed out that there are mills which often work with much higher consumptions,
due to factors such as use of outdated machinery, non-existence of water clarifying processes,
lower water system closure, etcetera. Thus, consumption could reach the following values:
Board: 15 m3/t of product.

Newsprint: 30 nrVt of product.
Tissue paper: 60 m3/t of product.
Printing and writing paper: 200 m3/t of product.
2.2.2 Quality criteria depending on application
It is necessary for water management in papermaking to establish certain specifications for

minimum water quality according to its use (Negro et al., 1994). It will be indicated several
average water quality values required for its three main applications: process water, showers
feed water and technical use water.
Regarding process water it is impossible to establish a general minimum quality due to the
wide variety of processes in use and the constituents which may be found in water
composition. Table 2.2 indicates the usual intervals of white water composition. The difference
between both intervals is due to many factors: type of fibrous raw material, type and quality
of the manufactured product, manufacturing conditions, source, degree of closure of the water
system, efficiency of internal treatments to clarify and reuse the process streams, etc (Scott,
1989).
23
C. NEGRO & J. TUERO
Table 2.2.
Usual intervals of white water composition.
Parameters Range
PH 4.9-7.3
Conductivity (mS/cm) 3 - 11
COD (mg/1) 4.500 - 22.000
BOD5 (mg/1) 2.000-8.000
Suspended solids (mg/1) 4.500-23.000
Dissolved solids (mg/1) 1.000- 10.000
Sulphates (mg/1) 240 - 2350
Chlorides (mg/1) 130 - 2950
Sodium (mg/1) 100-800
Calcium (mg/1) 360 - 2040
Magnesium (mg/1) 3 0 - 110
Iron (mg/1) 0.1 -47
Aluminium (mg/) 0.5 - 53
Aerobic colony count (106 col/ml) 100-300
Anerobic colony count (106 col/ml) 15 - 950
Showers, located in several parts of the paper machine, represent one of the major water
consumptions in paper industry. Table 2.3 shows the quality criteria for the various types of
showers according to their nozzle diameter. At present there are commercial equipment based
on physical (usually filtration) or physical-chemical separations (commonly flotation) of
suspended solids in order to reach the water quality necessary for most showers (Walter, 1990;
Walter, 1992).
Regarding water usage for various technical uses (boiler feed water, vacuum pump sealing
water, cooling water) a general water quality is required for the different types of mills. Tables
2.4 and 2.5 indicate the average quality criteria required for water to be used as boiler feed
and vacuum pump sealing systems respectively (Korbas and Kasper, 1989; Panchapasekan,
1992).
24
Table 2.3.
Quality criteria for the various types of showers
according to their nozzle diameter.
Nozzle Type of water

diameter Examples
Feeding Process
(mm)
0.3-0.7 X - Showers of conditioning felts
0 . 7 - 1.0 X ST < 60 ppm Dandy roll, suction roll
1.0-3.0 X ST < 180 ppm Headbox, wire cleaning
3.0-5.0 - ST < 1200 ppm Wire return roll, conducting rolls, breast rolls
5.0- 19.0 - X Suction roll
Table 2.4.
Average quality criteria required for water to be used as boiler feed.
Parameters Range
pH 8.5-9.6
TOC (mg/1 C) <0.2
Hardness (mg/1 CaC0 3 ) not detected
Dissolved oxygen (mg/1 O,) < 0.007
Iron (mg/1) <0.01
Copper (mg/1) <0.01
25
C. NEGRO & J. TUERO
Table 2.5.
Average quality criteria required for water to be used
as vacuum pump sealing systems.
Parameters Range
PH >5.5
Dissolved solids (mg/1) <500
Suspended solids (mg/1) <350
Hardness (mg/1 CaC0 3 ) <200
Chlorides (mg/1) <50
Sulphates (mg/1) <100
Sulphures (mg/1) <50
2.3. POLLUTING SOURCES IN WATER SYSTEMS
The main polluting sources of the process water in paper and board mills are: fibrous raw
materials (Webb, 1992a, 1994b, 1994c), additives (Webb, 1991; Smith, 1995) and feed water
(Webb, 1991, 1992b).
2.3.1 Fibrous raw materials
Fibrous raw materials are the main polluting source in white waters though their nature and
importance vary considerably according to the type of fibre used in the production process.
In order to study the effect of water pollution by fibrous materials, the three major parameters
to be consider are: fine particle content, soluble organic material content and microorganism
concentration. The importance of these parameters according to the type of fibre is shown in
table 2.6 (Webb. 1992a).
26
Table 2.6.
Contribution of different types of pulp to process water contamination.
Fine particle Soluble organic Microorganisms

Type of pulp content matter content content
Mechanical high high medium
Chemical bleached low low/medium low
Recycled without deinking medium/high medium/high high
Recycled deinked low/medium low medium
Fine particle content is mainly determined by the type of pulping in the case of primary fibre,
the fibre/filler ratio in recycled fibres and the refining degree in both cases. In recycled pulp,
fine content is higher due to the presence of fillers, pigments and sizing agents in waste paper
(Webb, 1994a). The presence of a high amount of fines in the process affects mainly retention
and drainage in the wet end of the paper machine, and consequently final product quality.
Although the chemical nature of particles added to process water by primary and secondary
fibre is different (organic for the first and/or inorganic for the second), problems associated
with this polluter addition could be solved in both cases by changes in fibre treatment and/or
additive use that improves retention and drainage.
The addition of organic soluble polluting agents to process waters through fibrous raw
materials becomes a more complicated problem, due to the wide variety of potential polluters
that fibres present. As opposed to fine particles, dissolved and colloidal organic material
depends not only on pulping process, but also on the efficiency of the subsequent washing
and/or bleaching stages.
As regards primary fibres, the main source of organic pollution is extractive materials such
as resin acids, wax and lignin and its derivatives. However, it is also possible to find chemical
27
C. NEGRO & J. TUERO
residue polluting agents used in the previous stages of pulping, washing and/or bleaching.
They create specific polluting compounds, such as organochlorides, dioxines, etcetera.
Secondary fibre pulps are more varied in their content of soluble organic material due to the
additives used in the previous paper or board making process. The problems associated with
resin deposits in primary fibres are replaced in this case by many other problems associated
with potential stickies deposits. The main sources of these potential polluting agents are
pressure sensitive adhesives (styrene-butadiene polymers, vinyl acrylates, etcetera) and hot
melts (such as vinyl acetate). Other polluting agents are binders contained in modern inks,
such as alkydic resins in laser printing pigments. Moreover, all coated papers have binders in
their composition (styrene-butadiene polymers, polyvinyl acetate, etcetera).
Another important polluting source of secondary fibres is the high microorganism

concentration as a consequence of dirt and moisture in the medium where waste paper is stored
before its reusage. On the other hand, starch present in recycled paper is an excellent growing
medium for microorganisms present in the process water system, and consequently helps
microorganism build-up and its subsequent problems.
Moreover, residue from chemicals used during pulping, washing and/or bleaching in primary
fibre production is replaced by deinking agents in the use of secondary fibres. In this case, the
main polluting agents are washing detergents and soluble silicates that may cause calcium
silicate deposits and interfere with cationic polymers added to improve retention and/or
drainage.
The main disadvantage of these soluble organic polluting agents is that of being responsible
for most process water problems, as it will be described in 2.4.2. As opposed to fine particles,
problems caused by dissolved organic material require more complex solutions.
As regards inorganic compounds added with fibrous raw material, the major polluting source
is waste paper with high calcium carbonate content since if acid conditions are used, calcium
sulphate concentration increases in the medium. In the case of using alum to adjust pH,
aluminium compound concentration increases considerably in the medium, having an effect
on the chemistry of additives used in the manufacturing process (sizing agents, retention
polymers, etcetera). On the other hand, the presence of inorganic fillers in recycled paper
helps the formation of biological deposits as they act as attachment surfaces for sessile
microorganisms.
28
2.3.2 Additives
Additives are considered the second polluting source of process water in the paper industry.
The high number of additives which can be incorporated during the manufacturing process
makes difficult to state the nature and importance of this polluting source. Table 2.7 shows the
main additives used in this industry as well as their main applications (Webb, 1991; Smith,
1995).
Table 2.7.
Types of additives.
Description Uses
FUNCTIONAL ADDITIVES
Internal size Control of liquid penetration
Surface size Improve of surface strenght, smoothness, wet strenght
Dry strength additives Increase of dry strength
Wet strength rosins Increase of wet strength
Pigments Colorants, improve optical and printing properties
Fillers Substitution of cellulosic fibres
Flame retarders Improve fire resistance
PROCESS ADDITIVES
Acids, alkalis and salts pH control, improve formation, retention and drainage
Pulping and deinking agents Pulping and deinking of waste paper
Retention additives Improve the retention of fibres, fines, fillers and pigments
Drainage additives Improve dewatering
Biocides Control of microbial growth
Flocculants and fixation agents Control of stickies and pitch
Scale and corrosion inhibitors Control of scale deposits and corrosion
Antifoams Control of foam
Cleaning agents Cleaning and aconditioning of wires and felts
29
C. NEGRO & J. TUERO
The initial use of chemicals does not represent a polluting source for process waters since they
are dosed in an adequate proportion necessary to perform the function that they are designed
for. However, such additives become polluting agents when they are incorporated to the
system with recycled raw materials, or with brakes and rejects in the mill. Additive excess and
inadequate selection of the dosification points also arises problems.
Additives which have a major effect on process water pollution are:
Fillers: clay, calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide, talc, alum and silicates.
Starch: starch introduced in the wet end is the main source of organic nutrients for
microorganisms.
Sizing agents: starch, rosin, AKD, ASA and wax emulsions.
Wet strength additives: urea-formaldehyde, polyamide-epichlorohydrin,
polyamine-epichlorhydrin, acrylamide-glyoxal, melamine-formaldehyde, etcetera.
Deinking agents: sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, sodium carbonate, sodium and
potassium phosphates, non-ionic surfactants, dispersing polymers, fatty acids,
peroxides, etcetera.
An important aspect to consider in the study of additives as polluting source are the problems
arisen in the manufacturing process as a consequence of interactions between additives and
impurities present in the water used for their preparation or dilution. Typical examples are:
Formation of deposits by reaction between alum and the compounds responsible for
water hardness, with the subsequent blocking and fouling of pipes, showers, wires,
felts, etcetera.
Microbial hydrolysis of starch. Presence of microorganisms in starch preparation
water causes slime problems in the storage systems of these additives, this makes
necessary to use water with low bacterial content.
Decrease in the efficiency of sizing processes which use alum/rosin systems, due
to the reaction of alum with the compounds responsible for water hardness instead
of rosin. For the preparation of these additives, water with hardness lower to 100
ppm of CaC0 3 is required.
The incompatibility of resins of urea-formaldehyde type, used to give better wet
strength properties to manufactured products, with acid waters due to its
precipitation.
30
A more complex aspect is the problems created as consequence of the incompatibility among
different additives. Although their exhaustive description is a task outside the objectives of this
chapter, it is necessary to highlight the importance of this phenomenon. The incompatibilities
among the different sizing agents are typical examples:
• Alkylketene dimers (AKD) used as sizing agents are incompatible when mixed with
highly anionic additives.
Rosin-type sizing agents precipitate when mixed with highly cationic additives.
Wax emulsions used as sizing agents have a high anionic character and precipitate
when mixed with cationic additives.
These considerations state the importance of adequate additive dosage so as to avoid undesired
reactions.
2.3.3 Feed waters
Feed water can introduce a great variety of polluting agents in the process which can interfere
with it. Polluting agent nature and concentration are generally related to the origin of the water
used. Two large source groups can be set: surface waters (lakes, rivers, reservoirs) and
underground waters (wells). Typical values of hydric resource usage in the paper industry are
between 65-85% for surface water and 15-35% for underground water (Mallouris, 1994).
Surface waters have different polluting agents of inorganic, organic and biologic nature whose
concentration varies according to season, bed characteristics, region, etc. Underground waters,
however, show a stable quality throughout the year and are characterized by the absence or
low concentration of organic substances and a larger content in dissolved inorganic substances
(Webb, 1992b).
The principal parameters considered for feed water in paper and board mills are:
pH: Feed water pH has a greater influence on production systems which operate in
neutral or alkaline conditions than in paper mills which operate with acid pH.
Inorganic ions: Although total ion concentration -usually measured through

conductivity- has an effect on process chemistry, ion nature is the most important
factor in average conductivity intervals (500-1000 μ8/οιτι). Ionic salts have an effect
on the chemistry of the paper machine wet end due to their ability to neutralize
31
C. NEGRO & 1. TUERO
surface charges of particles and polymer chains. Thus, electrolyte high

concentration can coagulate fine and filler particles since it reduces their zeta
potential and subsequently increases retention. The effect on the neutralization of
polymer chain surface charges is more complicated and depends on their chemical
character (see chapter 5).
Organic matter content: From a quantitative point of view, the importance of this
parameter is not significant in the paper and board industry if we compare it with
the levels found in additives and fibrous raw materials.
In summary, although feed water can introduce specific compounds which act as polluting
agents, such as humic acids, fulvic acids, etc., their main contribution to process water
pollution is due to inorganic ions, such as sodium, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonates,
chlorides and sulphates.
2.4 WATER SYSTEM CLOSING IN THE PAPER INDUSTRY
2.4.1 Most frequent alternatives
If water was used in papermaking in totally open systems, water consumption would be
technically, economically and environmentally inadmissible at present. For this reason, all
mills use some degree of water recycling in the manufacturing process. The most frequent
alternatives implemented in the paper industry to reduce water consumption are:
Reusage of white water as process water (Springer and Ortega, 1981).

Reusage of clarified water for various applications (Byers, 1989; Sanneskog and
Reeves, 1991; Guss and Brown, 1993; Morley, 1993; Guss, 1994; Rogers and
Springer, 1994; Woolen, 1994; Bolton, 1995).
Usage of water in cascade systems according to quality-use requirements (Courtney,
1979; Rossi, 1990; Deschamps, 1991; Clark et al., 1995).
Usage of technical use water in closed systems (Nelson, 1983 ; Sullivan, 1991;
Springer, 1993).
Reusage of effluent after its treatment as feed water (Krofta and Wang, 1989; Geller
and Gottsching, 1982).
32
Reusage of white water as a process water. For certain applications, white waters can be
used directly with no need of clarifying treatment. As a general rule, white water is used as
near as possible the headbox in the paper machine. Non clarified white waters can also be used
for raw material dispersion in pulping, to adjust consistency in the different stages of paper
machine feed preparation, in certain showers, etcetera (Panchapasekan, 1992).
Reusage of clarified water for different applications. Present white water systems are
oriented to maximum closure degree. White water excess is introduced in save-alls so as to
recover the larger amount of raw materials possible, and thus obtain clarified water which can
be used for as many applications as possible. White water clarifying can be performed by
means of technologies based on settling, filtration or flotation. There are different commercial
designs and equipment, each of which presents its own advantages and disadvantages.
Choosing one or other implies a compromise among the consistency of white water to be
treated, flow, process parameters, required quality of water, etcetera (Courtney, 1979).
Suspended material-related quality of clarified water obtained by means of these technologies
is shown in table 2.8 for different products. It can be notice that this water fulfils minimum
quality requirements to be used for different showers, such as in conducting rolls, breast rolls,
trimming water jets, etcetera (Walter, 1990; Walter, 1992).
Table 2.8.
Typical values of clarified water quality.
Type of paper Suspended solids to exit of clarified water

(mg/1)
Grey board 10-36
Box board 10-30
Printing paper 12-48
Bond paper 14-35
Newsprint 20-45
Tissue paper 17-32
33
C. NEGRO & J. TUERO
However, there is a number of applications where the needed water quality is higher than that
of clarified water. Some examples are showers of the dandy roll, showers of conditioning felts,
dissolving of certain additives, etcetera. These applications require more advanced purifying
treatments (Rossi, 1990).
Cascade water usage systems according to quality-use requirements. The aim of these
cascade systems is to use the highest quality water for systems which require it, and
subsequently in consecutive applications whose quality requirements are lower. Typical
examples of cascade systems are the use of fresh water in refrigeration system and its
subsequent incorporation to process water; the incorporation of vacuum pump sealing water
to process water; white water usage in fibrous raw materials pulping, etcetera (Sullivan, 1991).
Water utilization for technical uses in closed systems. As it was previously mentioned, the
most characteristic examples of water utilization for technical uses are boiler feed water to
produce steam, refrigeration systems and vacuum pump sealing water. As regards the first
two, conventional techniques common to other industries are used. However, vacuum pump
sealing water constitutes a particular case of the paper industry, and consequently we will
consider some examples to minimize fresh water usage in these systems.
Minimization of fresh water usage for vacuum pump sealing systems. Due to the high
volume of water used for vacuum systems, a large number of mills have devised facilities
which correspond to various reusage patterns. The main disadvantage in sealing water usage
is temperature increase and its subsequent vacuum capacity decrease (Springer, 1993). In order
to avoid such decrease two different options are proposed for its reusage:
1.- Fresh water usage in high vacuum systems and subsequent effluent reusage in low
vacuum systems. This option would imply a sealing water reduction of around 45%.
Losses in low vacuum pumps due to temperature increase are estimated in 3%
(Nelson, 1983).
2.- Usage of an independent water system: in this case, it is a close system where
sealing water is refrigerated before its reusage. It is important to consider that a
clarifying treatment is sometimes needed in order to fulfil quality requirements for
this application, as mentioned in table 2.5 (Panchapasekan, 1992).
Effluent reusage as feed water. This option has been implemented mainly in German and
34
Dutch paper mills. Serious odour problems in the product, temperature increase and high
corrosion levels in the system makes this option unfeasible at present, considering the
conventional effluent treatment systems used in paper industry (Geller and Gottsching, 1982).
2.4.2 Consequences
Problems associated with water system closure as a consequence of polluting agent build-up
are of a very varied nature, although they can generally be classified according to related
problems:
Suspended solid increase.

Dissolved and colloidal substance increase.
Temperature increase.
Table 2.9 shows the main problems found in paper and board mills. They imply the following
harmful effects (Bley, 1992; Freeland and Gress, 1995):
Effects on machine productivity: worse retention and drainage, deposit and scale
formation, break frequency increase, etcetera.
• Effects on additive efficiency: bleaching and sizing additives, wet and dry strength
agents, retention agents, flocculants, dyes, etcetera.
Effects in water quality: bad formation, opacity and brightness decrease, presence
of holes, dirt, mechanic and chemical resistance loss, etcetera.
Problems associated with suspended material (Foster et ai, 1993) are the easiest to solve
since these compounds can be eliminated by means of process water clarifying systems.
However, their high concentration can cause serious deposit problems in several parts of the
papermaking process, higher additive consumption and physical properties losses in the final
product. The most characteristic example is showers blockade in those mills that reuse process
water for this application.
Problems associated with organic suspended material are similar to those stated below
regarding colloidal material agglomeration.
35
Table 2.9.
Advantages and disadvantages of the consequences of closing of the water circuit.
Consequences Advantages Disadvantages
Increase of suspended Less production of sludges Blocking of showers and pipes

solids Reduction of raw materials losses Spots and dirt in the final product
Deposit formation
Abrassion
Reduction of wire life
Increase of fines
Modifications in drainage capacity
H
■-ί
4
gO Increase of dissolved Higher retention of dissolved material Scale deposits
ω solids Deposit formation
y. Increase of microbial activity
Corrosion
Colour
Alteration of wet end chemistry
Increase of temperature Better drainage processes Sizing problems

Energy savings Reduction in vacuum pumps capacity
Increase and/or alteration of microbial activity
As regards inorganic suspended solid increase, we must consider the harmful effects of filler
increase (clay, calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide, etcetera) in process waters. Some
examples can be mentioned (Hanna and Reeser, 1989):
Deposit increase in papermaking equipment.

• Abrasiveness increase in mobile parts, such as pumps, rollers, wires, etcetera.
Reduction of product physical and chemical resistance.
Decrease in the efficiency of certain additives (sizing agents, dyes, etcetera)
• Foam increase when calcium carbonate is in an acid medium.
Problems associated with dissolved and colloidal material increase (Porwall et al., 1980;
May, 1991; Sorrelle and Belgard, 1991; Bennet, 1993; Grill and Priestley, 1993; Blanco,
1994; Blanco et ai, 1994a, 1994b, 1995; Kotila and Estes, 1994; Rhodes, 1995) are the most
important ones in paper and board mills. Generally, they are due to an increase in the
concentration of inorganic salts, organic material and microorganisms.
Inorganic salt build-up in the system (Grill and Priestley, 1993; Blanco, 1994; Blanco et al.,
1994a, 1995) is one important aspect to be considered as a detriment in the closing-up of
process water systems due to the high number of problems which is likely to arise, either in
the papermaking process or in the product. The main problems associated with an increase in
dissolved salt concentration in process water are:
Possible decrease of product physical resistance.

Alteration of wet end chemistry due to the interaction of salts with additives
incorporated to the process.
Brightness decrease in the presence of high levels of Fe +3 and Mn +2 .
Corrosion level increase.
• Alum deposit formation in processes wliich operate wiüi pH higher than 5 and high
concentration of aluminium species.
Scale formation due to precipitation reactions.
Interference with rosins in sizing operations when there is a high concentration of
Ca +2 .
• Microbial build-up increase as a consequence of inorganic salt nutritional value.
As regards organic dissolved and colloidal material, problems related to the different types
of pitch, stickies and slime or biofilm are the most important for paper and board
37
C. NEGRO & J. TUERO
manufacturers. These deposits are the cause of problems such as modification of wet end
chemistry, deposit formation in the equipment and in the final product, corrosion, odour, web
breaks, etcetera.
The term 'pitch' (Grill and Priestley, 1993; Blanco et al., 1994b) is used to name those
extractive substances coming from pulp which show a tendency to form deposits on wires, felts
and other static or mobile parts during papermaking. These deposits have a complex chemical
composition of: oleophillic material, fatty acid alcohols, fatty and resin acid salts, fatty acid
esters, glycerides, polymer constituents originated from reactions with unsaturated fats and
resin acids, non-ionic terpene-type constituents, etcetera.
The importance of this type of deposits in papermaking processes varies according to factors
such as wood origin, pulping process used to obtain pulp, storage and papermaking operation
conditions. The main factors which have an effect on pitch agglomeration are sudden pH
changes, zeta potential, water hardness and hydrodynamic and mechanic forces. Similarly, we
must point out the high affinity of pitch deposits on hydrophobic surfaces.
The term 'stickies' (May, 1991; Blanco et al., 1994b; Rhodes, 1995) is used for sticky
organic aggregates which can be formed in paper and board mills as a consequence of
substances present both in secondary fibres and additives used in the manufacturing process.
Therefore, they include ink particles, mineral oils, wax, adhesives, sizing additives, etcetera.
They have a complex chemical nature formed by polymers such as styrene-butadiene,
polyvinyl acetate, polyisoprene, poly butadiene, acrylonitrile, polyesters, ethylene vinyl
acetate, etcetera.
In the references several classifications are established for these compounds according to their
size (diameter between 0.074 and 0.42 mm), solubility (primary and secondary) or physical
nature (hard and soft). Stickies cause many different problems which can have an effect on
both paper machine productivity and final product quality. Like pitch, all potential sticky
forming compounds share an hydrophobic character, and consequently surfaces with low
surface tension will be the parts more prone to deposit formation.
The most problematic deposits are those known as 'secondary stickies', formed as a result of
dissolved and colloidal substance coagulation, since they are formed in the last stages of the
process (pressing, drying, etcetera), thus making their formation difficult to foresee. Colloidal
fraction stability in process water depends on several parameters such as pH, temperature,
concentration, shear stress, additive dosage, etcetera. Any sudden change in these variables
38
can cause destabilization, agglomerate formation and their subsequent deposition.
The third deposit group is the result of microbial activity increase (bacteria, fungus, algae).
The terms 'slime' or 'biofilm' (Sorrelle and Belgard, 1991; Bennet, 1993) define
microorganism deposits during paper and board manufacturing processes. In the case of
systems containing enough dissolved oxygen aerobe bacteria are built up, which are the main
cause of slimes. As dissolved oxygen decreases, there is an increase in anaerobe bacteria,
which contribute less to slime formation but cause odour and corrosion. Odour is caused by
the presence of both volatile fatty (AGVs) and hydrosulphuric acids. Degradation of organic
compounds (starch, polysaccharides, proteins, etcetera) produces volatile fatty acids, such as
acetic, butyric and valeric. This type of fatty acids causes process water and final product
odour. As regards corrosion, the most important problems are caused by sulphate reducing
bacteria.
Finally, temperature increase is the main physical effect associated with the closing-up of
process water systems. It causes harmful effects on paper and board mills due to (Webb,
1993):
Increase in microorganism built-up and dissolved oxygen decrease, reaching

anaerobe conditions more easily and their resulting consequences.
• Increase in speed of reactions which cause corrosion.
Increase of deposit formation reactions.
Change in the physical characteristics of the material such as decrease of stickiness
in some deposits, which increases mobility and causes detachment problems in the
final parts of the manufacturing process.
Salt solubility increase.
Vacuum capacity decrease in suction boxes, pumps, etcetera.
The above aspects will be studied in detail during the next chapters.
2.5 CONCLUSIONS
This chapter shows the importance of a good water management in the paper industry which
allows reducing water consumption without affecting either final product quality or the
papermaking process. This will mean significant economic and environmental advantages. As
39
C. NEGRO & J. TUERO
consumption is reduced, it arises problems whose solution becomes more complex when
recycled raw material is used. This is due to the high amount of pollutants introduced in the
system which has to be controlled for water reusage. In order to devise plans for water reusage
we should take into account:
1.- Pollution introduced in the different circuits.

2.- Possible treatments for each stream.
3.- The specifications or water quality necessary for different uses in the mill.
When selecting the best alternatives for water reusage and treatments for an efficient and
economically feasible control of pollutants present in the system, we have realized the need
of further research in the following areas:
a.- Optimization of specifications for the different water applications in the paper
industry,
b.- Design of models capable of foreseeing changes originated in process water systems
as a result of the change in raw material, additive and/or feed water quality,
c- Better knowledge of the mechanisms of deposit formation (pitch, stickies, slime) and
how to prevent and/or remove them,
d.- New state-of-the-art treatments to remove specific pollutants such as dissolved
substance responsible for corrosion and odour problems.
The above research areas are both national and international priorities at present.
40
2.6 REFERENCES
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Blanco, MA; Negro, C; Tijero, J and Hooijmeijer, A (1994a). Influence of salts on the
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Blanco, MA; Negro, C; Tijero, J; Hooijmeijer, A and Blaak, PJ (1994b). Internal water
clarification in paper mills. A real case. Ill Congreso Internacional de Química del ANQUE,
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Blanco, MA; Negro, C; Tijero, J and Hooijmeijer, A (1995). How to increase the removal of
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Bley L (1992) Measuring the concentration of anionic trash. The PCD. Pap Technol, April:
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Bolton JA (1995) System approach to reusing white water on paper machines. In: TAPPI
Papermakers Conference, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, pp 363-366
Brabyn NE, Smith EJ, Davies CJ, Bindoff AL, Groves GR, Offringa G (1985) Technical
performance evaluation of treatment processes for the recycling of paper machine wastewater.
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Brennan W, Pappens RA (1995) Annual review. Producers set new records. Pulp Pap Int
37(7): 19
Brink MW (1993) It's the water your key to recycled fiber quality. In: Progress in Paper
Recycling, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, August, pp 46-54
Byers D (1989) Proper system desing boots paper machine Whitewater recycling. Pulp Pap
January: 83-87
Clark M, Guidotti P, Hartung R (1995) US. newsprint mill recycles Whitewater and derives
energy from the sludge. Pap Technol May: 14-25
Courtney SM (1979) Water system closure. Tappi J 62(10): 47-50
Deschamps Ρ (1991) Perkins papers. Nears completion of new tissue machine at Candiac. Pulp
Pap J, June: 18-19
Foster MH, Dichi DS, Cleare WA, Pickrell JJ (1993) A comprehensive approach to
minimizing paper mill effluent total suspended solids. In: TAPPI Environmental Conference,
TAPPI Press, Atlanta, pp 501-509
Freeland SA, Gress JM (1995) What is the effect of residual deinking chemicals on the wet-
end chemistry of the papermaking process and on paper properties?. Prog Pap Recyc,
February: 107-108
Geller A, Gottsching L (1982) Closing water systems completely in the Federal Republic of
Germany. Tappi J 65(9): 97-101
Grill RIS, Priestley MR (1993) Control of white pitch from recycled coated broke. In: PIRA
Conference: The Chemistry of Papermaking, PIRA International, England
Guss DB, Brown D (1993) Clarification and recycling of deinking process water. In: TAPPI
Environmental Conference, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, pp 179-183
Guss DB (1994) The synergy of flotation and filtration in wastewater treatment and recycling.
In: TAPPI Recycling Symposium, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, pp 407-413
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Hanna M, Reeser DM (1989) Water quality impacts on manufacturing high brightness

newsprint paper. In: TAPPI Environmental Conference, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, pp 239-241
Heller P, Scott WE, Springer AM (1979) Potential operational problems under conditions of
complete water reuse. Assessment using a model apaper machine. Tappi J 62(12): 79-84
Inman B (1995) Environmental pressure, a mill perspective. Pap Technol, May: 10-13
Korbas G, Kasper JK (1989) Water treatment considerations for pulp and paper mill boilers.
In: TAPPI Environmental Conference, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, pp 231-237
Kotila PS, Estes TK (1994) Closed mill systems and implications for process water reuse.In:
Progress in Paper Recycling, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, pp 42-46
Krofta M, Wang LK (1989) Total closing of paper mills with reclamation and deinking
installations.In: 43rd. Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, Lewis Publishers Inc., Michigan,
pp 673-687
Lunsing H, de Haan WE (1993) Experiences in the Dutch paper and board industry in
reducing the fresh water consumption. Pap Technol Ind, November: 305-308
Mallouris M (1994) Consequences of increased closure level on wet-end chemistry. In: PIRA
Conference: Towards the closed systems, threats and opportunities, PIRA International,
England
May OW (1991) Chemical processing aids: the problem-solving additives. Tappi J 74(7): 67-
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McKinney, RWJ (1995). Technology of paper recycling. Capítulo 7: 'Water and waste water
treatment in recycling mills'. Chapman & Hall, United Kingdom
Meersmann T (1991) Impact of recycled fibers and their contaminants on papermaking. TAPPI
Miner T, Unwin J (1991) Progress in reducing water use and wastewater loads in the U.S.
paper industry. Tappi J 74(8): 127-131
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Mjöberg J, Staffner S, Ullman Ρ (1993) Environmental problems in conection with recycling

of fibers. Pap Technol Ind, July/August:26-37
Moore GK, Guest DA (1982) Closing-up of water systems: the benefits and the effects. Pap
Tecnol Ind, March: 65-69
Morley M (1990) Closing backwater systems through shower technology. Pap Technol,
December :41-43
Negro, C; Blanco, MA and Hooimeijer, A (1994). Uso racional del agua en las fábricas de
papel y cartón. Ill Congreso Internacional de Química del ANQUE, December: 160
Nelson JM (1983) The vacuum system. Its contribution to machine efficiency. Tappi J 66 (6):
63-66
Panchapakesan Β (1992) White water reuse and savealls. In: Pulp and Paper Manufacture,
vol.6, Stock Preparation, chapter IX, Edited by TAPPI Joint Textbook Comittee of the Paper
Industry, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, pp 173-186
Porwall SK; Springer A; Proctor A (1980) Scale deposits on the fourdriner wire of a fine-
paper machine. Tappi J 63(6): 67-69
Rhodes Τ (1995) Stickies and color carryover: their effects on paper machine. In: TAPPI
Rogers R, Springer AM (1994) Water quality attributes which influence flotation deinking
performance. In: Progress in Paper Recycling, TAPPI Press, August: 31
Rossi Ρ (1990) Efficient water management on the paper machine. Pap Technol March: 34-41
Sadawarte NS (1995) Better technology needed to clean up nonwood fiber. Pulp Pap Int 37
(6): 84-95
Sanneskog O, Reeves R (1991) Dissolved air flotation systems are cleaning up the difficult
parts of Hallasta's effluent. Pulp Pap Can 92(5): 28-29
44
Schweiger CA, Rudd JB (1994) Prediction and control of paper machine parameters using
adaptive technologies in process modelling. Tappi J 77(11): 201-208
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water systems. In: Recycling paper: from fiber to finished product, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, pp
121-129
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Sorrelle PH, Belgard WE (1991) The effect of recycled fiber use on paper machine biological
control. In: TAPPI Papermakers Conference, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, pp 569-575
Springer, A. M. (1993). Industrial environmental control. Pulp and paper industry. Second
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vacuum pump seal water discharge. Tappi J 64(2): 67-70
Sullivan Τ (1991) Pope & Talbot water reuse program boots production, cuts steam use. Pulp
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45
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46
CHAPTER 3
STICKIES PROBLEMS
IN RECYCLING
C. NEGRO AND M.C. MONTE
STICKIES PROBLEMS IN RECYCLING
'This chapter is a survey of the state of the art of stickies deposits during papermaking and
presents the actual situation, the research needs and the future potential solutions for
controlling stickies.
The chapter starts with the definition of the problem and covers the classification, the sources
of potential stickies and mechanisms of stickies formation as well as the identification
techniques and the problems associated to stickies deposits. Once the problem has been
defined, a review of methods for control, removal and prevention of stickies is presented.
Finally, the main factors to be considered in a paper mill for the implementation of stickies
control programme are shown '.
49
C. NEGRO & M.C. MONTE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
There is no single definition of the term 'stickies', as it is shown by the fact that authors use
this term for different groups of contaminants causing adherent deposits (Sjöström et al., 1988;
Cathie, 1992; Wade, 1992; Fredik et al., 1994; Doshi, 1995). The most simple definition
found in the references, and consequently the most accepted one, considers stickies only tacky
organic products used to join the paper substrates to other materials, which may or may not
be paper. This definition includes a part of the contaminants which potentially form stickies,
according to their organic nature and origin. All the same, there are more general definitions:
stickies are tacky deposits of either solid or semi-solid nature formed in any part of the
machine or in the product and, consequently, have a negative result in productivity or product
quality. Under this definition we find a large list of compounds which potentially form these
deposits and, in our view, it would include any type of deposit independently of its origin and
nature. For some of them there are specific terms, such as for those formed from resins of
virgin fibres ('pitch') or for microbiological deposits ('slime').
In this paper we define 'stickies' as those tacky materials which can be deposited on any part
of the plant -white water system, headbox, wires- or on the product. They are introduced in
the process with raw material -wastepaper- or additives. Their chemical composition is a
complex mixture of natural and/or synthetic organic substances of a mostly polymeric nature.
The main source of stickies potential contaminants is wastepaper. With the secondary fibres,
there are materials which come into the process, such as adhesive tapes, labels, hot melt
adhesives, wax, ink, rubber, etcetera. We can also include some additives which are a
potential cause of stickies in certain conditions: polymers, surfactants, wet strength resins,
etcetera.
Problems caused by stickies can be divided into two large groups (Crawford, 1992; Fogarty,
1992; Ouellete, 1995; Rhodes, 1995):
• Product quality problems. Alterations in product quality, such as spots, holes,

decrease in mechanical resistance, negative effects on sizing and printing. The
importance of these problems depends on final product characteristics:
In coated board, stickies can cause problems in coating and printing.
50
In multy-ply board, stickies in middle plies can cause discoloration

problems.
In printing paper, tissue paper, etcetera, spots decrease product quality.
• Operational problems. This group includes all those negative effects of stickies on
process productivity. Most of them take place in the paper machine: web breaks,
deposits on wires, felts, press rolls and/or dryers, blades and scrapers.
Eventually, operational problems have two serious consequences on paper machine: excessive
downtimes as a result of an increase in maintenance, cleaning, replacing operations of
equipments, ..., and an increase in breakages and rejects. Both problems reduce process
efficiency and increase production costs.
As it was previously stated, most deposit problems take place in the paper machine. However,
stickies can be formed all throughout the manufacturing process, causing blocking problems
in cleaners, screens, etcetera. We should also mention synergic effects in the presence of other
contaminants; for instance, microbial build-up on stickies deposits increases corrosion
problems as a result of diferential oxygenation or corrosive products of microbial metabolism.
Problems caused by stickies are continually worsened or modified due to factors such as:
Increase in wastepaper usage as a consequence of the high price of high-quality

pulp, better waste management, environmental factors, etcetera.
Increase in hot melt adhesives usage and its presence in wastepaper.
Increase in automatic usage of labelling, which use pressure-sensitive
adhesives.
Increase in the usage of synthetic chemicals, which add to the complexity of
wet end chemistry.
Increase of synthetic polymers in paper and board surface treatments.
Higher machine speed in order to increase production and meet growing market
demand.
Increase in the consumer demand for higher quality products as a result of
higher competition in the sector.
Decrease in water consumption bringing subsequent system closing, which
increases the level of dissolved and colloidal material built up.
51
Present trends of papermaking in an alkaline environment.
During the last years, mechanical and chemical stickies control and prevention systems have
been developed in order to solve these problems.
3.2 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF STICKIES: CONTAMINANTS AND THEIR

CHEMICAL NATURE
Potential sources of stickies include compounds of different nature, such as fragments of

adhesive tapes, labels, bindings or remnants from hot melt adhesives, wax, ink, latex, wet
strength resins, other polymers, etcetera. Adhesives are the most important group, both hot
melt and pressure-sensitive adhesives, as well as waxes used mainly in coating.
3.2.1 Adhesives
In wastepaper, there are many compounds from adhesives, such as vegetable extractive
substances, proteins, rubbers, synthetic resins, etcetera. Table 3.1 shows the main
applications of pressure-sensitive adhesives in paper and board products.
Adhesives can be present as fragments from those used in the binding industry and box and
corrugated board manufacturing, or as films from pressure-sensitive adhesives used in
adhesive tapes, envelopes, labels, etcetera.
Adhesives, which constitute this potential source of stickies, are divided into aqueous
adhesives, pressure-sensitive adhesives and hot melt adhesives.
Aqueous adhesives. They are used in a wide variety of packaging applications, such as box
sealing, board manufacturing, labelling, bag manufacturing, etcetera. In this group we include
adhesives based mainly on natural products, such as vegetable extractive materials and animal
proteins. There are also aqueous adhesives prepared as synthetic compounds emulsions.
Vegetable based adhesives are produced from flour, starch, dextrines and natural gums, all
water-dispersable; natural proteins used are collagen derivatives. Adhesives include in their
composition several additives which improve their properties, such as polyglycols,
polysaccharides, wetting agents, plasticizers, fillers, etcetera.
52
Table 3.1.
Main applications of adhesives in paper and board products.
Application Polymers Tackifiers
Envelopes:
- water moistened Starch None
- self-sticking Acrylics, natural rubber and None
polyisoprene C5 hydrocarbon resins
Corrugated medium and Starch None

paper bags
Corrugated boxes Ethylene vinyl acetate Cj hydrocarbon resins, terpene

copolymer resins, rosin and derivatives
Polyethylene
Masking tapes Natural rubber C5 hydrocarbon resins
Moistened tapes:
- moistened adhesive Starch None
- laminated adhesive Styrene-butadiene rubber Rosin (optional)
Magazine bindings Block polymers (SBR) 0:1

Ethylene vinyl acetate
Labels pressure sensitive Styrene-butadiene rubber Pinene resins
Wax paper Polyethylene, EVA Rosin (optional)
Plastic laminates Polyisoprene block copolymers None

Natural rubber (high grade)
Milk carton stock Polyethylene (low MW or wax) Resin
53
The second group includes latex emulsions and synthetic resins dispersions. Latex systems
are based on either natural or synthetic rubbers, such as styrene-butadiene, neoprene,
carboxylated rubbers, etcetera. These products also include in their composition tackifiers,
thickeners, antioxidants, stabilizers, etcetera. The typical composition of synthetic resin water
dispersions are stable suspensions of polyvinyl acetate, vinyl acetate copolymers. This
composition includes additives which improve their properties, such as plasticizers, tackifiers,
dispersing agents, fillers, antifoaming agents, preservatives, ... (Jarvis, 1992).
Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives. This is the group of adhesives which produce adherence by

applying pressure briefly on a surface at ambient temperature. This type of adhesives is based
on either natural and synthetic rubber copolymers or acrylic polymers. Tackifying resins are
added in order to obtain products which present an adequate properties balance: adherence,
adhesion and shear forces resistance. In their composition they also show stabilizers,
plasticizers and other additives which improve their properties (Scholz, 1993, 1994). Polymers
are a good base for this type of adhesives due to their flexibility, ease of tackification and
formulating versatility.
Their main applications are 'peel & stick' labels, tapes and self-adhesive labels. The main
problem that they present in recycling is their permanent adhesive characteristics.
As regards their chemical composition previously mentioned, most pressure-sensitive adhesives

are based on either natural and synthetic rubber elastomers or on acrylic polymers. A small
group mainly used for labels can be manufactured with styrene-butadiene resins, ethylene vinyl
acetate, alkyl vinyl esters and other syntethic compounds.
The main copolymers used for block polymerization of synthetic rubber, used as a base for
these adhesives, are: poly(styrene-isoprene-styrene)andpoly(styrene-butadiene-styrene). There
are other commercial formulations with ethylene-butadiene or ethylene-propylene.
In adhesives based on acrylic polymers modified acrylate esters are used. The most frequent
esters are butyl-2-ethyl-hexyl acrylate and isoacryl acrylate. Polar monomers include acrylic
acid, methacrylate, acrylamide, acryl nitrile, dimethyl-amino-ethyl-methacrylate, hidroxyl-
ethyl-methyl-acrylate, ... Finally, modified monomers include mainly methyl and ethyl-
acrylate, vinyl acetate and methyl-methacrylate.
54
These adhesives constitute a potential source of stickies. During the last few years, the
adhesives industry has made an important effort in the search of 'repulpable' pressure-sensitive
adhesives, these with no harmful effects on paper recycling. In this sense, two adhesives
groups are being developed: insoluble adhesives -easily removed by washing, such as
polystyrene-b-isoprene adhesives- and water soluble-dispersable adhesives -polyacrylates
copolymers with hydrophyllic monomers, such as acrylic acid (Maan-shii, 1992; Srivatsa,
1994).
Hot Melt Adhesives. They are products based on thermoplastic polymers, do not contain
solvents and are solid at ambient temperature. They all have the property of softening with
temperature increase and hardening when cooling, thus performing their adhesive function.
They spread as a more or less viscous fluid depending on their temperature. Once applied, if
they have a fast cooling they allow high production speed, which justifies their use in the
packaging, binding and graphic arts industry (Buccigross et al., 1991; Wise et al., 1992).
Their formulation includes a wide variety of natural and synthetic substances belonging to
three large groups:
• High molecular weight polymers, used to give mechanical strength, adhesion

and solvents strength. The most usual ones are polyethylene, polypropylene,
ethylene vinyl acetate copolymers (EVA) and rubber block copolymers.
Resins of relatively low molecular weight which give specific adherence,

viscosity and hot adhesion properties. Their formulation includes a wide variety
of synthetic resins, rosins and trieir derivatives.
Waxes, which are the third group of compounds in the composition of

adhesives. They control factors related to application operati veness, viscosity,
melting point, surface wetting characteristics, flexibility, etcetera. They are
usually paraffins, microcrystalline waxes and synthetic hydrocarbon waxes.
Table 3.2 shows the products most commonly used in pressure-sensitive adhesives
formulation. They are present in papermaking when using wastepaper which contains them
(Buccigross and Cheney, 1991).
55
Table 3.2.
Compounds used in the formulation of adhesives.
Polymers
Tackifiers Waxes Others
Thermoplastic systems Reactive systems
Acid copolymers Epoxi Styrene resins Paraffins Antioxidants

Amorphous polyolefins Polyester Styrene copolymers resins Microcrystallines Plasticizers -liquid and solid-
Butylic and olefmic rubbers Polyurethane a-pinene resins Microcrystallines oxidized Fillers
Dialcohols b-pinene resins Synthetics Defoaming agents
Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymers Dipentenes resins Synthetics oxidized Wetting agents
Acrylic ethylene copolymers Rosins Ester waxes Dispersants
Ethylene terpolymers Hydrocarbon gums Polyethylene waxes Preservatives
Polyacrylics Esterific gums
Polyamides Hydrocarbon resins C-5
Polyisobulenes Hydrocarbon resins C-9
Polyesters Phenolic resins
Polystyrenes Aromatic resins
Polyvinyl acetates Phenol terpene resins
Polyvinyl buiyral Polyterpenes
Polyethylens Paraffinic oils
Atactic potyethylenes Naftenic oils
Styrene copolymers Indene resins
Styrene-isoprene copolymers Polybutenes
Styrene-butadiene copolymers Ethylene methyl toluene copolymers
Styrenc-ethylene-butadiene copolymers Ethylene vinyl toluene copolymers
Po lychlorop renes Methyl indene
Polyisoprenes
Acrylnitriles
Glycol copolymers
Natural rubbers
in
3.2.2 Waxes
This general term is used for both natural and synthetic products whose common feature is
their waxen behaviour. Their application in adhesives formulation has previously been stated.
Waxes are used for wax-coating operations in paper, board and related products -corrugated
fireboard boxes, paper cups, food packages, etcetera- so as to provide higher wet strength or
as a water barrier to avoid losses. Corrugated fireboard boxes used for sea transport of meat,
vegetables, fruits, ..., are examples of packages which require a high wet strength due to their
atmosphere or the operations that they go through along with their contents (refrigeration,
freezing, ...). These products can go through different types of wax-coating depending on the
required specifications (Back, 1995; Back et al., 1995).
The application of waxes modified by polymeric additives is known as hot melt wax-coating.
It is widely used in the paper and board industry for bundling and packing. In recycled paper,
the main sources of wax compounds are corrugated fireboard boxes and kraft paper coated
with bundling wax.
Bee wax was traditionally used for paper waterproofing. Occasionally, vegetable lipoids have
been used although oil paraffins are the most widely used products.
Oil-derived wax paraffins are subproducts of various deparaffining operations. There are three
main types: paraffins, medium and microcrystalline. Paraffins and medium are obtained from
deparaffining lubricant base oils, whereas microcrystalline waxes come from distillation waste
extraction. Paraffins are hidrocarbons between C18 - C30 (average C20 - C30); medium waxes
are like paraffins but with more carbon atoms (up to 60) and microcrystalline waxes are
hydrocarbons between C23 - C85 (usually cycloalkanes). Oil-derived wax paraffins have
densities between 0.9-0.95 as solids at ambient temperature, and between 0.7-0.8 as fluids,
so they are considered light contaminants in papermaking according to their density (McEwen,
1992).
For most applications, waxes should be modified with various products so as to improve their
properties. The most used compounds are polyethylene and ethylene vinyl acetate copolymers.
As previously indicated, waxes and paraffins are a part of hot melt adhesives.
57
All these wax materials have a hydrophobic character so they are not water soluble. Their
dispersion aptitude is a function of their melting point and viscosity, although in usual paper
and boardmaking conditions they can cause stickies deposits (Drehmer et al., 1995).
3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF STICKIES
There are different criteria to classify stickies. All of them are based on either properties,
related to their difficulty to be removed or the complexity of the problem caused during paper
and boardmaking. In this chapter three classifications will be considered according to
solubility, size and physical nature.
According to solubility, we divide stickies into two large groups (McKinney, 1989):
Primary stickies: insoluble, coming from insoluble substances present in

wastepaper. They can be removed by means of mechanical procedures and are
not difficult to control in paper and boardmaking. The main disadvantages that
they occasionally cause are due to variations in their tackiness throughout the
process. When tackiness is reduced in cleaning stage, stickies are not removed
and can be deposited in previous stages.
Secondary stickies: formed from dissolved and colloidal material present in

wastepaper, as a result of coagulation and precipitation. They are caused by
a sudden change in system conditions which destabilizes this material and
produces its agglomeration. There can be changes of pH, temperature, shear
forces, concentration, surface charge, chemical additions, etcetera. Control of
secondary stickies causes more problems since their formation is more difficult
to prevent. When formed after screening and cleaning, they are sure to deposit
on either the paper machine or the final product.
According to size. This is the most frequent classification in the references (Ling, 1991;
Doshi, 1992):
Large or macro-stickies ( > 0.42 mm), those retained on 35 mesh screen, easily
removed in mechanical screening.
58
• Medium stickies (0.074- 0.42 mm), those retained on 200 mesh screen once
macro-stickies are removed. They are the most difficult to remove and the
easiest to agglomerate and deposit.
• Small or micro-stickies (< 0.074 mm), those which go through a 200 mesh
screen. They are dispersed in the environment, not causing problems when
stable; but if unstable they form secondary stickies, which are difficult to
control.
According to physical nature, they can be classified in two large groups (Wade, 1989):
Hard stickies, which tend to form on paper machine ends and cause deposits
both on drying cylinders and final product.
Soft stickies, which appear in previous stages, generally forming deposits on

wires and felts.
3.4 FORMATION OF STICKIES DEPOSITS: MECHANISM AND VARIABLES
As previously defined, stickies present in their composition a complex mixture of compounds

which share the following characteristics: hydrophobicity, low surface tension, tackiness and
plasticity. They are responsible for stickies deposits on paper machine surfaces and final
product. Various process variables have an influence on the evolution of stickies, such as pH,
temperature, chemicals, etcetera, whose values can cause destabilization of dissolved and
colloidal material and subsequent agglomeration and deposit.
The main characteristics of stickies particles according to deposit formation are surface tension
and surface charge.
The surface energy of most adhesives is between 20 and 40 dyne/cm. Therefore, stickies can
easily adhere to those surfaces with higher surface energy. For instance, the surface energy
of a polyester forming wire is around 43 dyne/cm, and stickies with lower surface energy will
easily deposit on this forming wire surface. In order to prevent this problem, either stickies
surface energy should be increased or critical surface energy of wire should be reduced. As
the epigraph 3.6 of this chapter will show, this is the basis of many chemical methods to
59
control stickies. Table 3.3 shows the values of critical surface energy for various materials
(McKinney, 1989).
Table 3.3.
Critical surface energy for certain materials.
Materials Critical surface energies (mN/m)

Teflon 18
Polyethylene 30
Ink 36
Polyester 43
Polyamide 45
Water 72
Cellulose 200
China clay 500-600
Copper 2700
Nickel 3500
The tendency of a substance to adhere on a surface can be predicted by means of both contact
angle and adhesion energy measurements. The interaction of a fluid on a solid surface is
caused by fluid surface tension and interfacial tension between the fluid and the solid surfaces.
Contact angle is an important thermodynamic parameter, which indicates the degree of
extension of a fluid on a surface. This concept is shown in figure 3.1 (Ling, 1993).
The second characteristic of stickies having an effect on their formation and deposition is
surface electric charge. When particles are in water they develop a charge in their surface by
ionization, specific absorption or ion dissolution. As a result of this, ions of both the same
and contrary sign present in the medium surround the particles forming the so called double
electric layer, as it will be described in point 5.3.1. Due to this charge distribution, there is
a difference of electrostatic potential between the interface and any point in the bulk of the
solution far from these ionic influences. Electric charge in colloidal particles produces
repulsion among them, preventing their coalescence and, consequently, secondary stickies
formation.
60
£jr ΤΞ^ v.
Stickles vrface Stickies surface
Τ
Hydrophyllic film Hydrophobic film
Aqueous phase Aqueous phase
θ. > ΘΕ
Stickies surface Stickies surface
Hydrophyllicc film /
T3f Hydrophobic film
Aqueous phase Aqueous phase
ΘΛ θ.
Figure 3.1.
Description of the contact angle principle.
The electrokinetic parameter which best describes a colloidal system is zeta potential,
determined experimentally from measures based on electrophoresis, electrosmosis, streaming
current potential and sedimentation potential (Sigman and Rohlf, 1993; Blanco, 1994).
61
3.5 METHODS FOR QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERIZATION OF STICKIES
Quantitative identification of both contaminants contained in raw materials and potential

stickies formers is necessary for quality control in secondary fibre papermaking. Quantitative
analysis methods are also necessary to choose removal processes and to determine their
efficiency or do research for new processes and equipment. Other important aspects of analytic
method application are the study of the process conditions influence on stickies deposits and
the recyclability evaluation of paper treated with various products -adhesives, waxes, etcetera,
responsible for stickies formation- used in the manufacture of paper converts, envelopes, boxes
or in binding.
Quantitative identification methods of stickies deposits are classified in the references as

follows:
Extraction methods.
Density-based methods.
Image analysis methods.
Gravimetric methods.
Special methods.
3.5.1 Extraction methods
They are based on selective dissolution of stickies using solvents. Several solvents have been
proposed, such as low molecular weight alcohols, acetone, toluene, chloroform,
dichloromethane, o-dichlorobenzene, etcetera. The main disadvantage lies in finding a
selective solvent which dissolves and extracts all stickies without affecting other compounds
present. However, by using several analytic techniques they are suitable for the complete
characterization of substances extracted from stickies (Doshi et al., 1984). The use of more
selective solvents allows extraction and characterization of a single or a group of constituents
identified as a potential stickies formers.
Table 3.4 shows the solubility of the main potential stickies former polymers in various
solvents (Savill, 1984).
62
Table 3.4.
Solubility of various polymers used in adhesive manufacturing.
Extraction Sequence
Water Methanol Acetone Pet. Ether Toluene Chloroform n-Heptane
Polymer
Styrene-isoprene N N N S S s N
Styrene-butadiene N N N N s s N
Natural rubber N N N - N s N
Polystyrene N N PS SS S s N
Polyisobutene N N N SS S N N
Butyl rubber N N N S S N N
Polyvinyl acetate N s S N S S N
Polyvinyl alcohol S N N N N N N
EVA N N N S S S N
Polyacrylates N N S - S S N
Polyethylene N N N N N N N
Polypropylene N N N N N N N
Polyvinyl ether N N S N
" " "
N: non-soluble; S: soluble; PS: Partially soluble; SS: Slightly soluble.
3.5.2 Density-based methods
These methods have been discarded at present since density does not constitute a specific
criterium for constituents separation, as laboratory tests show. It is possible to find stickies of
higher, same or lower density than fluids -usually water- which can be used for separation
(Doshi et al., 1984).
3.5.3 Image analysis methods
These methods analyze the image formed from the retention of stickies on a bi-dimensional
base. They could be applied to quantitative identification of stickies deposit on sheets and felts
or of stickies retained on screens through which a pulp suspension is filtered.
The first stage is the retention of macro-stickies with fibres, fillers, etcetera, by screening a
certain amount of stock through a laboratory screen. Afterwards, a sheet is made mixing the
63
retained material with clean fibres and later examined by image analysis so as to get
information about contaminant size distribution. Contrast between fibres and contaminants can
be improved by using either water soluble dyes for fibres (Kacker, 1991) or hydrophobic dyes
for contaminants. The serious inconvenience of these procedures is that all hydrophobic
contaminants are treated as stickies although some of them do not form this type of deposits.
The most frequently used methods for sheet contaminants measuring are those suggested by
TAPPI T213 and T437. Both are general counting methods for specks and dirt. They are not
specific for stickies since they count all visible contaminants, including dirt, sand and gravel
as well as stickies. Their problem resides in how difficult it is to differentiate between stickies
and non-stickies images. Several procedures have been suggested so as to solve the problem,
such as fluorescent speck counting.
This later method has been developed by Doshi and collaborators (Doshi et al., 1984). As
described above, the sheet is placed between two clean paper filters. After air dried, it is hot
pressed at 150-160 °C for 3-5 minutes, the applied pressure being of 10-30 atm. Then the
filters used are examined at ultraviolet light. In order to characterize material transferred from
the sheet to the filters, a hot extraction is carried out with toluene in several filter parts and
later on the extract infrared spectrum is obtained. Contaminants identified by means of this
method are: paraffin hydrocarbons and polymers, such as polyethylene, polyvinyl acetate,
polystyrene and polypropylene, all of them potential stickies contaminants. The main
disadvantage of this method is that fluorescence emission excited by ultraviolet light is not
specific for stickies, that is, not everything fluorescent is a sticky and not all stickies are
fluorescent.
3.5.4 Gravimetric determination of stickies
Gravimetric methods for quantitative determination of stickies contained in a sample are based
on the retention of stickies on a hydrophobic material, such as polyethylene, polyester,
polypropylene, etcetera.
Polyethylene Bottle Method. It involves measuring the stickies content deposited under
certain test conditions on a polyethylene bottle introduced in the sample so as to analyze it
during a certain time. The quantity of material deposited is analyzed according to weight
differences (Dykstra et al., 1988).
64
Low Density Polyethylene Film Method. Contaminant maaterial content is determined by

weight increase of this film, introduced in the sample under certain conditions (Elsby, 1986;
Doshi, 1992).
Polypropylene Foam Method. Fragments of this foam are submerged in the sample
suspension under certain conditions. After drying the foam, material content deposited on its
surface is calculated according to weight differences (Doshi, 1989).
Polyester Wire Method. This method has been developed by the English centre PIRA
International. It involves two polyester paper machine wires which are inserted into aluminum
frames, counter-rotated in a stock suspension, and kept in test conditions for a certain time.
Later on, the wires are dried and weighted so as to calculate gravimetrically their stickies
content (Cathie, 1992).
Carré et al. (1995) makes an evaluation of the usefulness of the microfoam and paper machine
wire methods for measuring secondary stickies. These methods are used to study the effect of
cationic polymers on the deposition of secondary stickies. They modified the PIRA method
using a static wire in an agitated pulp suspension.
Vibromixer. In this TAPPI Routine Control Method, a pair of stainless steel plates are made
to vibrate rapidly in a sample of agitated stock. The weight gain of the plates is an index as
to the amount of depositable material present in the pulp.
Impinging-jet Method. This method consists of the direct observation of sticky particles
deposition on a transparent surface (the collector) from a jet of pulp suspension which comes
from a tube submerged near the collector. Depositable material is determined by either surface
weighting or microcospic analysis (Peiton and Lawrence, 1991).
Deposition Rotor Method. This method has been developed by the Complutense University
of Madrid. It consists of a rotor joint to a shaft with an axial flow propeller in the bottom.
With this system, it is possible to have a fluidodynamics, such that it is possible to have a
perpendicular flow to the rotor and to have a parallel flow to the rotor due to centrifugal
forces. This method can be used to determine stickies deposits formed by impact of pulp
suspension with surfaces in papermaking, as well as stickies deposits due to the flow of a pulp
suspension. The sticky material can be determined by surface weighting or by image analyzer
(Blanco et al., 1997a).
65
3.5.5 Special methods
This term includes those procedures developed by several paper and board mills according to
the specific treatments studied for stickies removal. For instance, Thames carries out a
flotation test so as to concentrate contaminants forming stickies. Contaminants are divided into
'floating', 'sunk' and 'swimming'. Efficiency in the separation of each fraction varies
according to test conditions.
Screening at laboratory scale, by means of fractioning equipment which simulate industrial

stickies removal procedures, constitutes a part of the techniques used for quantitative
determination. Some examples of equipment are the Sommerville fractioner, the Bauer-McNett
classifier, etcetera. They enable us to obtain data about particle size distribution but do not
differentiate between stickies and non-stickies (Krueger and Bowers, 1981; Foster and Barret,
1991).
3.6 METHODS FOR QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF STICKIES
Qualitative determination of stickies is as important as quantitative analysis, in order to know

their origin and to prevent deposits formation. Chemical characterization involves general
analysis stages: sampling, separation of constituents to be identified and fractioning and
identification of these constituents. Therefore, samples are generally dissolved in an
appropriate solvent, fractioned by means of different techniques and finally constituents of
each fraction are identified using various instrumental methods.
In order to characterize stickies deposits, practically all instrumental techniques are used: optic
and electronic microscopy, micro FTRI, X-ray diffraction analysis, infrared spectroscopy,
photo-acoustic spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (H-NMR and C-NMR), gas
chromatography (GC), size exclusion chromatography (SEC), pyrolysis gas chromatography
(Py-GC), thin layer chromatography (TLC) and mass spectroscopy (MS).
As an example of integral analysis sequence, we describe the proposal of Sjöström and

Holmbom (1988). It basically consists of the dissolution of stickies samples in tetrahydrofuran,
their subsequent fractioning by means of size exclusion chromatography and, further analysis
of the various fractions by several analytic techniques. Using this system we can carry out a
quantitative analysis of various contaminants present in isolated deposits with a mass under a
66
miligram. The complete scheme is shown in figure 3.2 (Fredik et al., 1994; Sjöström et al.
1988).
<=£
Microscopy
Dissolution
Methylation SEM-EDXA
Fractionation by SEC
GC
Py-GC Hydrolysis [TLC | | GC-MS | [ | | TLC |
GC-MÍ5
Figure 3.2.
Chemical analysis of a stickies deposit.
67
Samples are previously analyzed by microscopy so as to study certain physical properties, such
as homogeneity, fibres and mineral particles presence, etcetera. Later on, an extraction is
carried out with tetrahydrofuran obtaining the insoluble material and a soluble material
solution. Once the solvent is evaporated in nitrogen atmosphere, samples are methylated in a
mixture of diethyl ether and methanol with diazomethane. After this, soluble material is
fractioned according to molecular size by size exclusion chromatography. Each separated
fraction (polymers, oligomers, monomers) are analyzed by infrared spectroscopy. Later on,
a more complex monomer analysis is carried out by thin layer chromatography, and also a
hydrolysis of this fraction, analyzing hydrolysis products by gas chromatography and gas
chromatography-mass spectroscopy. Finally, polymers are analyzed by pyrolysis gas
chromatography.
The insoluble part is analyzed by infrared microscopy and pyrolysis gas chromatography. In
the case of samples containing inorganic material, these are studied by electron microscopy,
microanalysis and X-ray difraction.
By means of this procedure, the authors have characterized a complex organic mixture with
a wide interval of molecular weights containing natural waxes, triglycerides and sterols, fatty
acids, fatty acid resins, paraffins, microcrystalline waxes, ftalic esters, styrene-butadiene
rubber, acrylate polymers, polyvinylacetate, ethylene vinyl acetate copolymers,
polyvinylacrylate, etcetera. This shows the complexity of the stickies deposits.
Size exclusion chromatography is the main technique to analyze stickies, since it can be
applied to both non-ionic and anionic polymers in water solutions (usually called gel filtration
cromatography, GFC) and organic solvents (gel permeation cromatography, GPC) (Dunlop-
Jones and Allen, 1988; Sweeney, 1989; Swerin and Wagberg, 1994).
3.7 METHODS FOR CONTROL, REMOVAL AND PREVENTION
The large amount of potential formers of stickies and the variety of contaminant sources during
papermaking make impossible the exclusion of all problems involving stickies with an only
procedure. Therefore, the literature proposes a large variety of removal and prevention
methods for stickies and potential deposits formers, each of which having its own advantages
and disadvantages (Negro et al., 1996).
68
The difficulty to control potential formers of stickies is due to their easy dispersion during
pulping and pulp transportation, forming small particles which go through pulp cleaning
systems, such as commercial screens and filtering equipment (as with pressure-sensitive
adhesives). These contaminants can be deformed by temperature and/or pressure, get tackier
with temperature increase and adhere to fibres and other deposits previously formed, thus
increasing the existing problems.
Problems caused by stickies are related to both paper machine efficiency and product quality.
Therefore, location and type of deposit problem are essential variables when designing a
control system of stickies as they presuppose certain type of actions. Each mill should decide
which type of control is most suitable according to process and final product.
The number of removal treatments for potential deposit formers is large and of very different
nature. Larger contaminants are removed in cleaning stages by thermal and/or mechanical
dispersion treatments. However, they are not feasible to remove dissolved and colloidal
material that reaches the overflowing head box with white water recirculation. They can be
destabilized and form secondary stickies. To control secondary stickies a large variety of
chemical procedures is used. A thorough classification of control methods for primary and
secondary stickies would be as follows:
1. Selection and inspection of raw materials.
2. Mechanical methods:
• Cleaning and screening.

Thermal and/or mechanical dispersion.
• Fractionation.
• Flotation.
3. Chemical methods:
Adsorption.
Chemical dispersion.
Fixation.
Surface passivation.
Cleaning solvent.
69
3.7.1 Selection and inspection of raw materials
This prevention method is meant to avoid the usage of raw materials with a high concentration
of potential stickies formers.
Selection and inspection of wastepaper before its feeding to the pulper can reduce stickies
problems but do not wholly exclude them. The parameters which have a decisive influence on
raw material selection are the ratio quality/price, collection/price, etcetera.
Paper selective collection would be the ideal solution. However, this involves great practical
difficulties or is impossible in some cases. Visual inspection of wastepaper allows the removal
of larger contaminants. Nevertheless, we need a more strict control of raw material quality at
process entrance so as to be more efficient in the removal of potential stickies formers. The
main disadvantage is that the cost of a quality control system is usually higher than cost
reduction obtained through it.
Type of feeding is also important, such as direct feeding, or in belt sort according to recycled
paper quality, or in fixed table sort. For instance, it is possible to remove most potential
stickies formers before they come into the manufacturing process by replacing a direct feeding
system for a system containing a belt sort followed by a table sort (Trueman, 1984).
The best procedure to select raw material is an automatic control system, although it has not
been implemented yet. The English PIRA centre is presently working on a project about the
different options for automatic wastepaper classification (Humphrey, 1995).
3.7.2 Mechanical control methods for stickies
Mechanical raw material cleaning procedures previous to paper machine feeding remove larger
contaminants, the ones which cause primary stickies in paper and boardmaking.
3.7.2.1 Cleaning and screening
The design of cleaners has drawn special attention. These equipments are highly efficient in
the removal of larger adherent contaminants at a reasonable price.
70
Hydrocyclones. Typical centrifugal cleaners, not specifically designed for removing light
contaminant particles, are subject to strong turbulences and to light particles recrossing fluid
stream lines of light particles. This is due to the positioning of accept and reject outlets.
Besides, many conventional cleaners have leakage or short circuiting of both large and small
particles which bypass the main forces of the accepted flow. All these problems adversely
affect process efficiency and increase equipment energy consumption. A possible solution is
the development of cleaners based on the concepts of uniflow or parallel streams lines
cleaning. These are their advantages:
Light contaminant particles are constantly separated from the main stream, thus
minimizing their residence time.
Contaminant particles do not return to the initial stream line, thus minimizing
losses in separation energy.
There are no significant changes in vertical speed, thus minimizing energy
losses.
There are no light contaminant particles short-circuits.
All flows go through a maximum radial acceleration zone.
'Uniflow Cleaner', designed by Beloit company, is a good example. Figures 3.3.a and 3.3.b
show the problems described above associated to conventional cleaners as well as the system
operating principle (Yates, 1984).
In the centrifugal cyclon area, many studies have been carried out in order to state which
properties of potential stickies formers make them easier to remove with this type of
centrifugal cleaners. For instance, in the case of particles which go through a 20 mesh screen
and are retained on a 14 mesh one, and when the relative density is below 0.98, these
equipments can get an over 90% removal efficiency (Wise and Arnold, 1992; Saint and
Bernard, 1992; Wise, 1993).
The French CTP (Centre Technique du Papier) has developed an equipment for mechanical
separation of lightweight contaminants, known as 'Gyroclean'. It consists of a rotating
cylinder: stock is introduced in its upper part and the accepts are extracted at the opposite end
by a second rotating head. Lightweight contaminants migrate to the central vortex as a result
of a lower density compared to that of fibres (see figure 3.4). By means of this equipment an
over 85% contaminants removal can be obtained when working at under 1% consistencies.
71
UNIFLOW CLEANER REVERSE TYPE CLEANER

- Light reject
.Feed
-Feed
Accept
Light reject Accept
Bulk flow reversal
Figure 3.3.a.
Operating principles of certain cleaners.
Screens. They separate according to size difference between contaminants and fibres, making
stock passes through screens with holes or slots of a certain dimension. The removal degree
of larger contaminants can be increased by changing holes and slots size (Phelps, 1991).
Slotted Screens. They are the simplest equipments for removing adherent
contaminants. A good design should remove 50-70% of input contaminant particles.
Consistency has been proved to be one of the most influent parameters on removal
efficiency, finding optimum consistency values between 1 and 1.2%. Higher
consistency values cause blockage problems in screens (Martin, 1986).
Pressure Screens. Pressure screens are constituted by a basket with slot size between
0.15-0.30 mm (0.006-0.012"), whereas coarse slotted screens have 0.35-0.45 mm
(0.014- 0.018") range. Equipments are frequently designed regarding slots separation
72
distance; however, the compressible and deformable nature of potential stickies

formers allows them to pass through them (Heise, 1992).
Vibrating Screens. Used as cleaning systems, they accept a high proportion of

potential stickies formers from feeding. Removal efficiency varies between 5-10%,
although it can be improved combining them with either one of the described above.
For this reason, many mills have replaced them for more suitable ones (McKinney,
1989).
Light reject. Light reject*
► Accept Accept
-Feed
Light particles
recrossing stream lines
Heavy reject Heavy reject

Recrossing stream lines "Short circuiting"
Figure 3.3.b.
Operating principles of certain cleaners.
Disc Separators. As seen above, separation performed by hydrocyclons and screens is based
on density and size difference between adherent contaminant particles and suspension fibres
which carry them. However, difference between wetting angles is not taken into account. Disc
73
separators are also used for contaminants removal and are based on both. F igure 3.5 shows
the operating principle of these equipments. It consists of feeding a pulp slurry to the center
of a spinning disc so that the pulp slurry flows radially like a film. When contaminant particles
contained in this film arrive at the disc lip edge and change direction, they are subjected to two
forces: inertial force, resulting from a change in direction; and centrifugal force, resulting
from the rotation of the liquid film on the disc. If the force resulting from adding these two
forces (F ¡ and F c , respectively) is stronger than particle surface tension force (F w), with
opposite sign, contaminant particles separate from fibres suspension as rejects.
Surface tension is proportional to wetting angle, inertial and centrifugal forces being
independent from this property. Therefore, it is possible to select mechanical variable values
for contaminant particles separation based on different particle wetting angle (Klungness,
1987).
FEED ACCEPTS
\
LsJtøl^&^y ^ÉÊ&SM * *■ *
3 Z —ι
REJECTS
■» Lightweight contaminants
-^ Fibres
Figure 3.4.
Description of the 'Gyroclean'
74
3.7.2.2 Mechanical and/or thermal dispersion
These systems reduce contaminant particles size, but do not avoid their agglomeration in later
stages forming secondary stickies.
The operating principle of dispersion systems is based on applying shear forces, generally at
a high temperature, so as to reduce contaminant particles size. Potential stickies formers are
not removed by these equipments but increased. However, the smaller size obtained is suitable
for them to be retained in the product with hardly noticeable effects, and also to be removed
from the system. This makes the method a good stickies control technique.
Black Clawson dispersion unit for hot melt adhesives dispersion constitutes a good example.
This equipment generates high shear forces into the pulp, that is moving through between the
stator and the rotor elements at 70- 80 °C (Martin, 1986).
Figure 3.5.
Operating principle of disc separator.
75
3.7.2.3 Fractionation
As stated above, an increase in the concentration of smaller potential stickies formers due to
thermal and/or mechanical dispersion has forced paper and board manufacturers to improve
their cleaning and screening systems: by reducing the hole size or slot width of screens,
varying consistency, etcetera. Although these equipments increase cleaning efficiency, they
have the disadvantage of increasing energy costs. In order to avoid it and increase cleaning
efficiency without energy losses, several fractionation-based plants have been implemented.
For instance, 'Ultraclean', designed by Black Clawson. Its diagram is shown on figure 3.6
(Pimlcy and Marquât, 1995).
Frationation is the method of splitting the feed fibres into two streams: a long and a short
fibre ones. Since the short fibre fraction is cleaner than the long fibre one, the latter will go
through a subsequent cleaning and screening stage. This fraction is 25% smaller than the feed,
and this makes its design economically feasible (Kohrs, 1992; Selder, 1992).
TOP FOILS
LONG FIBRE
INLET SHORT FIBRE
BOTTOM FOILS
Figure 3.6.
'ULTRACLEAN' fractionation unit.
76
3.7.2.4 Flotation
Another process which helps stickies control is flotation, although it is not specially designed
for it. There are many papers in the references related to contaminants removal by flotation.
It is possible to remove potential stickies formers adding flotation agents; much research is
being carried out in this area, and at present some plants have an over 30% removal efficiency
regarding thermoplastic compounds (Fredik et al, 1994; Rhodes, 1995).
In short, primary stickies control is carried out in deinking plants with the suitable equipment:
screens and cleaners. Screens remove about 70-80% of potential primary stickies formers.
Their efficiency is directly related to basket or slot type, consistency, temperature, ..., as well
as to pulping conditions: if wastepaper is pulped for too long or at too high temperature,
contaminants disperse more easily and removal efficiency decreases. Cleaners use centrifugal
force for lightweight contaminants removal, as indicated above.
In order to be more efficient in the removal of potential stickies formers with mechanical
methods, it is necessary to follow these lines:
Pulping at high consistency.

Usage of screens at high consistency.
Usage of low-consistency centrifugal cleaners (parallel streams lines or flow
reversal).
Removal of vibrating screen systems.
Implementation of a dispersion plant.
Optimization of flotating process.
We should also mention that the use of additives, such as talc or kaolin -they increase
efficiency during centrifugal cleaning-, can considerably increase efficiency in primary
stickies removal when using mechanical systems.
3.7.3 Chemical methods for stickies control
Chemical methods are necessary where mechanical methods are not possible. These methods
involve chemical treatments to modify the tackiness of potential stickies formers and avoid
their deposition, treatments to remove such contaminants with the product without noticeable
flaws and treatments for their removal when formed.
77
3.7.3.1 Adsorption
Adsorption technologies involve the removal of adhesion properties by contact, properties

frequently associated with the surface of potential stickies formers. With these technologies
it is also possible to stabilize dissolved and colloidal material and avoid its agglomeration.
Adsorption chemistry stabilizes contaminant particles but does not reduce their size.
In order to make an adherent particle more hydrophyllic and less tacky, its surface should be
covered with other materials, either organic (i.e. surfactant agents) or inorganic (i.e. mineral
fillers).
As studied previosly, one of the main characteristics related to deposits formation is surface
tension. To prevent formation, either contaminant material surface tension should be increased
or critical surface tension should be reduced on machine surfaces. When surface tension of
potential stickies formers increases, their hydrophyllic character does so as well. We can
control them by chemical modification of adherent materials surface using adsorption
additives.
These additives cover both primary and secondary contaminant surfaces, thus reducing their
adhesion ability. Their efficiency depends on:
Chemical agent characteristics.

Adsorption tendency of surface of adherent contaminants.
Interaction force between chemical agent and contaminant surface.
Molecular orientation of contaminant material surface.
Chemical agent ability to resist interferences in the system.
Chemical environment has also an important influence on adsorption. For instance, there are
very efficient adsorption additives in alkaline conditions which have no effect in acid
conditions.
The two main mechanisms involved in adsorption are:
Macro-adsorption: adsorption of polypropylene fibrils, talc to prevent tacky

surface of contaminants from contacting potential sites for deposition due to
esteric hidrance.
78
Chemical modification: chemical modification of adherent contaminant surface

-for instance, through crosslinking by zirconium compounds-, avoiding
contaminant adherence during papermaking.
The most used compounds are non-ionic polymers, zirconium compounds, talc and synthetic
fibres.
Non-ionic polymers. They are high molecular weight polymers which encapsulates
contaminant particles forming a film on their surface that makes them non-tacky.
Hydrophobic segments of non-ionic polymers are attracted and subsequently attached
to hydrophobic contaminants, whereas hydrophyllic segments are introduced in the
aqueous phase. Figure 3.7 shows how they act (Fogarty, 1992).
Detackified
Stickies
Stickies
Α Λ Α Λ Hydrophobic segment
Hydrophyllic segmenl
Figure 3.7.
Stickies control by adsorption using polymers.
79
Zirconium compounds. In this case it involves the interaction of hydrolyzed species

of zirconium with functional groups, such as carboxyl groups on the surface of
contaminants, thus forming a covalent bond which prevents the tacky surface from
depositing on the machine. This treatment uses zirconium organic salts, zirconium
acetate, ammonium zirconium carbonate, etcetera. An example of commercial
zirconium compound is Zircosol P, an acid aqueous solution with low viscosity and
22% Zr0 2 content (McAlpine, 1984).
Talc. It is a mineral with a layered structure, large hydrophobic surface and

hydrophyllic edges. The hydrophobic surface interacts with the tacky material surface,
also hydrophobic. The main disadvantage of using this additive is its low resistance to
the shear forces of the talc-contaminant floes.
Synthetic fibres. Among others, the English PIRA International centre has worked on
the evaluation of synthetic fibres as control agents for potential stickies formers. Fibres
use their hydrophyllic character to reduce contaminant tackiness and consequently
reduce particles tendency to agglomerate and adhere to wires, felts Polypropylene
and polyethylene fibrils have been studied (McKinney and Currie, 1986). In this area,
the firm Hercules proposes synthetic pulp addition to the process, so as to minimize
stickies problems. The procedure consists of introducing a highly ramified, large
surface synthetic fibre with affinity to organic contaminants of system, such as potential
stickies formers (Wade, 1989).
3.7.3.2 Chemical dispersion
The base for chemical dispersion is an improvement in thermal and mechanical pulping
operations of recycled fibres. These technologies intend to break larger size contaminants so
as to form moderate particles and stabilize them to avoid reagglomeration. Chemical
dispersion comprises wetting, emulsification, solubilization and stabilization of potential
stickies formers. Reduction of adherent materials size does not have an effect on final product
quality and reduces deposits formation on the drying section (see figure 3.8) (Fogarty, 1992).
An example of this type of dispersion is the one proposed by Back (1995) to remove wax
from recycled corrugated board boxes, by means of dispersion in alkaline environment at high
temperature. Dispersed wax is eventually removed in washing; the white waters obtained are
80
treated with polyethylene oxide of high molecular weight and a phenolic resin which coagulate
wax. This method is efficient only in cases where the wax present is autodispersible (Back,
1995; Backer al., 1995).
Dispersion
Technology
Fibres
Figure 3.8.
Chemical dispersion mechanism.
The difference between chemical and mechanical dispersion is that, in the present case,
suspension stabilization is necessary so as not to cause agglomeration problems due to
changes in pH, temperature, chemical additions, shear forces, etcetera. Dispersants are used
in order to obtain stabilization.
3.7.3.3 Fixation
The usage of cationic polymers of low molecular weight and high charge density is one of the
most expanded techniques for stickies control through fixation. This simple control
mechanism is based on the fixation of potential stickies formers -of anionic character- to
anionic fibres through such cationic polymer. Before its fixation, the material should be well
dispersed so that its smaller size allows a strong joint with fibres.
Future fixation trends are oriented to the search of more selective polymers, that is, with more
affinity to adherent material -potential stickies formers- than to fines, fillers or other anionic
impurities so as not to interfere in retention and formation processes.
81
3.7.3.4 Surface passivation
One of the main aspects of papermaking economy is to keep the forming fabric surface free
from contaminants. This makes its life longer and reduces breaks, downtime and replacement
and/or cleaning of wires and rolls, improves product quality, etcetera. Therefore, it is not
surprising the amount of researchs being carried out for surface passivation in order to
prevent deposits formation.
Passivating agents create an insoluble barrier between surface and deposit, keeping surfaces
treated free of stickies, i.e. forming wire and press rolls treatments (Kenney and Engström,
1988).
Cationic polymers are commonly used as passivating agents. Their operating mechanism
consists of the reaction of one polymer positive edge with the forming wire negative charge;
the other polymer edge, also positive, is oriented towards water and attracts microscopic
'anionic trash', forming a cover on the wire with a higher negative charge. This charge
density increase makes the wire repel anionic material such as stickies (Ouellette, 1995).
In this area we should highlight the evolution of monofilaments used in forming fabrics
manufacture so as to make them more resistant to deposits. For instance, the addition of
internal lubricants which migrate to wire fibre surface and repel potential stickies formers.
Its main disadvantage is that, once the lubricant migrates to the surface and runs out by
friction, the wire losses its contamination resistance. Monomeric fluorinated compounds,
hydrophobic additives of fluorinated copolymers and homopolymers, ..., have also been used
for this purpose (Diaz-Kotti, 1995).
3.7.3.5 Cleaning solvent
It is based on total solubilization of stickies by dissolvents once they are formed. Solvents
occasionally have an effect on stickies surface and make them even more tacky and
troublesome. This method, as opposed to the others above, is only applied in cleaning stages
to remove deposits already formed.
82
3.8 STICKIES CONTROL PROGRAMME IN PAPER MILLS
In order to propose the most adequated control programme of stickies, it is necessary to carry
out a detailed study of each particular system (Negro et al., 1996; Blanco et al., 1997b). The
first step, key to reach the overall aim, consists of analyzing the production system in order
to get the maximum number of details about the causes, the importance, and the costs
associated to the deposit problems. In this first step three main aspects should be considered:
General information about the papermaking process: This includes the study of
both, the production and the process data. The production data refer to the type of
product, the raw materials, the additives, the equipments, etcetera. The information
about the process includes the conditions of pulping, the conditions of the
mechanical cleaning system of the pulp, the chemical conditions of the process,
etcetera. This means that it is necessary to consider all the typical characteristics
of the system such as consistencies, flows, temperatures, etcetera.
A very usefull tool for the identification of the possible aspects that potentially can
influence on the formation of stickies is a current flow chart of the process
indicating the fundamental parameters of each stage, as for example the flow, the
volume, the residence time, the dosification points of chemicals, etcetera.
Identification and characterization of stickies: It is very important to know in

detail the area in which deposits are produced as well as to analyze completely the
deposits in order to identify the possible sources, the operational changes that have
induced those deposits, their influence of the final process, etcetera.
Analysis of the costs associated to this problem: The knowledge of the costs
associated to the stickies problems seems to be, in general, a very complicated task.
The study of the problems found at the different stages of the process is the base
for the identification of the possible need of the implementation of a stickies control
programme at a given mill, and to determine the cost of such programme.
The study of these data as a whole will determine the future decisions for the selection of the
best alternative to control the deposits as a function of their nature, the type of deposits, their
origin, the characteristics of the production process, and the associated costs (Hilditch, 1990;
Fogarty, 1992). To help in the decision making process for the implementation of a stickies
control programme, Fogarty presents a complete diagram of the possible causes that should
be considered in the study (see figure 3.9).
83
PRESS
SECTION
Felt life Wire life
Cheaper Press roll deposition. Solvent
furnish Batch wash
Press felt deposition Chemical costs
Solvent Continuous
Higher-recycled
Batch wash Formation
percent
Felt chemical costs Drainage
Continuous Downtime
Higher-point Downtime _
o consumer Sheet breaks STICKIES
Sheet breaks
•p. PROGRAM
υ
% JUSTIFICATION
Sheet breaks
Higher grade AREAS
O
oí production Downtime
O
ÜJ Solvent
y Moisture profile Cleaning costs
6
Batch
Dirt count
Steam usage
Fabric life
Holes Blade life -,
Yankee dryer /
¡d
Crepe aid 7 y
DRYER
CALENDERING
SECTION
00
Figure 3.10.
Factors to consider in implementation of stickies control programme.
3.9 FUTURE TRENDS IN STICKIES RESEARCH STUDIES
Mechanisms and phenomena which take place in stickies formation are the aspects to be
studied in more depth. It will result in the design of better control systems, more efficient in
the different stages of deposit formation. A new path in the search for solutions to stickies
problems implies a better knowledge of interactions produced between potential stickies
former compounds and the various fractions in stock. The study of destabilization mechanisms
of dissolved and colloidal material -potential secondary stickies former- is also of particular
interest (McKinney, 1989; Crawford, 1992).
The development of new measure and analysis methods is an approach in the following years.
For instance, the study of methods capable of predicting adhesive repulpability (Chou, 1994).
In another area, we should highlight the efforts made by manufacturers of filaments for
forming fabrics in order to develop new test methods to analyze contamination resistance on
such wires, on felts, etcetera. This will allow the development of new fabrics of longer
duration and contamination resistance (Diaz-Kotti, 1995).
As regards control techniques, three action lines should be highlighted: pre-selection of

wastepaper before processing; conversion of all potential stickies formers into repulpable,
modifying manufacturing processes and the composition of adhesives, plastics, ...; and,
finally, the development of new mechanical and chemical cleaning systems as well as the
improvement of the existing ones. The main examples are:
Improvement of fibrous raw material quality is fundamental to minimize stickies.

Search for automatic systems of feeding control before papermaking will be
undoubtedly the aim of many future researchs.
The manufacture of recyclable adhesives is the most typical example in the

reduction of potential stickies formers. The adhesive industry is showing a
growing interest in the formulation of recycling-compatible adhesives. Most
efforts are oriented towards two opposite directions: modification of the
hydrophobic nature of most adhesives so as to become more hydrophyllic; and the
formulation of additives difficult to desintégrate in pulping, keeping their initial
size and thus easy to separate in previous cleaning and washing (Wise and Arnold,
1992; Barret, 1993; Scholz, 1993; Ulyatt, 1995).
85
t . NEGRO & M.C. MONTE
As regards control methods, the development of systems based on energy and

surface charge phenomena are the main line of future researchs:
1. Forming fabrics modification. Not only by additives usage but also by, for
instance, increasing surface microroughness so as to reduce adhesion.
2. Usage of filtration means with energy and surface charge variation so as to

retain hydrophobic particles.
Finally, an important research area is the new designs or improvements of

flotation systems and chemical additives used to remove potential stickies
formers (Rogers and Springer, 1994).
86
STICKIES PROBLEMS I N RECYCLI NG
3.10 REFERENCES
Back EL (1995) Autodispersible waxes for recyclable packaging papers. Part 1. Principles
for wax removal after alkaline hot dispersion. Tappi J, 78(7): 161-168
Back EL, Laudi Β and Elftonson J (1995) Effect of modifiers on wax properties and on
dispersibility under hot alkaline conditions; Autodispersable waxes for recyclable packaging
papers I V. Nordic Pulp Paper Res J, 10(2): 122-128
Barrett AE (1993) Screening of hot-melt components for repulpability using a four-step test
that considers common repulping environments. Tappi J, 76(8): 179-185
Blanco MA (1994) Estudio de la floculación en la fabricación de papel. Thesis. Chemical

Engeneering Department. Complutense University. Spain
Blanco MA, Garcia J, Monte MC, Negro C and Tijero J (1997a) Equipo para la deposición
de materia adhérente contenida en una suspensión. Spain, appln 9700493, March 6
Blanco MA, Negro C, Tijero J, Hooimeijer A and Blaack RJ (1997b) Ejemplo práctico de
un programa de control de depósitos de 'stickies' en la fabricación de papel y cartón. I nv Téc
Papel, 131(1): 102-111
Buccigross HL and Cheney JH (1991) Hot-melt adhesive development and the proliferation
of raw materials. Tappi J, September: 147-149
Carré Β, Fabry Β and Brun J (1995) Comparison of two methods to estimate secondary stikies
contamination. Prog in Paper Recycling, November: 68-72
Cathie K, Haydock R and Dias I (1992) Understanding the fundamental factors influencing
stickies formation and deposition. Pulp & Paper Canada,93(12): 157-160
Chou CS (1994) Repulpability of adhesives. Prog Paper Recycling, February: 76-81
Crawford DS (1992) Behaviour of wastepaper stickies in recycling mills. Appita J, 45(4):

257-259
87
Diaz-Kotti M (1995) Test methods to evaluate the contamination resistance of forming fabrics
subjected to secondary fibers. Tappi J, 78(7): 87-96
Doshi MR, Dyer JM and Krueger WC (1984) New stickies detection method can help pick
the right equipment. Pulp Pap, March: 113-117
Doshi MR (1989) Additives to combact sticky contaminants in secondary fibers. TAPPI

Seminar, ' Contaminants Problems and Strategies in Wastepaper Recycling ', TAPPI Press : 81 -
89
Doshi MR (1992) Quantification, control and retention of depositable. Prog Pap Recycling,
November: 45-48
Doshi MR (1995) Quantification of stickies. Prog Pap Recycling, F ebruary: 102-105
Drehmer Β and Back EL (1995) The effect of wax on properties of OCC based paper;
Autodispersable waxes for recyclable packaging papers III. Pap Technol, 36(3): 36-39
Dykstra GM, Hoekstra PM, Suzuki Τ (1988) A new method for measuring depositable pitch
and stickies and evaluating control agents. TAPPI Papermakers Conference, TAPPI Press,
Atlanta: 327-340
Dunlop-Jones Ν and Allen LH (1988) A rapid method for the qualitative analysis of plastic
and 'sticky' contaminants by pyrolisis-gas-chromatography. Tappi J, F ebruary: 109-113
Elsby, LE (1986) Experiences from tissue and board production using stickies additives.
TAPPI Pulping Conference, April: 484-488
Fogarty TJ (1992) Cost effective, common sense approach to stickies control. TAPPI Pulping
Conference, TAPPI Press: 429-437
Foster BW and Barret AE (1991) Characterizing hot-tack differences in hot-melt adhesives

using DMTA. Tappi J, September: 135-138
Fredik A, Engstrand Ρ, Holmbom Β, Lassus A and Wikström Κ (1994) Evaluation of

contaminant flows in a deinking process and estimations of the value of the raw materials.
88
Proceedings of the Pulp and Paper International Paper Recycling' 94 Conference. Pulp and
Paper International, London
Heise O (1992) Screening foreign material and stickies. Tappi J, February: 78-81
Hilditch PG (1990) Deposit control. An essential step in preventive maintenance. Pap

Technol, November: 30-33
Humphrey K (1995) Wastepaper processing of the future. Management & Technology,

September: 10-11
Jarvis N (1992) The repulpability of adhesive contaminants in secondary fibre stocks. TAPPI
Pulping Conference, TAPPI Press: 453-455
Kacker MP (1991) Evaluation of lightweight contamination in an OCC system. Tappi Pulping

Kenney RM and Engström GC (1988) New technology for stickies/pitch control with
increased production/profitability. TAPPI Pulping Conference, TAPPI Press: 339-343
Klungness JH (1987) Disc separation: wetting angle differences. Tappi J, July: 125-127
Kohrs M (1992) The applications for fractionation technology. Pap Technol, March: 10-12
Krueger WC and Bowers DF (1981) Removing 'stickies' from recycled fiber. Tappi J, 64 (7):
39-41
Levis SH (1991) Latest developments in lightweight contaminant removal. TAPPI Pulping

Ling TF (1991) Stickies control by chemical modificaction of stickies surface. TAPPI Pulping
Ling TF (1993) Modifying surface properties of sticky materials through polymer/surfactant

adsorption. Pulp Pap Can, 94(10): 17-23 (T273-T279)
89
Ling TF, Hall JD and Walker MM (1993) Novel test method for evaluating stickies
deposition control. Pulp Pap Can 94(12): 85-89
Maan-shii SW (1992) Pressure sensitive adhesives which are compatible with paper recycling
process. TAPPI Pulping Conference, TAPPI Press: 451-452
Martin AC (1986) Slotted screens prove superior to cleaners for removing stickies. Pulp Pap,
March: 109-111
McAlpine I (1984) Zirconium chemicals for stickies control. Conference Presented at PIRA
Symposium 'Stickies an overall view'. United Kingdom, June
McEwen JGE (1992) Wax contamination in paper recycling: understanding wax chemistry
and recycling waxed papers. Progress in Paper Recycling, February: 11-20
McKinney RWJ (1989) A review of sticky control methods, including the role of surface
phenomena in control. TAPPI Pulping Conference, TAPPI Press: 177-183
McKinney RWJ and Currie PGC (1986) Stickie pacification, new additives shows promise.
Pap Technol Int, June/July: 182-186
Negro C, Blanco MA, Monte MC and Tijero J (1996) Origen, formación y análisis en los
depósitos de "stickies" en la fabricación de papel y cartón. Inv Téc Papel, 129(8): 619-639
Ouellette AJ (1995) Troubleshooting for stickies using the Doshi Method. Prog Pap
Recycling, February: 85-88
Peiton R and Lawrence D (1991) A new laboratory approach for evaluating kraft mill pitch
deposit control additives. J Pulp Pap Sci 17(3): J80-J84
Phelps MH (1991) Evaluation of lightweight contamination in an OCC system. TAPPI

Pimley JJ and Marquât X (1995) Fractionation -an energy- efficient cleaning tool at higher
consistency. Pap Technol, April: 21-23
90
Rogers R and Springer AM (1994) Water quality attributes which influence flotation deinking
performance. Prog Pap Recycling, August: 31-36
Rhodes Τ (1995) Stickies and color carryover: their effects on paper machines. TAPPI
papermakers Conference, TAPPI Press: 301-304.
Saint F J and Bernard E (1992) Centrifugal cleaning in the production of brown grades. Pap
Technol, March: 34-39
Savill DG (1984) The analysis of adhesive components in deposits in paper and papermaking
systems. Conference presented at Pira Symposium 'Stickies an overall view'. United
Kingdom, June
Scholz W (1994) Pressure sensitive adhesives. Prog Pap Recycling, November: 71-73
Scholz WF (1993) Recyclable pressure sensitive adhesives. TAPPI Pulping Conference,

TAPPI Press: 501-506
Selder Η (1992) F ractionation. The technology of the future. Pap Technol, March: 13-16
Sigman MA and Rohlf EV (1993) The effect of system charge on stickies deposition. TAPPI
Sjöström J and Holmbom Β (1988) A scheme for chemical characterization of deposits in pulp
and paper production. Paperi ja Puu - Paper and Timber, 2: 152-156
Srivatsa NR (1994) Impact of adhesives on paper recycling. Prog Pap Recycling, November:
63-64
Sweeney KM (1989) F TIR microscopy of pulp and paper samples. Tappi J, F ebruary: 171-
174
Swerin A and Wagberg L (1994) Size-exclusion chromatography for characterization of

cationic polyelectrolytes used in papermaking. Nordic Pulp Pap Res J, 1: 18-25
TAPPI Test Method T213 om-89 (1992) Dirt in pulp. TAPPI Press
91
TAPPI Test Method T437 om-90 (1992) Dirt in paper and paperboard. TAPPI Press
TRCM (1996) Determination of depositable material in pulp and the evaluation of chemical
deposit control agents.TAPPI Routine Control Method RC 324
Trueman Β (1984) Stickies- The waste paper merchants view. Conferente presented at Pira
Ulyatt J (1995) A new generation of EVA coatings for paper and board grades. Pap Technol,
March: 27-30
Wade DE (1989) Sticky pacification: a new approach. Pulp Pap Can, 90(1): 154-159
Wise EM (1993) Hot melt adhesive removal in centrifugal cleaners. TAPPI Pulping
Wise EM and Arnold JM (1992) The role of specific gravity for removal of hot melt
adhesives in recyclable grades. Tappi J, 75(9): 181-185
Yates D (1984) Stickies removal plant a continuing process. Conference presented at PIRA
92
CHAPTER 4
WHITE PITCH
DEPOSITION
J. TIJERO AND J. GARCIA
WHITE PITCH DEPOSITION
'To establish the optimum system to control the problems associated to white pitch deposits,
during papermaking, it is necessary to identify the nature, the sources, and the formation
mechanisms of the deposits. In order to facilitate this task to the papermakers, this paper
presents the main characteristics of the white pitch deposits; the analysis techniques for
white pitch identification as well as a brief description of the control methods commonly
used in the paper industry '.
95
J. TIJERO & J. GARCIA
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The deposits known as white pitch are caused by those synthetic additives added for sizing
and coating i.e. sizing agents, coating binders and, generally, latex and starch. These
hydrodispersable compounds come into the system together with recycled fibres.
To these additives present in waste paper and brokes, which enter the white water system as
contaminants, are also joint the papermaking additives, such as starch and wet strength and
sizing agents, which are not 100% retained so they build up in the system and may either
cause or worsen problems similar to those risen by waste paper contaminants (Blanco et al,
1996c).
Due to their function, many of these compounds are water-insoluble and consequently ideal
for protecting paper from water and steam, but also very difficult to remove or disperse.
Some of them are saponified: in alkali conditions they form soap which helps stabilize
colloidal dispersions (McKinney, 1989). Due to their characteristics, white pitch compounds
tend to cover foils and vacuum boxes, and felts plug. They may occasionally cover driers
with scale detached as flakes, which cause scratches and breaks at the coater. They may
generally cause agglomerations and deposits on the stationary or mobile parts of the
papermaking machine decreasing the quality of the final product (Holton and Moebus, 1982;
Rebarber, 1995; Guo and Douek, 1996).
It is important to point out that these contaminants begin to cause problems due to solid,
dissolved and colloidal material increase, which are likely to be worsened by deposit
formation. These contaminants generally have a high cationic demand, so they consume large
quantities of cationic additives. On the other hand, most of these contaminants are not
retained on wires and paper when present in solution or colloidal dispersion. However, they
form white pitch deposits when exceeding a critical concentration or medium conditions are
altered.
Papermaking present trends, formerly stated in other chapters, worsen deposit formation
problems.
The constituents, which help deposit formation, do not form deposits when present in
dissolved or colloidal state as long as they are not destabilized. Breaking the balance that
keeps these contaminants in dissolution or dispersion is one of the most usual deposition
96
mechanisms. Agglomeration is generally caused by sudden variations in the physical-

chemical characteristics of process waters, such as pH, temperature and/or changes in ionic
concentration. Other adherent materials tend to add to these agglomerates, such as stickies,
which have been studied in the former chapter. These agglomerates are also an anchoring and
growing spot for microorganisms, as it will be studied in chapter 6.
Strategies for controlling white pitch deposit formation include the following stages:
Analysis of potential deposit formation constituents.

Identification of deposition mechanisms.
Study of the papermaking conditions that help deposition.
System acting.
4.2 POTENTIAL WHITE PITCH FORMERS
Latex is the main white pitch constituent. It is initially found as colloidal dispersion of natural
or syntetic polymer particles in water. Macroscopically, latex dispersion is very sticky and
has an opaline look, becoming a good binder due to its adhesive properties. Microscopically,
latex dispersions are formed by water-suspended spherical polymer particles.
The manufacturing of synthetic latex is performed by emulsion polymerization. The emulsion

is formed by an aqueous phase including water, emulsifiers and initiators, and a non-aqueous
phase including the polymer, the non-reacting monomer and several modifiers (figure 4.1).
The modifiers control the reactivity of the particle in emulsion and incorporate to
polymerization processes in order to increase particle reactivity and molecular weight. This
increases latex adherence when deposited as a film and improves colloid stability when in
dispersion. Additionally, dispersing agents -as surface agents- keep latex dispersion stability.
These substances, present with latex particles in commercial dispersions used in papermaking
industry, keep system stability. However, all colloidal systems are thermodynamically
unstable and tend to decrease their surface energy by particle coagulation (Klun, 1988;
Wildman and Didato, 1989).
97
MONOMERS POLIMERS
Styrene Polystyrene Styrene/Butadiene Copolymer

Butadiene
CH =CH (CH CH, CH- CH = CH · CH2 CH · ChL|
δ
Polyvinyl Acetate
Vinyl Acetate Acrylates Polybutadiene
■|CH2- CH = CH · CHj- CH2· CH = CH · CHjl · •|CH2- CH · CH2· Cf! · C r ^ CH )■

CHyCH-C-O-R Ο
CHCOCH=CH,
0=C 0=¿ o = \rJ
< CH 3 ¿H 3 C
CH3
u
<
O
MODIFIERS EMULSIFIERS
o Anionic type surfactants Noionic type surfactants

Acrylic acid Acrylamide
O O Sodium salt of Fatty add Polyethoxylated Alkyl Phenol

CH,= C H C O H CH=CHCNH, (anionic at alkaline pH|
R^~\|OCH2CH2LOH
CH 3 |CH 2 ) COONa
Polyethoxylated Fatty Alcohol

O Sodium Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate
¿•OH (Anionic at all pH levels)
CH = e l ·
RIOCHjCHjl OH
CH 3 |CH 2 I
■O
00
Figure 4.1. C7s
Latex constituents.
Starch is another constituent of white pitch which not only increases microbiological activity
but also interferes with cationic additive action and helps BDO increase in effluents. Starch is
frequently used in papermaking as a coating binder, retention aid, dry strength agent, sizing
agent and adhesive for corrugated board (Halabisky, 1977). Starch is a white water
contaminants since it is found in large quantities of recycled paper.
It is well known that starch presents chemical likeness with cellulose and hemicellulose since
it is a vegetable polysaccharide formed by two types of molecules, amylose and amylopectin
(Springer et al., 1984; Scott, 1990). In commercial starch, amylopectin is in higher proportion;
it can reach 100% except in some high-amylose starch whose proportion can reach 35%.
At present, there is a wide variety of commercial starch, some of which chemically modified
in order to enhance its properties for papermaking. Consequently, it is difficult to predict the
starch type to be found in white water (cationic, anionic, granule-shaped, etc.) when recycled
paper is used. Due to starch composition, the amylopectin fraction is likely to be found in
larger proportions than the amylose fraction in white water. Among the chemically modified
starch added, the cationic starch is also likely to keep anchored on fibres and not to show in
white waters, unless sudden pH changes occur in the system (Marton and Marton, 1976).
On the other hand, starch obtained through extractive processes and partially hydrolized or
modified by oxidation procedures in order to increase its anionic character, is redissolved in
the water and tends to be quickly degraded by microorganisms. However, partially degraded
starch or products of starch bacterial metabolism are difficult to remove from process water
by using chemical agents (Gill, 1993).
The diversity of contaminants in white water systems is directly related to the large variety of
paper and board manufactured, to the equally large variety of formulations used to obtain
them and to recycled paper or board selection in each mill.
Apart from latex, starch and other contaminants produced by sizing and coating binders,
colloidal compounds in the shape of small solid particles can be found in white waters:
pigments and mineral fillers, calcium carbonate, kaolin, talc, calcium sulphate, barium
sulphate and other inorganic coating compounds. Other additives can also be found: anti-
foamers, wax, dry strength resin, natural rubber and proteins, such as casein and soya protein.
(Olson and Letscher, 1992; Gill and Priestley, 1993; Didato, 1994).
Thus, in the process water system of a recycled paper or board mill there are dissolved or
99
dispersed inorganic and organic substances coming from recycled paper and from the
additives used.
Considering its likeness with other contaminants, white pitch material can be classified
according to its state: linked to fibres and fillers or freely suspended in the medium, in
dissolved or colloidal state.
As previously stated, a sudden change in medium conditions regarding pH or temperature,

either spontaneous or unintentional, tends to destabilize the dissolved or colloidal material
causing its coagulation or agglomeration and deposit formation (May, 1991). Thus, when
colloidal and dissolved material is stable, it can either stay so without causing problems or
flocculate with the fibres and be removed from the system without altering paper formation,
but it can also destabilize forming aggregates, which are the origin of deposits.
4.3 DEPOSITION MECHANISMS
White pitch deposit formation requires the agglomeration of hydrophobic compounds present
in water, which are potential formers.
According to the terms of the balance of interactions that cause destabilization in a dispersed
colloidal system, several physical and chemical white pitch formation mechanisms have been
proposed (Allen, 1980).
Deposition by colloidal destabilization
Aggregates or deposit formations are caused by a complex balance among surface electrical
interactions, London and Van der Waals intermolecular forces, interactions due to shear
forces produced by water circulation and other minor interactions, such as molecular
dispersion and Brown difusión phenomena.
When one of the balance terms is modified, i.e. an increase in salt concentration, a colloidal
destabilization can occur. This is shown in the studies by Clint and coworkers (1973), in
which an increase of medium conductivity causes an increase in latex deposition.
Therefore, in order to control deposit formation, a stable dispersion is needed during the
100
papermaking stages where deposit problems are likely to take place. It should also be
destabilized in those stages where deposits can be removed. The former conditions are
difficult to be reached since particle dispersions may destabilize spontaneously during paper
and boardmaking and cause coagulation, agglomeration and deposit formation on undesired
areas, as a consequence of a sudden change in medium conditions, i.e. pH or temperature
(Allen and Lapointe, 1987; Trafford, 1988; May, 1991).
Deposition by particle transfer from fibre to surfaces
Colloidal material with a potential to deposit formation can be found as small particles on the
surface of the fibres and/or fillers.
Deposition by transfer occurs when these colloidal particles move from fibre surfaces to
papermill surfaces: pipes, deposits, wires, felts, etc. Consequently, a substance linked to the
fibre surface moves to the stream surface either by impact or just rubbing.
The particle stuck to pipe or tank surfaces may help the deposition of other similar particles
so that the deposit increases. Also, it may be carried away and move to another fibre similarly
as the deposition took place.
Deposition by particle transfer due to friction: The friction of a fibre carrying

potential white pitch formers on the equipment surfaces causes particle transfer from
fibre to surface and thus deposit formation. Similarly, another fibre touching the
surface may cause transfer in the opposite sense, that is, from surface to fibre (figure
4.2).
Another case of sticky particle transfer occurs during sheet formation. A part of the
white pitch particles can be transferred from fibre surface to wires and felts, either by
fibre rubbing against the fourdrinier wire or due to pressure on the wires during
pressing. This causes pore clogging and thus formation and finish irregularities since a
part of the wire or felt has lost porosity. On the other hand, detached deposits cause
spots and holes on the final product and more maintenance stops are needed.
101
Figure 4.2.
Particle transfer from fibres to stationary surfaces by friction.
Deposition by transfer due to hydrodynamic forces: When a pulp suspension is in a

turbulence regime, particles with higher transversal speed collide with a stationary
surface, i.e. pipe or tank inner parts, the joining of colloidal substance on such
surfaces may cause deposits. Although there is esteric and electrostatic repulsion
between potential white pitch former colloidal particles and the stationary surface, the
particle momentum is long enough to overcome such repulsion and contact the surface
where particles stick and begin an attachment point (figure 4.3) (Allen, 1980).
Figure 4.3.
Particle transfer by collision.
102
In this case, the type of hydrodynamic forces and the turbulence scale and degree are
decisive for deposit formation.
White pitch deposit formation from its colloidal state by evaporation
The transfer of material from the inside of a drop or water particle to the outside by
evaporation initially increases the concentration of non-volatile constituents during the fluid-
gas interphase. This causes a fluid flow inside the drop or particle carrying white pitch
particles away through the convection streams. As drop volume or film thickness decreases
due to evaporation (see figure 4.4.), colloidal white pitch particles agglomerate and form a
deposit on the surface. Deposition by this mechanism may take place in any part of the paper
machine where fluid drops may occur isolated from the main stream.
The phenomenon is very complex, and to mass flow we should add the effects of
concentration increase, as well as modifications in drop or film interphases.
,^-cr^r-o-—-ro,
Figure 4.4.
Deposit formation by evaporation.
103
Co-deposition with other deposits
The presence of any type of deposit in the medium -organic, inorganic or microbilogical- may
induce to white pitch deposition and mixed deposit formation either by harnessing on the
sticky deposit previously formed or by modification on the deposition surface or in the flow
caused (Blanco et al, 1996a, 1996b).
4.4 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED TO WHITE PITCH DEPOSITS
As it was previously stated, the presence of potential white pitch formers during paper and
boardmaking causes problems, which have an effect on both the papermaking process and the
quality of the final product.
When dispersed in large concentrations tend to decrease the efficiency of retention/drainage

aids, dyes, sizes and strength agents, to increase their consumption and dosification to
counter-balance the fraction of the chemicals inactivated by the contaminants. A large part of
these agents first neutralizes the contaminant and then proceeds to act as a chemical agent.
When these compounds form white pitch floes, these may deposit on the sheet or on several
stages of the stock preparation system.
The main economic losses caused by potential white pitch formers, can be summed up as
follows:
Decrease in final product quality and, occasionally, production out of

specifications due to dots, stains and holes on the sheet.
Alterations in wet-end chemistry and their subsequent costs.
Increase in stops and unproductive time as a result of maintenance stops in

order to clean the equipment and pipes and change wires, felts, etc.
Decrease of the average wire and felt lifetime.
Consequently, its control is indispensable for a good runnability and process economy,
especially under the present manufacturing conditions.
104
4.5 STUDY, ANALYSIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF WHITE PITCH
In order to set the optimum white pitch control system, it is necessary to know what potential
deposit formers are to be found in papermiil water systems, either dispersed or agglomerated.
Once these substances are known, the following step would be identifying their presence as
well as their state and concentration.
We will also study from fast and easy in situ quantitative methods to more complex
techniques, such as pyrolysis chromatography with mass spectrophotometry. All of them
allow a good knowledge of the nature of the deposit already formed, or the presence of
potential deposit forming material.
Both identification of material deposited and physical-chemical properties of dispersed

material determining depositability, have been considered in these techniques.
Apart from the methods described in this chapter, the analysis methods suggested in chapter 3
for stickies are also applicable:
• Deposit identification: When a deposit is formed, it should first carry out a thorough
composition analysis for identification. Non-biologic, organic deposits are usually water
insoluble but soluble in organic solvents. In order to identify the deposit, Sjöström (1990)
suggests the analysis diagram shown in chapter 3, figure 3.2, in which microscopic
techniques are used together with gas chromatography.
Depositability measures: These methods intend to study the mechanisms, that cause
deposit formation through deposition induction. It is possible to study deposition kinetics
in several cases and even produce deposits on surfaces that allow a later microscopic
observation (Sheehan and Whalen-Shaw, 1990; Sheehan et al, 1993; Granier et al,
1994). Table 4.1 shows the most relevant methods for depositability determination.
Electrophoretic mobility: Electrophoretic mobility is a function of the electric charge of

the system in suspension which contains white pitch particles. Additionally, there are
methods based on their measure to determine zeta-potential. These methods measure the
speed at which suspended charged particles migrate to the opposite charged electrode
when a difference of potential is applied. Cell geometry is important to avoid deposits
105
which may alter this measure. The simpler it is, the better the results are. Consequently,
rectangular cells are preferred as they have no dead areas where particle deposition may
occur (Gill and Priestley, 1993; Blanco, 1994).
Turbidity: Water turbidity is due to suspended organic or inorganic particles. It becomes

a fast measure of colloidal content, potential white pitch formers being a part of it. This
technique measures the intensity of the light dispersed when going through the sample
according to the incident light. Turbidity is an indirect measure for colloidal concentration
in the sample (Dreisbach and Michalopoulos, 1989; Olsen, 1992). ASTM D 1889-88a
easily explains the method to measure turbidity by nephelometry, whose results are
expresed in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).
Particle size and particle size distribution: For the characterization of potential white
pitch formers particle size and particle size distribution should be measured (Collings,
1985). Particle size is defined as the diameter of a single particle, whereas particle size
distribution refers to the population of several particle sizes present. There is a wide
variety of methods which measure particle size, such as dissymetry of light scattering,
soap titration, optical arrays and flow ultramicroscope. In order to measure particle size
distribution we can use sieving, filtration, sedimentation, centrifugation. Coulter counter,
microscopy or hydrodynamic chromatography (Klun, 1988; Moreland, 1990). Some of
the most representative methods are the following:
Dyssimetry: This technique measures light dispersed at 45°C opposed to 135°C for
different concentrations. Such technique is fast if colloidal concentration is known but
it can only be used for particle sizes of 500-2000 angstroms and the relative refraction
rate is also required.
Coulter counter nanosizer: If a laser ray is made go through a diluted suspension of

particles, size distribution can be determined accurately. This technique measures the
dispersed light of the incident ray at 90 °C. The measure is based on the Doppler
effect where the aleatory particle movement caused by Brownian forces produces a
frequency which is inversely proportional to particle size. Consequently, the smaller a
particle is the faster it moves. This is a fast method for particle sizes between 400-
30000 angstroms.
Transmission electron microscopy: It is measured with water diluted suspensions

where colloidal particles are present and subsequently dried and photographed with a
microscope. Particle size is determined by comparison with a scale. The problem of
106
this technique is to find a really representative sample with the microscope, having a
measure precision of ± 10%. Particle sizes under 10000 angstroms can be measured
fastly.
Hydrodynamic chromatography (HDC): This technique was developed by Dow in

1960, and consists of separating the particles by making them go through a packed
column. Both particle size and particle size distribution can be known through this
technique. After injecting the diluted sample in a chromatographic column, the larger
particles are first to be eluted because small particles take the most winding paths to
go through the column, being last to be eluted. Consequently, within less than 15
minutes we can know accurately the size and size distribution of particles between
500-10000 angstroms (Klun, 1988).
However, the hetereogeneity of the real colloidal system limitates the former methods largely.
Most of them need the relative refraction rate of the material in suspension or particle
morphology. Others are only applicable to diluted systems, in which the suspended particle
number is clearly inferior to that which may cause white pitch formation problems.
Molecular weight determination: The most convenient analytic method to determine

molecular weight is gel permeation chromatography (GPC). This technique separates
molecules according to their size.
Quantitative analysis by chromatography: One of the most used techniques to identify

such compounds -including synthetic polymers- is pyrolisis followed by separation by
chromatography and a subsequent simple detection or detailed analysis with a mass
spectometry. They are used in pulp and paper industries as qualitative and semi-quantitative
techniques both for the analysis of coated and sized papers and this type of contaminants. The
advantages of pyrolisis-gas chromatography (PGC) is that a very small sample can be
analyzed without any special preparation and the result is obtained in less than an hour. This
technique decomposes the polymer in fragments giving a 'fingerprint' pyrolisis chromatogram
or 'pyrogram'. In order to identify this polymer we only need to check the unknown
chromatogram with other chromatograms of polymers known and pyrolized in the same
conditions (Irwin, 1982; Dunlop-Jones and Allen, 1988).
107
Table 4.1.
Most frequent methods for depositability determination.
Method Collecting Surface Description Reference
(Dabrós and van de Ven, 1983;

Impinging-jet Deposition by collision Peiton and Lawrence, 1991)
Metacrylate
Glass (Pedersen, 1982; Andrews,
Pedersen Deposition by friction
1984)
Styrofoam films Static Deposition by contact of surface with aqueous medium in (Doshi el al, 1984; Doshi,
Dosili
or beads agitation 1992; Ouellete, 1995)
< Low density Deposition by contact of surface with aqueous medium in

o Berol polyethylene (Elsby, 1986)
agitation
ci films
<
a Deposition on surface walls when the system is agitated
-i Gustaffson Steel bottle (Larkin, 1961)
o
Wires introduced in agitated system, on which material is
CTP Polyester wires (Carrée/ai., 1995)
deposited
(Fukui and Okagawa, 1986;
Turnable rolls Wires and felts Deposition on collecting wires when pressure with rolls applied
Ontani, 1993)
Deposition by transfer (friction and collision) on a surface

Deposition rotor Any surface Dynamic (Blanco et al., 1997)
(TRCM, 1966; Douek and

Vibromixer Steel plates Deposition on flat plates which vibrate and turn at the same time
Alen, 1983)
Polyethylene Deposition on rotating bottle (Dykstraeia/., 1988)

Buckman
bottle
Rotating wire on which material is deposited
Pira Polyester wires (Cathie, 1992) 00
o
4.6 METHODS FOR WHITE PITCH CONTROL
At present, mechanical and physical-chemical treatments are needed in order to control

potential white pitch formers. Control procedures can be classified in two categories:
Those that remove white pitch from white water systems in order to avoid its
deposition on the sheet or machine parts, such as screening, cleaning, flotation
and washing.
Those that stabilize potential white pitch formers as material agglomerated in

small particles which do not alter machine running. In some cases, they are
finally retained in the paper sheet without visible modification of its
properties.
On the other hand, during papermaking dissolved or dispersed material evolve according to
complex physical, chemical and mechanical mechanisms. Their knowledge enables us to find
the best solution to control problems coming from white pitch deposition.
Chemical products used as additives during papermaking may cause white pitch aggregation
and deposition. These additives may be added in several stages and even have opposed
effects.
Therefore, additives added for white pitch control try to improve a given property, sometimes
so specifically that several of them have to be added, i.e. a dispersing agent that keeps the
colloidal suspension stable plus a fixing agent that allows dispersed colloidal material to fix
to fibres.
It is impossible to find a single agent which acts on every white pitch control mechanism, so
the control mechanism has to be defined previously and a proper dose of controlling additives
has to be set so as to produce a synergic effect according to the control chart selected.
4.6.1 Methods for white pitch removal
The first alternative to be considered for white pitch control is to remove potential white pitch
formers from the water system before they lay on the paper or machine parts. According to
size difference, slotted pressure screens have been employed to remove 300 micron
aggregates. According to differences in density, reverse cleaners -and lately rotatory cleaners-
109
are employed to remove contaminants of a lower density than fibres (Scott, 1990; McEwen,
1992; Negro et al, 1996c).
Pulp deposit level and ash content are thus drastically reduced. Filtering surfaces should be
kept clean at the beginning of each filtration cycle, both from organic and inorganic deposits.
Beside the described techniques, chapter 3 deals at length with other techniques applicable
also to white pitch.
Occasionally, other agents, such talc or clay are added so as to increase removal efficiency
(McEwen, 1992).
4.6.2 Methods for white pitch stabilization
4.6.2.1 Adsorption
Different adsorption methods are used with talc, bentonite, etc. The function of talc in the
former paragraph was to help the removal of particles of lower density than fibres by reverse
cleaners. However, in this case the stabilizing and dispersing functions of talc are considered
to keep particles in the system until their final retention in the paper.
Talc is the most usual adsorption agent, a hydrated magnesium silicate [MgjSi,O10(OH),]
with both hydrophyllic and hydrophobic parts able to keep potential white pitch formers. Talc
particles are adsorption nucleus forming a talc/contaminant particle system. At the same time,
these aggregates lose their tendency to agglomerate keeping the system dispersed and
retaining talc/contaminant particles in the final sheet. Talc also acts removing deposition and
adsorbing on the sticky surface, thus decreasing its adherence and avoiding further deposit
building (Schellhamer, 1992).
According to the type of talc used, colloidal contaminant particles stick to talc surface or, as
in the case of microtalc, it is talc which adsorbs on contaminant particles dispersed
(Parmentier, 1973; Allen, 1992; Rebarber, 1995).
Talc is the most frequently used chemical agent due to its easy handling and its efficiency in
sticky deposit control (Shelton, 1985). Table 4.2 shows the main advantages and
disadvantages of talc as control agent.
110
Table 4.2.
Advantages and disadvantages of the use of talc for white pitch control.
Advantages Disadvantages
Low cost and easy handling • Abrasive action of talc on certain
Effective at low concentrations machine parts
Retains most pollutant particles Sedimentation of talc on machines
Improves paper whiteness and wires, showing up powder on
• Reduces bleaching costs the formed sheet (Lowell, 1990)
Lengthens felt life An inappropriate dosage speed
• Increases final product quality reduces its effectiveness
(Shelton, 1985)
• Removes contaminant, adding it to
final product
• Decreases deposit adherent
properties
4.6.2.2 Dispersion
White pitch control by dispersion techniques is based on the theory of stabilization of the
surface charge of water insoluble colloidal particles, aiming at preventing their agglomeration
and deposition. Thus, if a dispersing agent is added potential white pitch formers are
stabilized through colloid protection by means of esteric repulsion phenomena, making
soluble or dispersing the deposits present in the medium (figure 4.5.) (Ahrabi, 1986; Allen
and Lapointe 1989; Grönfors, 1991).
Figure 4.5.
White pitch dispersion mechanism.
Ill
Both high and low molecular mass cationic polymers are used for these systems. Low
molecular weight cationic dispersing agents have the advantage of being applicable through
showers directed to troublesome surfaces, on the wet-end. This way, a film is formed on
wires and felts that is transferred to the inner side of paper, thus avoiding deposit formation
on machine surfaces (figure 4.6) (Leite, 1991; Nalco Chemical Co., 1992).
Θ Θ Θ Θ Θ Θ Θ Θ Q Θ
@ @ ι-ο ο Θ Θ Θ θ (-ο c-e Φ ω (-Η ω
Cillonlcftuport:wk»t, tatti
^
(-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-)
c-t) c-e ω c-e <s Θ @ ω w Θ o c-o ω w

V Citlonic lupon: wir«·, fitti
Figure 4.6.
Deposition prevention mechanisms using dispersing agents added as spray.
112
These dispersing agents decrease electrophoretic mobility of the dispersed contaminant since
the polymer causes an esteric stabilization of particles. The following attraction mechanism is
believed to take place (Bergmann and Rying, 1975; Hassler, 1988):
1. Captation of white pitch particles.

2. Particle stabilization by dispersion, thus preventing their agglomeration.
It is important to consider the dispersing agent dosage point, especially in sizing

papermaking systems, as they act as unsizing agents to a certain extent. Additionally, if
they are found in large quantities, they may have a harmful effect on machine sizing. They
may also cause problems in systems with high contaminant concentration where deposit
detachment may occur, and also attack the machine system.
The disadvantage of these control agents is that they do not retain contaminant particles on
their own, so they build up in the white water system.
4.6.2.3 Fixation
These additives aim at attaching contaminant particles to fibres. According to the type of
fixation agent, the fixation mechanism may be different.
4.6.2.3.1 Coagulation agents
Alum is the most traditionally used fixation agent by coagulation. Alum is an aluminum
sulphate [A12(S04)3 · nH20] (where 'n' in approximately 14) capable of controlling
deposition by hydrolysis in an aqueous medium and forming, according to pH reached,
gelatinous compounds of aluminum hydrosulphates, aluminum hydroxides and aluminum
ion in solution. They floccule, react and/or fix white pitch particles to fibres, thus retaining
contaminants in the sheet (figure 4.7) (Allinson, 1988; Back, 1995).
In acid conditions, alum is used in sizing so as to form cationic compounds from aluminum
ion with colophony, joining later to fibres. The usual procedure consists of adding high
doses to the pulp in the pulper to an acid pH (lower than 4.5). Since aluminum hydroxides
precipitate at 5-7.5 pH range, it is important to keep pH levels under 5 and check that
113
aluminum concentration in water is the lowest possible. If aluminum concentration in the

initial pulp is approximately 25 mg Al/1, it should be diluted to values between 5-10 mg
Al/1, which are optimum concentration/pH conditions for the system (Holton and Moebus,
1982).
Whits pitch particle
Alum partici·
0 0 0
TT+TTTTTTTTT
Õ Õ Õ Fibre
++++++++
44II14.-14
Figure 4.7.
Alum fixation mechanism.
When there is a high amount of potential colloidal white pitch formers, aluminum sulphate
is ineffective since the tendency to form aluminum/white pitch compounds and to attach to
wires is much higher than that of such compounds to join to fibres.
114
In certain cases, alum has been found to interfere with the action of dispersing agents. A
decrease in alum effectiveness may be produced at pH outside ranges from 4.6 to 5.5,
which causes an increase in corrosion and makes the use of CaC0 3 and certain sizing
agents incompatible.
4.6.2.3.2 Low molecular mass polymers as fixation agents
In this group we include low molecular mass polymers and with a high enough charge to
form a strong electrostatic bound between the fibre anionic layer and the white pitch
anionic layer. Polyamides are the most usual, followed by polyethlyenimides and
polyacrylimides. Similarly, an inorganic polymer should be included, the poly aluminum
hydroxy chloride (PAHC).
Commercial polyamides of this range used in papermills are cationic polymers of low
molecular weight and linear structure. This polymer can be found in the market with a
different charge. The most effective low molecular weight polyamides for white pitch
control have a 5.6 and 5 meq/g charge density at pH 7. Generally, this product has a high
affinity with suspended, colloidal and dissolved organic material, being fixed on the fibre
from which it is removed with the final product (Gill, 1993).
Both agitation time and shear rate in flocculated systems, have to be optimum to guarantee
floe evolution, to help diffusion and mixing and, finally, to reach a balance among shear
forces, atraction forces and floe size.
The products added to the system are shared among the opposed charge constituents
present in the colloidal system. Polymer fixation order sets white pitch deposition
mechanisms (figure 4.8) (Gill, 1993):
1.- The polymer fixes first on the fibres and then grasps dissolved and colloidal
organic material due to its ability to spread within the solution,
2.- It may first interact with the contaminants and then lay on the fibres.
The initial polymer share between fibres and colloidal material depends on the relative
proportion of their charge centres and on mixing conditions. This justifies the split
addition, that is, adding the polymer in two stages of the paper mill system.
115
* * *
White pitch
no o ** *
. Polymer
particles · · · ·
/ ν
* *
7
I I
Figure 4.8.
Polymer acting mechanism as fixation agents.
If the polymer is added to wire back waters, that is, before the pulper and after the wire,
there is a lower proportion of fibre present. Then, the polymer will fix mainly to colloidal
material forming aggregates. A subsequent addition after the pulper, where there is a much
higher proportion of fibre, will fix colloidal material on the fibres and remove it with the
final product.
116
Polymer effectiveness when used appropriately for white pitch problems shows when
preventing deposit formation, keeping the wet-end clean, reducing concentration of solids
and soluble COD and turbidity, neutralizing or reducing the anionic charge of contaminants
and fines in the wet-end, improving retention and drainage aids and with a better
performance of sizing and strength agents (Gill, 1993).
4.6.2.3.3 High molecular mass cationic polymers as a fixation agents
In this group we include water-soluble organic cationic polymers, such as high molecular
weight polyacrylimides, polyoxyetylenes, etc. These agents cause the retention of potential
white pitch formers by chemical flocculation (see figure 4.9). This is why the flocculation
of contaminants allows their retention on the sheet during drainage, lately removed with the
final product. The size and characteristics of the floes laid on the sheet should not alter
formation or any other final product properties. Papermakers should be careful since there
is a critical concentration from which an overflocculation takes place, forming large size
aggregates that alter sheet formation (Wortley, 1992; Gill and Priestley, 1993).
If these polymers are too long, large amounts of white pitch particles will fix to fibres
together with the polymer. In the presence of shear forces they may detach from the
polymer, becoming free within the system (Rebarber, 1995).
From the various mechanisms suggested to explain this control phenomena, the most
widely accepted is based on contaminant adsorption, stabilizing and fixing them lately on
fibres, reducing the concentration of free contaminants present in white waters (Allison,
1988; Shetty et al, 1994).
To the effect of white pitch retention or fixation, certain polymers join a protective action
to deposit formation, since they are adsorbed on the machine surface conferring a
hydrophyllic layer and forming an esteric barrier.
117
White pitchy f
particles |· #
If
· # +
yr
Λ# ■■' Aglomeration of particles
Fixation of particles
Jé / na d polymer
Figure 4.9.
Acting mechan ism of high molecular weght polymers.
118
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TAPPI Press. Chapter 4: 53-61
124
CHAPTER 5
INORGANIC
DISSOLVED SOLIDS
M.A. BLANCO AND J. TIJERO
INORGANIC DISSOLVED SOLIDS
'Accumulation of salts in process water of paper and board mills, as a consequence of the
closure of water systems, affects the composition and the behaviour of the various fractions
present in the pulp suspension during papermaking. Its effect depends not only on salt
concentration but also on the type of salts present in the system.
The aim of this chapter is to gain a better understanding of salt sources and of the influence
of high salt content in the process water on papermaking. In this chapter the origin of salts
is studied as to analyze the sources contributing to its build up in white waters. Later on, the
influence of build up on papermaking is dealt with.
Although corrosion and scaling problems caused by a high salt concentration are of great
importance have been widely studied during the last decades, therefore, this work is mainly
focused on salt effect on the wet end chemistry, on process efficiency and on final product
quality'. '
127
M.A. BLANCO & J. TIJERO
5.1 INTRODUCTION
As it has been already mentioned, the direct consequence of reduction in water consumption
is the increase of contaminant concentration in the system. According to Lindström, a water
consumption reduction of 30 to 10 m3 water/prod ton produces 40% increase of dissolved
solids present in process waters (Lindström et al., 1977).
Consumption reduction until water system closure without altering neither the manufacturing
process nor final product quality makes necessary to prevent and control these problems. To
achieve this aim it is necessary to carry out studies for a bener understanding of phenomena
taking place during papermaking, the possible influence of modification in white water
composition, the dissolved or suspended material concentration admissible and, finally, the
methods for adapting the process without product quality reductions (Baudiun and Hesse,
1988; Negro et al, 1995).
As a starting point, the following tasks should be considered:
Study and characterization of water systems so as to seggregate and/or combine

the different flows for optimum reuse.
Evaluation of the effects causing dissolved and colloidal material increase in

process waters on additives efficiency in general, and on retention, in particular.
Adaptation of new chemical additives dosage criteria -especially aluminium salts,

starch and retenion agents- in order to ensure optimum interaction between the
additives and the different fractions in pulp suspension at minimum costs.
And, finally, analysis of the influence of system closure on product quality.
Suspensions fed to the paper machine consist of four fractions in water: cellulose fibres,
fines and fillers, colloidal material and dissolved material.
In the case of not being retained, most additives used in papermaking are part of the colloidal
fraction, consisting of particles whose size belongs to this molecular weight range. However,
salts added to water are part of the dissolved material, of low molecular weight.
128
Therefore, problems associated with dissolved and colloidal material increase, are generally
due to an increase in the concentration of organic substances, microorganisms developed in
the system and inorganic salts.
Effects caused by the build up of organic substances and microorganisms, as well as

prevention and control systems, are considered in chapters 3, 4 and 6. Therefore, this chapter
deals with inorganic salt build up.
The presence of salts has an outstanding influence on papermaking. Its effects on the process
depend not only on concentration but also on the type of salts present. Salt accumulation
should be considered before water system closure since this is the factor which limits the
recirculation degree in many cases.
5.2 ORIGIN OF SALTS
Inorganic salts concentration in the process waters of a paper mill is related to raw material,
feed water salinity and papermaking process characteristics.
Salts can enter to the system with cellulose raw materials, with mineral fillers, with chemical
additives and with feed water; and leave the system with the product, sludge and effluent.
Salts distribution in the different streams depends on the type of product and process. Three
different real cases have been considered as examples: boardmaking, high-quality printing
paper and recycled deinked paper of newsprint and tissue quality (Hoomeijer et al, 1995).
In boardmaking multilayer and corrugated boards have been considered. Both are obtained
from recycled paper with an average water consumption of 5 mVprod ton. In this case,
secondary fibre is the main salt source -around 80%, and 60% of salt is removed with the
product, as shown in figure 5.1.
In the case of the manufacture of non-coated printing paper from virgin fibre, with an
aproximated water consumption of 50 m3/prod. ton, the main salt source is feed water. Due
to the lower closure degree of the water system, in this case, 80% of salts leave the system
with the final effluent and only 15% with the product, as shown in figure 5.2.
Finally, considering papermaking from recycled deinked pulp, with a water consumption
between 10 and 30 mVprod ton, the main salt source is the chemical additives added during
the deinking process (figure 5.3).
129
Additives
10%
Secondar)- fibre
K7M Fresh water
10%
Effluent
35%
Product
60%
\ Reject
-^ 5%
Figure 5.1.
Salt distribution in boardmaking.
Secondary fibre
5%
M ^
Additives Fresh water
20% 75%
ι muml
80%
Product
15%
v\i " ^ Reject

• ^ 5%
Figure 5.2.
Salt distribution in printing papermaking.
130
Secondary fibre Additives

15% 10%
Fresh water
75%
Effluent
70%
^V
Product
20%
y Reject
10%
Figure 5.3.
Salt distribution in the manufacture of deinked paper of newsprint or tissue quality.
5.3 INFLUENCE OF SALTS ON FIBRES FRACTION
As it is well known, the main characteristics of fibres to be useful for papermaking are their
capability of being matted into an uniform sheet and of developing bonds among the different
fibres which give resistance to paper. To improve these two properties, fibres can be beated
or refined through mechanical treatment producing a change in their structure. This makes
fibre hydration and swelling easier, increasing their flexibility and bonding power.
The main cellulose raw materials used in the paper industry are mechanical and chemical
virgin fibre pulps, obtained mainly from wood; and secondary fibre pulps obtained from
recovery paper. Secondary fibre usage has a renewed interest at present due to economic,
environmental and legal causes (Colom and Torres, 1994). However, there is a practical limit
to recycled paper rate (recovery paper/paper consumption). At over 50% levels, half of the
fibres present in old recycled paper have already been used. When the number of recycles
increase, there are losses by fibrous material degradation and alterations in fibre properties,
thus reducing paper strength. Due to hornification, fibres become less flexible and less
permeable to water, and the loss of hemicelluloses reduces their bonding potential
131
(Smook, 1994).
As we will see below, these characteristics of fibres, which determine the quality of the final
paper, are affected by salt presence in the system.
5.3.1 Salt effect on fibre swelling
Fibres adsorb water during refining, which increases their internal and external surface and
damages mechanical and chemical properties of fibre internal surface (Scallan and
Tegerstrom, 1992).
Fibre affinity to water depends on the power of glucose links to form hydrogen bonds, which
is related to hydrophyllic substances contained. The adsorbed water can be directly linked
to hydrophyllic groups or indirectly linked through hidrogen bonds among water molecules,
as shown in figure 5.4 (Eklund and Linström, 1991). As the thickness of the water molecular
layer increases, fibre pore size also increases due to cellulose swelling, thus enhancing water
penetration.
O
o
ò 0 0
I 1 1
0 o o 0 o
r/\ / \ i / \ / \
ADSORBED
I LAYERS
0 ή Ò ό O
/ \ / \ / \ / \
, H ; H \ Η ι Η , Η ι Η , Η , Η . Η ι Η
CK' o** V ¿^ ò' o' rV iy
I 1 ι ι 1 1 1 1 1 1
rpiimnsc SOLID
SURFACE
Figure 5.4.
Water molecular link to cellulose.
132
During wet sheet formation, links among fibres are enhanced due to bonds among the water
molecules and ionizable groups present on fibre surface. Lately, as water is evaporated,
these hydrogen bonds remain increasing sheet strength.
The presence of phenolic, sulphonic, catecholic, hydroxyl and carboxyl groups on fibre
surface depends on cellulose compounds present in the raw material and on pulping and
bleaching processes.
Salt effect on fibre swelling is due to salt influence on fibre surface charge (Scallan, 1983;
Lindström, 1992). Generally it is admitted that, fibres show a polyelectrolytic behaviour
when the amount of charged groups in the cell wall is high enough and when fibre flexibility
allows fibre to respond to electrical interactions.
Acidic groups within fibres increase their swelling as a result of the osmotic pressure
generated by the counter-ions present in the medium. Due to the presence of these ions in
the vicinity of the acidic groups, the salt concentration originated can only be neutralized by
osmotic pressure difference between the interior and the exterior of the cell wall, which
allows more water into the cells. Thus, cell wall is expanded and the hydrogen bonds
between the different groups in the same fibre are broken. Therefore, an acidic group
increase causes a parallel increase in swelling.
When pulp suspension conductivity increases, swelling decreases due to the electrolytic effect
on the fibres ionizable groups. In this case, it is the number of counter-ions released into the
solution that controls osmotic pressure. On the other hand, the counter-ions surround charged
fibre surfaces forming a fixed electric layer around the suspended particles, the fixed layer
is surround by a diffuse layer of co-ions and counter-ions. Thus, an electrical double layer
is formed around the particles in suspension (figure 5.5). The electrical charge difference
between fixed layer and bulk suspension is determined by pulp zeta potential. When
electrolyte concentration increases the counter-ions neutralize the charge more quickly and,
consequently, the thickness of the diffuse layer of the double layer is reduce and, therefore,
also the zeta potential of the pulp suspension and the electrical interactions among suspended
particles.
The higher the counter-ion valence, the lower the swelling degree, according to the following
order (Scallan and Grignon, 1979; Lindström, 1980, 1982a):
133
Li + > Na+ > K+ > Ag+ > Ca +2 = Mg +2 = Ba+2 >A1 + 3 = F e
At present, there is still some controversy concerning the effect on swelling of different
metallic ions with the same valency (Lindström, 1992).
t- \
_
+ — 4-
-- -t-
—+■
r
τ- ;'
+
t-
rV t !>ïrr- / +■ Diffuse layer of counterions
+ +
— +■
, Bulk of solution
Stern layer
{ Electric potential
Zpta potential ,
\
Concentration of positive ions
£ ^ \ Concentration of negative ions
Figure 5.5.
Ions distribution in the electrical double layer.
134
According to Dobbins (1970), despite cellulose fibres develop a negative surface charge
when suspended in water, fibres do not act as cation captors at random. On the contrary,
there is a fixed order in the affinity between fibres and cations present in the solution. High-
charge small cations (lithium, sodium and magnesium) show low adsorption on cellulose,
whereas larger ions with lower charge density (barium, aluminium) are more easily adsorbed.
The thermo-dynamic origin of this selection does not depend so much on cellulose (attraction
forces) as on hydration energy. Ions with higher charge density are highly solvated and,
consequently, more stable by ion-dipole forces in aqueous medium. Therefore, the chances
of bonding of these ions to cellulose are lesser than in the case of ions with lower charge
density as the hydration energy to be overcome is lower.
5.3.2 Salt effect on refining
The beating or refining process of cellulose fibres consists in a mechanical degradation of

fibres to improve their behaviour during papermaking. The effects produced during refining
can be divided into primary and secondary effects. Primary effects are those that allow the
distinction of a refined fibre from non-refined one, whereas secondary effects include all
changes produced in pulp behaviour and difficultly related to individual changes in fibres
(Jorma, 1992; Möhlin and Miller, 1992).
The first effect of refining is the removal of the primary wall, which is permeable to water
but does not swell. Its removal uncovers the secondary wall and allows hydration by
adsorption of fibre molecular structure, enhancing its flexibility. Later on, refining causes
fibrils liberation and microfibrils production on fibres surface (figure 5.6). This increases
considerably fibre specific surface and fine and dissolved material content in the suspension
as well as decreases the average distribution of fibre size.
As a consecuence of the factors mentioned, when the refining degree of the pulp increases,
there is a reduction in porosity and in tear index of the final product, and an increase in
tensile strength and burst index.
According to Lindström (1992), refining rate, evaluated as the increase in drainage resistance
per energy unit used in the refiner, depends on the concentration and nature of salts present
in the suspension. This is due to the effect of electrolytes on the electrical double layer
around the suspended fibres. Zeta potential reduction produces coagulation of fines, fillers
and colloid fraction, so pulp drainage rate increases and refining speed decreases.
135
Figure 5.6.
Microfibrils produced by pulp refining.
Initially, for low salt concentration, the refining degree is highly sensitive to little
conductivity variations. However, this effect is reduced when conductivity values of over
1000 /iS/cm are reached.
The decrease of refining degree is higher when counter-ion valency increases according to
Schulze-Hardy law for coagulation of colloids. However, the final effect of salt on drainage
rate depends both on the effect of electrolytes on coagulation and on salt effect on fibres
swelling (Lindström, 1989, 1992).
Lindström has also studied the influence of the increase of dissolved organic substances in
pulp suspension, due to liberation of hemicellulose and lignin from the fibre cell wall during
refining. This pulp fraction is characterized by its high molecular mass and its high anionic
charge. Such charge produces an important increase of zeta potential in the suspension,
which affects the papermaking process by reducing the efficiency of the cationic additives
used. The presence of electrolytes during refining neutralizes the anionic charge of
hemicellulose and lignine compounds that can be liberated during refining and therefore
reduces the electrical interactions which favour their liberation.
136
If salt concentration increases once hemicellulose and lignine compounds have been liberated
in refining, electrolytes can interact with the dissolved and colloidal material present in the
suspension and produce its neutralization and coagulation. This effect reduces the negative
influence of anionic trash on wet end chemistry and the high consumption of cationic
additives.
According to Cohen (1949) and Thomas (1960), the electrolytes effect is primarily
electrostatic. F ollowing this theory, refining operations are not directly affected, but the
presence of cations determines the degree of fines dispersion. These authors also state that
pulp behaviour is highly sensitive to small amounts of salts, which has been also
corroborated later on. The main differences are observed when pulps are prepared with pure
water (= 10 ^S/cm) and with small amounts of salt (50-100 μ8Λ:πι). Therefore, this effect has
to be considered when studies with pure water at laboratory scale are carried out.
Experimental results obtained by Alfthan (1959) using a mechanical pulp, show that when
conductivity increases from 2 to 40 ^S/cm, Shopper-Riegler refining degree decreases; but
when conductivity is increased over 40 /iS/cm the refining degree increases again. The
minimum refining degree Obtained by varying sample conductivity depends on pulp type.
5.3.3 Salt effect on fibre homification
Salt influence on the carboxyl groups of the fibre cell wall has an important effect on fibre
hornification. The lower the pH, the more significant hornification effect is, hardly
appreciable above pH 8.
The main consequences of hornification are loss of swellability and plasticity when fibres are
rcwcttcd and subsequently dried. According to works carried out by Lindström and Carlsson
(1982b), hornification degree is lower when Na+ ions in pulp have replaced protons than
when the carboxyl groups of the pulp are in acidic form.
5.4 SALT I NFLUENCE ON DISSOLVED AND COLLOIDAL MATERI AL
During papermaking, hemicellulose, lipophyllic extractives and lignin are dissolved in a

lesser or larger proportion in mill process waters. The concentration of these compounds
137
mainly depends on pulp type. Their presence causes problems in the manufacturing process
and in the quality of the final product, also increasing additives consumption.
When the process water system closes, dissolved and colloidal material build up, being salt,
wood extractives and additives used in deinking, bleaching and papermaking their main
constituents.
According to Sundberg (1994), lipophyllic extractives from unbleached pulp are relatively
stable in the presence of salts. This is due to the fact that stabilization of extractives is ruled
by surface electrical charges and steric stabilization (Allen, 1979; Peiton, 1993). The higher
the valence of the electrolyte present in the pulp suspension, the lower the concentration
required for maximum aggregation.
As it was stated in chapter 2, additives in the paper industry are used either to improve the
manufacturing process (retention and drainage agents, antifoams, biocides, etcetera) or to
improve some of the properties of the final product (strength agents, sizing agents, coating
agents, pigments, etcetera). When recycled paper is used as raw material, the presence of
additives previously used in papermaking is of great importance, since they can become
contaminants in the new manufacturing process. Salt effect on additives is therefore complex
and can affect product quality, the runnability of the paper machine, and the process
economics.
5.4.1 Salt effect on retention agents
Paper formation can be compared with a filtration process, where the formation wire acts as
an ongoing filter retaining a fraction of the solids that form the furnish fed to the paper
machine.
Non-retained solids drain through the wire, and together with most of the water become part
of the white waters. It is important to distinguish between overall system retention and single
pass retention. Overall retention is the proportion of any component of pulp suspension
which enters the machine and is present in the final sheet. Single pass retention is the
proportion of any component of pulp suspension fed on the wire which is retained on the
paper web. In a closed system with a high fines content, overall retention is also high
regardless single pass retention is usually low.
138
At present, many additives are used to increase the retention of fines and fillers fraction and
to enhance drainage. The electrical interaction of these products with the different pulp
fractions is highly important so as to optimize their use, and it is related to overall system
retention.
Final sheet properties and machine operating conditions are more related to single pass
retention. A low single pass retention produces an uneven distribution of fines and fillers in
sheet cross-section. Accumulation of fines, fillers and dissolved and colloidal material has
an influence on drainage, additives efficiency and machine runnability.
Salt influence on additive efficiency is due to both electrolytic action on fibre surface charge
and dissolved and colloidal material in the suspension, and salt influence on polymer
configuration and charge.
Coagulation of the colloidal material in presence of salts reduces zeta potential in pulp
suspensions and increases retention in absence of polymer. This theoretically produces a
decrease in optimum polymer dosage. However, salts also affect polymer characteristics
reducing its efficiency, which means a dosage increase to keep a constant retention level. In
certain cases, the alteration of polymer characteristics makes its use more suitable in closed
water systems, as in the case of high molecular mass polyacrilamides: when salts
concentration increases they change their configuration, and the linear morfology of the
polymer becomes a spiral morfology. In this case, as flocculation mechanism changes,
polyacrilamides form smaller floes so they can be used in closed water systems without
altering final product characteristics (Blanco, 1994).
The effect of salts on retention agents depends on the actuation mechanisms of such agent.
When there is charge neutralization, salt effect is as described. On the other hand, when
there is bridging, patch or mosaic mechanisms, the salts effect should be studied for each
particular case.
There are also specific cases where the presence of certain ions should be considered in
particular, such as the presence of silicates and alum (Wenzl, 1991).
Silicates are used as stabilizers in bleaching systems with peroxyde, and its negative effect
is due to interference with flocculation mechanisms. If a closed system is considered, and due
to the little silicate affinity to fines and fillers, their concentration in the system will be
extremely high in spite of using them only in bleaching lines. Such presence affects retention
additives negatively, both cationic and anionic. This can be avoided by replacing sodium
silicate by a silicate-free organic stabilizer in the bleaching line.
139
The use of alum as a sizing agent or with other objectives should be made with an
appropriate optimization to avoid interference with retention and drainage processes.
Dissolved alum concentration in the system depends on the pH of the medium. Aluminum
sulphate is hardly soluble at over pH 5, and consequently it has a low influence.
In the case of acidic manufacturing process with a closed water system, calcium carbonate
concentration is also important as it can affect alum compounds chemistry, specially if
recycled paper is used as raw material. The presence of Ca2+ decreases aluminum cationicity
at over pH 5 and extends aluminium isoelectric point to higher pH values (Farley, 1992).
Alum chemistry in papermaking has been widely described by Arnson (1982). Alum
compounds can be hydrolized in water forming various species:
ΑΓ 3 + H 2 0 - AI(OH)+2 + H^ (1)
Al(OH)+2 + H 2 0 - Al(OH)+2 + H + (2)
Al(OH)+2 + H 2 0 - Al(OH)3 + H + (3)
The presence of other species depending on pH should also be taken into account, as shown
in figure 5.7.
Figure 5.7.
Influence of pH on the balance of alum species present in a solution of 2.5 10"4 M.
140
The effect of calcium carbonate is given by:
A12(S04)3 + 3 CaCOj + 3 H 2 0 - 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 CaS0 4 + 3 C0 2 (4)
H 2 S0 4 + CaCOj - CaS0 4 + H 2 0 + C0 2 (5)
If sulphate concentration increases, sulphuric acid disociation decreases and, consequently,

pH increases. Similarly, to keep a fixed pH alum dosage should be increased, as shown in
figure 5.8. This problem does not appear when papermaking is carried out in neutral or
alkaline medium
1343
ppm CaCO 3
__ 0 ppm C a C O j
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
ml 5 % Al (S OJ · 18 H O / litres of w a t e r
2 (S
Figure 5.8.
Effect of alkalinity on alum dosage.
141
5.5 SALT INFLUENCE ON PROCESS EFFICIENCY
Ions presenting more affinity to cellulose fibres or mineral fillers (Ti, Si, Fe, Al) are
removed from the system with the product, so their concentration varies throughout the
process depending on fibres concentration. However, ions with low affinity to fibres or
fillers (Na, Ca, Mg, K, sulphates, chlorides) remain in the white water system and ions
concentration is constant throughout the manufacturing process, so their mass distribution
is related to water distribution, building up when process waters are recycled.
Enrichment of dissolved solids which built up in the system can be determined by means of
a mass balance overall the system. Enrichment curves and time required to reach limit
concentrations have been described by Alexander and Dobbins (1977). In such balance it is
necessary to consider the possibility for any of these species to reach its solubility limit in
any part of the system and its subsequent precipitation. This is not necessarily a problem
until it forms a deposit on a surface.
Problems associated to deposit formation are due to production costs of products out of
specifications, production loss, high maintenance cost, corrosion problems, draining
alterations, etcetera. Deposit nature and localization are related to the raw materials used and
the physical, chemical and dynamic conditions of the process.
Inorganic deposits found in paper and board mills include carbonates, oxalates, sulphates and
calcium silicates; barium sulphate, alum and iron oxides and hydroxides, sodium sulphate
and carbonate, titanium dioxide, etcetera. In general, these deposits are hard, dense,
crystalline, stratified and coloured. The presence of deposits can be observed on pipes,
nozzles, filters, headboxes, formation wires, suction boxes, felts, products, etcetera (Rying,
1981).
In the case of papermaking in acidic medium, secondary fibre use is considered the main
deposits cause in the formation wire. This problem appears mainly during the summer.
Deposit composition is 86-89% inorganic compounds (Al3+, S042', clay) and 14-11 % organic
compounds (Porwal et al., 1980). The main factors which make worse deposit formation on
the wires are, in decreasing order: alum concentration, pH and temperature.
At high alum concentrations, pH is more difficult to control. If it suffers a variation -for

instance, between nozzle water and process water- an aluminum hydroxide gel can be formed
142
in white water. Once formed, it is not redissolved and can trap in its inner structure fillers,
sizing compounds, metallic ions, ..., thus forming a deposit. In alkaline manufacturing
processes deposit formation is lower than in acidic systems.
Deposit control can be carried out by using chemical products. Such products have the
following effects (Caulkins et al, 1988; Glazer, 1991):
Deposit dispersion. Dispersing agents are adsorbed on the particle surface

causing an electrical repulsion which inhibits their agglomeration. The most used
dispersing agents are lignosulphonates and low molecular mass anionic
polyelectrolytes, such as polyacrylates.
Crystal distorsion. Compounds which modify the crystallinity of inorganic

crystals introduce impurities avoiding their growth. These compounds are mainly
phosphonates or polyacrylates.
Ion quelatings. The main quelatings of cations Ca, Ba, Cu, Fe, Mn are: EDTA,
DTPA, polyacrylates, polyphosphates and phosphonates. These compounds
prevent cations from combining with anions present in the medium and forming
deposits.
Anti-precipitation. There are products which inhibit the nucleation of deposits

forming salts thus producing anti-precipitation.
A serious problem associated with scaling is corrosion under the deposits, which causes
damage on metallic surfaces as a consequence of its reaction with the medium.
System closure is considered to have a negative effect regarding corrosion (Wensley, 1987).
A fast corrosion is expected from those materials with corrosion problems in ordinary
conditions. However, stainless steel is not affected although its safety margin is reduced.
White water corrosion potential depend on pH, temperature, concentration of aggresive

inorganic anion, such as chlorides and tiosulphates, and conductivity. Type of dissolved
solids is more important than total concentration.
143
Corrosion problems should be prevented by keeping machine surfaces clean and smooth. A
good pH control is also needed to avoid corrosion problems in acidic conditions and scaling
problems associated with alkaline conditions. F urthermore, corrosion inhibitors can also be
used.
5.6 SALTS I NFLUENCE ON PRODUCT QUALI TY
Paper strength is related to the intrinsic strength of fibres, bonds between fibres, and fibres
distribution in the formed sheet. Intrinsic fibre strength depends on type of raw material and
pulping process. Strength due to bonds between fibres depends on the number of bonds
between fibres and type and strength of bonding. F inally, fibres distribution in the sheet
depends on the type of floes and the shear forces existing during web formation.
For a given pulp, the strength of paper sheets formed according to TAPPI-205 om 88
depends on the Η-bondings existing and pulp chemical flocculation as long as grammage
remains constant. In such case the effect of mechanical flocculation is masked due to dilution
used in the sheet former.
According to Lindström (1989), there is not a simple relationship between the swelling
degree and the tensile strength of the sheet of paper because cell wall plasticity is not directly
related to swelling degree. However, when fibre swelling increases, tensile index, elasticity
modulus and sheet density generally increases, whereas tear index decreases.
Electrolytes have a minor effect on the development of strength properties during beating.
Monovalent cations seem to accelerate beating, whereas divalent cations have no influence
on it. However, tri- and tetravalent cations slow down beating thus giving an impression of
lowering paper strength properties, when the real effect is beating delay. Table 5.1 shows
the relative importance of an increase of pH, increase conductivity and ion valence on fibre
swelling, beating degree and paper strength, as well as their causes.
Generally, salts influence on paper strength properties can only be considered important by
the manufacturer when salt concentration in process water is very high, which does not occur
in usual conditions (Cohen et al., 1949; Thomas, 1960; Hoomeijer et al., 1995).
144
Table 5.1.
Relative importance of pH, conductivity and valence on fibre swelling,
beating degree and paper strength.
pH Conductivity Charge
+ +
+ + -H
Fibre swelling + +
Surface charge ---
Osmotic pressure ---
+ H-
±
+
+ -H +
+
Refining degree
Coagulation +++
■
+
+
Fibre swelling
Paper strengh ++
Fibre swelling +++
Crossover ++ +++
The strength of paper prepared with pure deionized water compared to that prepared with
water with low salt concentration shows a decrease in strength. This is due to salts influence
on the beating degree and not directly on strength. I f the beating degree remains constant the
tensile index is also constant, regardless salt level in pulp suspension. Similarly, the tear index
is constant between 2 and 750 ^S/cm for both to a constant beating degree or a constant tensile
index.
In the case of using deionized water in pulp preparation, resistance to air and sheet density are
observed to be slightly higher. This difference is relatively little except in the case of working
with high beating degrees.
The study of the influence of water quality on sheet formation shows that the water used in the
sheet former does not affect paper strength, although its drainage rate is affected.
145
The presence of high concentrations of iron has a negative effect on the tensile index,
reducing strength about 15% (Springer et al, 1985). This may be due to the fact that the
presence of iron in process water produces pulp flocculation by neutralization of the surface
charge of the suspended particles. This causes a lower uniformity in sheet formation, and the
presence of weak areas between floes reduces sheet strength. This effect masks the reduction
of interfibre bonds per area unit due to neutralization of particle surface charge.
The influence of inorganic salts build up in the process water system of paper and board mills
has been studied for decades without observing a clear negative effect on final product
quality. Water system closure in high quality paper mills was carried out with greater
precautions and differences in physical or optical properties were not detected (Bowman and
Lewis, 1970; Brecht and Dalpke, 1972; Aldrich and Janes, 1973a; Aldrich et al, 1973b;
Alexander and Dobbins, 1977; Hoomeijer et al, 1995).
5.7 CONCLUSIONS
Problems associated with inorganic salt build up in process water as a result of water system
closure are many during the transition period, such as alterations in beating, corrosion
problems, deposit formation, alteration of additives effect, disminution in process efficiency,
alteration of final product quality, etcetera. However, once the system is closed and a new
equilibrium is reached considering these influences, there are no serious operating problems
and usual product quality can be maintained.
As every mill is different, it is important to analyze the operating variables of each particular
case and the contaminants present to state the individual requirements of each system. In all
cases both a good machine cleaning programme and the keeping of good practices are highly
important.
146
5.8 REFERENCES
Aldrich L and Janes R (1973a) White water reuse on a fine paper machine. Tappi J, 56(3):
92
Aldrich L and Janes R (1973b) A survey of white paper machines in North America. Tappi
J, 56(12):177
Alexander SD and Dobbins RJ (1977) The buildup of dissolved electrolytes in a closed paper
mill system. Tappi J, 60(12): 117
Alfthan GO (1959) Keskuslaboratorio, Centrallaboratorium Ab, Internal Report
Allen LH (1979) Mechanism and control of pitch deposition in Newsprint mills. Colloid
Polym Sci, 257: 533
Arnson T (1982) The chemistry of aluminium salts in papermaking. Tappi J, 65(3): 125
Baudiun WHH and Hesse C (1988) Optimization of waste water treatment for closing mill
systems. Closing up mill water systems. Pira Conference, November
Blanco MA (1994) Estudio de la floculación durante la fabricación de papel. Doctoral Thesis.

Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
Blanco MA, Gaspar I, Negro C and Tijero J (1996) Problemas microbiológicos en la

fabricación del papel y carton. Inv Téc Pap, 127: 49
Bowman RS and Lewis J (1970) White zinc oxide. Tappi J, 53(11): 112
Brecht W and Dalpke HL (1972) Closed water circulation in used paper-processing paper
manufacture. Wochbl Papierfabrik, 100(16):579
Caulkins D. and Wildman J (1988) Changes in paper process causing problems in controlling
deposits. Pulp Pap, 89
Cohen WE, Farrant G and Watson AJ (1949) The influence of electrolytes on pulp and paper
147
properties. Appita Proc, 3:72
Colom JF and Torres AL (1994) Fibras primarias de madera y fibras secundarias de papel
viejo. El Papel, 62
Dobbins RJ (1970) The role of water in cellulose-solute interactions. Tappi J, 53(12): 2284
Eklund D and Lindström T (1991) Paper Chemistry. An introduction. DT Paper Science

Publications, Grankulla, Finland
Farley CE (1992) Influence of dissolved ions on alum cationicity under alkaline papermaking
conditions. Tappi J, 75 (11):193
Glazer JA (1991) Overview of deposit control. Tappi J, 74(7): 72
Hooimeijer A, Joore L, Blanco MA and Negro C (1995) Van op zoucen naar afzouten: de
eroi van zouten bij de produktie van papier en karton. TNO report nr:BU2.95/001117
Jorma J (1992) The specific surface load, impact length, number of impact, refining
geometric and fiber caracteristic are the key factors in the refining system the desing.
ATICELCA, Bolonia, Italia, May 19-22: 284-296
Lindström T, Soremark C and Westman L (1977) The influence on paper strength of

dissolved and colloidal substances in the white water. Svensk Papperstid, 11: 341
Lindström T (1980) The colloidal behavior of kraft lignin. Part II. Coagulation of Kraft
lignin sols in the presence of simple and complex metal ions. Das Papier, 34(12): 561
Lindström T and Carlsson G (1982a) The effect of chemical environmental fiber swelling.
Svensk Papperstid, 85(3): R14
Lindström T and Carlsson G (1982b) Hornification of cellulose fiber. Svensk Papperstid,

85(15): R146
Lindström T (1989) Fundamentals of papermaking. Trans, of the Ninth Fundamental

Research Symposium, Cambridge, Edited by C.F. Baker & V.W. Punton, London, Sept.:
148
331
Lindström T (1992) Chemical factors affecting the behaviour of fibres during papermaking.
Nordic Pulp & Paper Research J, 7( 4): 181
Mallouris M (1994) Consequences of increased closure level on wet end chemistry. Towards
the closed system-threats and opportunities, Pira Conference, March
Möhlin UB and Miller J (1992) Multivariate characterization of pulp. Part II. Interpretation
and prediction of beating processes. ATICELCA , Bolonia, Italia, 12-22, May: 217-283
Negro C, Blanco MA, Gaspar I and Tijero J (1995) El agua en la industria papelera. Ing
Quím 317(10): 137
Negro C, Blanco MA, Monte MC and Tijero J (1996) Origen, formación y análisis en los
depósitos de "stickies" en la fabricación de papel y cartón. Inv Téc Pap, 129: 619
Peiton RH, Allen LH and Nuggent HM, (1980) A survey of potential retention aids for
newsprint manufacture. Svensk Papperstid, 83 (9): 251
Peiton RH (1993) A model of the external surface of wood pulp fibres. Nordic Pulp & Paper
Res J, 8(1): 113
Porwal SK. Springer A and Proctor A, (1980) Scale deposits on the Fourdrinier wire of a
fine paper machine. Tappi J, 63(6): 67
Rying S (1981) Deposit considerations (non microbiological) in the pulp and paper industry.
Appita J, 35 (2): 149
Scallan AM and Grignon J (1979) The accommodation of water within pulp fibers. Svensk
Papperstid, 82(2): 40
Scallan AM (1983) Lumen-loaded paper pulp. Tappi J, 66(11): 73
Scallan AM and Tigerstrom AC (1992) Swelling and elasticity of the cell walls of pulp
fibres. J Pulp & Paper Sci, 18(5): J187-J193
149
Smook GA (1994) Manual para técnicos de pulpa y papel. Tappi Press, Atlanta
Springer AM and col (1985) Optimization of a wastewater treatment plant by the employee
involvement optimization system. Tappi J, 68 (4): 78
Sunberg A, Ekman R, Holmbom Β and Sundber Κ (1993) Interactions between dissolved and
colloidal substances and a cationic fixing agent in mechanical pulp suspensions. Nordic Pulp
& Paper Res J, 8(1): 226
Thomas BB (1960) Effects of electrolytes in the Valley Beater Test, 'lappi J, 43(5): 447
Wensley DA (1987) Corrosion in the pulp and paper industry. Metals Handbook, Ninth
Edition, 13
Wenzl DJH (1981) Closure of paper and board mill production systems and its effects on
production conditions. Proceedings of the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper
Industry, TAPPI Anual Meeting
150
CHAPTER 6
MICROBIAL ASPECTS
IN RECYC
INDUSTRY
M.A. BLANCO AND I. GASPAR
MICROBIAL ASPECTS IN RECYCLING PAPER INDUSTRY
'The latest trends in the paper industry have been the development towards manufacturing in
a neutral or alkaline process, greater consumption in secondary fibres and the closing up of
the process water systems. Under these conditions of papermaking, the problems of deposits,
corrosion and odours due to the microbiological activity increase considerably. As
consequence of the dominant species in the system, different runnability and production
problems give rise, which is a function of the mill conditions. Actually, to control these
problems papermakers consider important not only to control the microbiological activity but
also to prevent their growth. Furthermore, the traditional use of biocides has been modified
in order to carry out the actual environmental considerations. To know the actual situation of
the paper industry, this chapter presents a review of the microorganism sources, the
consequences of the microbiological activity upon the actual systems of paper and board
manufacturing, and the current state of the different alternatives for its prevention, treatment
and control considering the impact of the actual technological changes in papermaking on the
control programmes. Finally, the trends regarding the future of the microbiological control
in papermaking systems are presented'.
153
M.A. BLANCO & I. GASPAR
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The main microorganisms present in the industrial processes are: bacteria, fungi, yeast and
algae. To control the microbial problems, it is important to know the factors which are
relevant in their growth, which are summarized in table 6.1. According to these
characteristics, it can be observed that the process water, involved in the manufacturing of
paper and board in an alkaline medium, presents ideal conditions of temperature and pH for
the growth of a great variety of microorganisms, in which the bacteria and fungi are the
dominant. Furthermore, these waters contain the necessary nutrients for their development,
as for example, polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, etcetera), mineral salts (PO3.,, SO\, Na',
K + , Ca + , Mg 2+ ), and trace elements (Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mo, Co, Ni).
Table 6.1.
Factors that are relevant in the growth of microorganisms.
Optimal temperature Light Oxygen Optimal Water

°C pH
BACTERIA Psycrophiles 15 Aerobic > 4 ppm

0,5-1 μπι Mesophiles 35 No effect Anaerobic < 4 ppm 6,5-7,5 Essential
Termophiles 55 Facultative: no effect
FUNGI 22-30 Could affect

ΙΟμιη Moulds Tmlx= 65 spore Moulds > 4 ppm 5,0-6,0 Non
Yeast Tmi,= 45 germination Yeast no effect 4,0-5,0 essential
ALGAE < 35 for green algae Essential 0 2 need to start 4,5-9,0 Essential
> 100 μπι photosynthesis
PROTOZOA 20 No effect Aerobic > 2 ppm Non

10 - ΙΟΟΟμΠί Anaerobic < 2 ppm 6,5-7,5 essential
The typical composition of the paper industry microflora is shown in table 6.2 (Sanborn, 1965;
Harju-Jeanty and Väätänen, 1984; Martin, 1988; Safade, 1988; Latorre, 1990). Due to the
diversity in the microenvironment conditions, the density of population can vary greatly,
although the normal range is between 104 and 108 microorganisms/ml. On the other hand, it
is important to consider that the dominant species vary, even in the same factory, depending
on the conditions of the environment. In normal conditions, most of the bacteria found in the
154
process water are aerobic. However, if the oxygen concentration decreases, the anaerobic
bacteria can start to develop.
Table 6.2.
Typical composition of the paper industry microflora.
Aerobic bacteria
- Spore forming
Bacillus subtilis, B. cereus, B. megaterium, B. mycoides
- Non-sporulating
Achromobacter, Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Beggiatoa, Citrobacter,
Corynebacterium, Enterobacter, Escherichia, Flavobacterium, Gallionella,
Klebsiella, Lepthotrix, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas, Sphaerotilus,
Staphylococcus, Thiobacillus
Anaerobic bacteria
- Spore forming
Clostridium
- Non-sporulating
Desulfovibrio, some Actinomycetes
Fungi
- Moulds
Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Pénicillium, Phialophora, Phycomyces,
Trichoderma
- Yeast
Candida, Geotrichum, Monilia, Rhodotorula, Saccharomyces, Torula
Algae
- Blue-green
Asterionella, Navícula, Oscillatoria
- Green
Chlorococcus
Under certain circumstances, the bacteria surround themselves with a capsule of polysacharic
nature, which protects them from dehydratation and other extreme conditons for the growth,
and favours the creation of colonies. The polysaccharic component that create this capsule,
specially levan, are the base for the formation of the microbial deposits (figure 6.1).
155
polysaccharidal
matrix
Figure 6.1.
Structure of a biofilm.
The bacteria obtain the energy through the process of aerobic and anaerobic respiration or by
fermentation, depending on the type of bacteria involved. The reduced organic compounds are
secreted and consequently build up in the medium. In the case of the fermentation to volatile
fatty acids (by bacteria, for example, of the genus Clostridium), these accumulate in the
process water, causing a bad odour.
In the anaerobic respiration processes, the hydrogen is transferred through the respiratory
chain, for example to the nitrite or to the sulphate. The bacteria that have the sulphate as the
last acceptor of the proton are called sulphate reducing bacteria or SRB. The H2S generated
in its metabolism is accumulated in the process waters, giving a typical fault smell. The H2S
produced by the SRB can be oxidized by the thiobacillus, the filamentous bacteria, and the
phototrophos to produce S042", closing the cycle, as shown in figure 6.2.
While spores of fungi represent a mechanism of reproduction, the spores of bacteria are a
mechanism of protection and resistance when confronted with unsuitable environmental
156
conditions, such as extreme temperature, acid or alkaline pH, lack of nutrients or water,
presence of toxic compounds, etcetera. Only a few bacteria gram-positive (i.e. Bacillus and
Clostridium) are capable of producing spores, which are difficult to eliminate of the system.
The main sources of these endospores are surface water and some components used as
additives, mainly starch.
Sulphur
Sulphur oxidation by sulphur bacteria
Sulphide oxidation
(e.g. Thiobacillus)
"A.
Sulphate reduction by SRB
Sulphide <- Sulphate
Assimilation
Proteolysis \
Aminoacids
Proteins
Figure 6.2.
Sulphur cycle.
The moulds and most of the yeast present in paper and board mills are aerobic. Compared with
the bacteria, fungi are bigger and more complex. Although the fungi do not originate the
microbiological deposits, organic and inorganic matter can be tangled or caught in theirs web
of filamentous structure, thus forming deposits. The spores produce by the mycelia are
responsible of the colours that appeared in the moulds, such as green, black, brown and
blue.The size of spores, the shape, the colour and the presence of hyphae septated are
important factors in determinig many fungi species.
The yeast, as the bacteria, are mainly unicellular, but they differ from these in that they
reproduce by budding, and not by splitting in two. Although it is true that the yeast are
generally present in the deposits, they are not responsible for causing any problems except
when they develop in solutions of starch, causing fermentation (Piluso, 1987).
Finally, the presence of algae in the system produces important microbiological problems,
157
because they fix the C0 2 in organic matter that serves as nutrient for the bacteria and the
fungi, favouring that theirs growth. The algae can also alter the quality of the final product
causing the presence of green spots on it.
The previous descriptions show the importance not only of the identification of the
microbiological population, but also its origin, with the purpose of allowing a selection of the
best strategy for its prevention, treatment and control in each individual case.
6.2 SOURCES OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION
The main sources of microbiological contamination are:
Fresh water, specially when surface water without previous treatment is used.
The cellulosic raw material, particularly when secondary fibres are used.
The brokes, specially when sizing and coating additives are used.
The solutions or suspensions of additives, fillers, pigments, starches, coatings.
The recycled water.
The environment in which the paper machine is placed.
When the biological contaminants become part of the process water, they find an ideal medium
for their development, originating the biofouling phenomena and the slime deposits. If the
water circuit is closed, the concentration of nutrients and metabolites increases, as well as the
water temperature and the retention time of the microorganisms, facts than enhance the
microbial growth (Latorre, 1990). When the dissolved oxygen concentration is high, aerobic
bacteria will be developed, which are the main producers of the slime. Alternately, if the
concentration of oxygen decreased, the population shift towards anaerobic species, which are
responsible for the problems of odours and corrosion (Jung and Kutzner, 1978; Väätänen and
Niemelä, 1983; Bennet, 1985). On the other hand, if the temperature increases, the population
could vary from mesophillic to thermophillic species, which form spores and, therefore, are
difficult of controlling.
The reuse of the white water also increases the concentration of filamentous microorganisms
present in the system, such as iron and sulphur bacteria, and actinomycetes. These species,
which initially enter in the system with the fresh water, are developed in the process,
continuously contaminating the system wherever the white water is reused.
158
Although the fresh water is the main cause of the presence of algae in the system, the use of
recycled pulp is the main source of bacterial and fungi contamination (Allison, 1984). The
concentration of microorganisms in the recycled pulp is a thousand times higher than in the
virgin fiber pulps (Sorrelle and Belgard, 1991, 1992). This is mainly due to the dirt and
humidity of the medium in which the paper is collected, transported and stored, before it is
reused in the paper mill.
The starches and coating products that appear in the recycled paper are an important source
of microorganisms (Robertson, 1994). Also, the fillers and adhesives that are present in the
recycled pulps enhance the formation of slime as they are ideal places for the attachment of
fungi and bacteria colonies. However, rosin and aluminium compounds reduce in general the
growth of microorganisms (Hughes, 1993).
The current papermaking trends have a negative influence on the treatment programmes as for
example, microbiological control in mills that use alkaline or neutral processes can end up by
being seven times more expensive than in the factories that operate in an acid medium
(Goldstein, 1988). Also, when secondary fibres are used as raw material, the cost of the
average treatment per ton of paper can be double of that employed if virgin fibre were used
(Sorrelle and Belgard, 1992).
6.3 CONSEQUENCES OF THE MICROORGANISM ACTIVITY
6.3.1 Formation of microbiological deposits
The microorganisms can appear in planktonic or sessile form. The planktonics swim or float
in the water, whereas the sessile are anchored to the surfaces, and form colonies where each
individual produces an extracellular matrix that unites the whole. The totality of the
components are called microbiological deposit, slime or biofilm. The organisms causing slimes
in the paper industry are divided into two main groups, primary and secondary (Safade, 1988).
Primary organisms, e.g. Bacillus spp., Sphaerotilus natans, cause the accumulation of slime
by themselves. They allow the growth of colonies of secondary organisms, e.g. Klebsiella,
Achromobacter and Pseudomonas. The presence of other deposits such as fibres, fillers,
resins, etcetera, in any part of the system, also favours the attachment of microorganisms
forming mixed deposits (Eklund and Lindström, 1991). Although the filamentous fungi do not
produce slime, organic and inorganic matter can be entangled in their structure, thus forming
159
M . A . BLANCO & I. GASPAR
the deposits. The spores produced by the mycelia are responsible for the colours that appear
in the moulds and, consequently, in the final product. Yeast is also present in the deposits,
however it is not directly responsible for any problem except when it develops in solutions of
starch, causing fermentation (Piluso, 1987). Finally, the presence of algae in the system
favours, indirectly, the growth of bacteria and fungi and alters the quality of the final product
due to the presence of green spots.
The slime formation process starts with the rapid formation of a monomolecular layer upon
the surfaces of the paper machine after each machine boil out, and can originate from any
furnish component. During the start of the process, the bacteria attach to this layer for feeding.
Later, these bacteria produce slime that is the base for the deposits. The number of bacteria
that formed this structure is double in the spans of time between 20 minutes and 4 hours,
depending on the species. When the process equilibrium is reached, there is a high
concentration of nutrients and microorganisms in the medium and, consequently, the surface
biomass increases exponentially, according to figure 6.3 (Colasurdo and Wilson, 1988).
Furthermore, when the microbiological deposits are thick, the cells of the inner part die as a
result of the lack of nutrients. Thus the deposit loses its capacity of attachment and the
microbiological deposits fall off from the surface (Hüster, 1984).
Zone A. Initation: Zone Β Exponential:

- Low nutrients - High ratio nutrients/ population
Biofilm - Low population . High biological activity
thickness - Post boil-out surface conditions - Machine runnability good Zone C Critical biomass:
Low ratio nutnents/populatton
Biomass sloughing
Machine runnability poor
Suspended biomass
Time
Figure 6.3.
Development of microbial biomass.
160
As a consequence of the slime, damages could appear because of the plugging and fouling of
felts, showers, pipes, etcetera. This can produce both web breaks during papermaking and
spots or holes in the final product.
Furthermore, some deposits might also appear in the paper machine presenting the form of the
biological deposits but they are not caused by the bacteria no fungi. These deposits are
specially difficult to identify because the bacteria and the fungi can start to grow upon them
(Hoeckstra, 1992). This fact shows the importance of the previous identification of the type
of deposit before its treatment.
6.3.2 Processes of corrosion
The corrosion induced by microorganisms is directly or indirectly produced as a result of their

metabolic activity and is generally associated with the microbiological deposits (Von Holy,
1985; Cloete et al., 1992). There are five factors that influence on the type of corrosion
(Characklis and Cooksey, 1983; Ford and Mitchell, 1990):
The formation of oxygen concentration cells. The irregularities of the

microbiological deposits produce different concentrations of oxygen, creating anodes
and cathodes.
• The formation of ions concentration cells. The different concentrations of metals in

the microbiological deposits stimulates the corrosion cells, not only in the change of
balance, but also in the creation of galvanic couples.
• The metabolic interactions. Any metabolic process can influence the corrosion rate,
due to the transference of electrons. In this sense, the extracellular enzymes can be
particularly important.
The production of organic and inorganic acids. Solubility of the metals increases
when the pH drops, as the proton claim electrons, stimulating the cathodic reaction
The production of other corrosive metabolites such as H2S, by the creation of

anaerobic clusters.
161
In table 6.3 the main metabolic products which cause the microbiologically induced corrosion
are summarized (Väätänen and Niemelä, 1983; Randrup, 1994). The corrosion can be
originated by different types of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi and algae and
generally associated to the microbiological deposits. Sulphur oxidizers, mainly of the genus
Thiobacillus, form sulphuric acid which is a strongly corrosive agent. The aerobic iron
bacteria in the genera Gallionella, Pedomicrobium and Siderococcus oxidize the ferrous iron
into ferric iron, catalyzing the deposition of tubercles, as shown in figure 6.4 (Herro, 1991).
Members of the filamentous bacteria of the genus Lepthotrix deposit ferric oxides in their
sheathes. Some species of Metallogenium oxidize the manganese originating the deposits of
salts of Mn4+ out of the cellular wall.
Table 6.3.
Main metabolic products which cause microbiologically induced corrosion.
Metabolic Type of Physiological origin Corroded material Effects

product microorganisms
H;S Sulphate reducing Sulphate reduction Metals or aloys, Acidity, insoluble

bacteria Breakdown of Lys even stainless salts
from proteins
CO; Fermentalives áâ and ketoacid Iron Carbonic acidity
descarboxilation
NHj NOj reducing bacteria Nitrite reduction Copper and alloys Formation of
ââ desamination .soluille complexes
H; H, producers Reductase enzyme Tanks with dead Explossion risk

zones
CH, Methanogenic bacteria Anaerobic metabolism Tanks with dead Explossion risk
zones
H+ Organic acids Metabolism of glucids Iron and alloys, Acidity
producers and lipids except stainless
H,SOA Thiobacillus S ! oxidation Most of metals High acidity
Fe*5 Iron oxidizers Iron oxidation Iron and aloys. Redox abiotic
ââ: Aminoacids
162
WATER
Shell (brittle):
Crust: - Magnetite (black)
- Hematite (red, brown, orange-feme oxide)
- Carbonate and silicate (white) Core (friable):
- FerTous hydroxyde (greenish-blaclc)
- fron carbonate (grey-black siderite)
- Phosphates, etc
Fracture in crust /
^
t r<í^> f ^~S
^"V^ *~ f^Z
Fluid filled cavity
Corroding floor
METAL
Figure 6.4.
Structure of a corroding tubercle.
The sulphate reducing bacteria are considered the main ones responsible for the corrosion
induce by microorganism. In their presence, steel and other alloys submerged in unoxygenic
waters are corroded four times quicker than when submerged in oxygenic waters. The SRB
play an essential role in the corrosion. They first act as cathodes, depolarizing, and second,
produce H2S, which is very corrosive. It is believe that the cathodic reaction is a biological
cathalisis that evolves the hydrogenase enzyme that is found in the SRB. The bacterial activity
reduces the existing sulphate in the water to sulphur, using the hydrogen to form H2S. The S2'
reacts with the dissolved ferrous iron, that its produce from the anode, to form iron sulphide
that precipitates. This mechanism is presented in figure 6.5 (Von Holy, 1985). Furthermore,
the genus Clostridium produces butyric and acetic acids, that are corrosive components for the
carbon steel.
The microstructural factors also influence in the processes of metal corrosion, as for example,
the solubility of the hydroxides. The materials deposited on the surface that are impermeable
to oxygen, such as insoluble hydroxides, can produce acids. These structures are call oxygen
concentration cells, and initiates corrosion by pitting (Piluso and Nathan, 1974).
163
3 Fe+ + >3Fe(OH)¡ <

►Fes « - 6 OH
Fe"
S07 >■ ST- 4 0 >■

8H
8 H + 4 O --► 4H20
4 Fe *-4 Fe + + 8H20-> 8 0H~+ 8 H + >- 8 Η I 6 OH~+ 2 OH
L.+ J- , Medium
ANOD 8(-) 8() CATHOD Metal
Figure 6.5.
Mechanism of corrosion by sulphate-reducing bacteria.
6.3.3 The production of gases
The production of explosive gases and bad odours, as a result of bacteria activity, is important
in the mills that use secondary fibres as raw material and have a closed water system. The
production of explosive gases such as hydrogen and methane is due to the activity of certain
anaerobic bacteria. The growth of bacteria of the genus Clostridium and of bacteria that
produce methane has been the cause of serious accidents occurred in several board mills (Cox,
1989; Rochibaud, 1991; Rowbottom 1989, 1993; Sorrelle and Belgard, 1991).
This type of bacteria can represent a serious problem for the security of the installations if they
growth in areas that are not well ventilated or are stagnant, where the gases could accumulate
reaching greater concentrations than the limit of the explosive threshold. This problem can be
avoided with a correct ventilation of the chests in order to reduce the building up of dangerous
gases, by aireating the water to avoid the development of the anaerobic bacteria or with the
proper use of biocides. The problem of smell in the paper mills are due to the generation of
volatile fatty acids and H2S. The most common fatty acids are acetic, propionic, butyric and
valeric. Several anaerobic organisms produce these acids, and the most common in this
industry are those of the genus Clostridium. These species produce spores and obtain their
energy from the metabolization of organic compounds, such as proteins, starch and other
164
polysaccharides producing acetic, propionic, butyric and valeric acids. The butyric acid in a
concentration superior to 100 ppm transmits a rancid smell to the system that remains in the
product, whereas the acetic acid produces vinegar odour. The H2S is produced during the
metabolism of anaerobic bacteria, mainly by the SRB. This acid is characterized by a nasty
smell that resembles rotten eggs.
6.3.4 Economical losses
The economical losses as a consequence of the growth of the microorganisms in the paper and
board mills can be summarized by:
Reduced production due to a greater number of web breaks, down time for cleaning
and maintenance of the machinery, loss of yield, production of paper out of
specifications, etcetera.
Higher production cost due to a larger consumption of additives, higher energy

consumption, spoiling of chemicals, etcetera.
The reduction of the equipment life caused by corrosion, scale, fouling and plugging.
The safety problems due to the presence of explosive and inflammable gases and lethal
gases by inhalation.
The drop in sales as a result of the loss of clients.
6.4 MICROBIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE MILL
The microbiological survey of the mill aims at determining the infection level of the plant, as
well as its origin; and consists of a macroscopic and microscopic analysis of the system. This
study is necessary to achieve optimum microbiological control and is applied not only to the
paper machine, but also when dealing with problems in the coating division, in starch
preservation and with smell problems in the final product.
165
The microbiological survey in a paper mill starts with a macroscopic analysis of the whole
system, gathering all the information concerned with the fabrication process (type of process
and product, the additives used, their concentrations and the dosification points), the machine
(water circuits, cleaning programmes, breakdowns, etcetera), and the operational conditions
(pH, temperature, consistency, conductivity, charge demand, ...). The deposits found are
analyzed microscopically to identify the type of infection in the different parts of the machine.
Finally, the infection level and the contamination source is determined by analyzing water
from the following sample points: fresh water, pulper, headbox, white water, clarifier input
and output, brokes, kaolin, calcium carbonate, starch, etcetera. As a result of the main factors
that influence in the growth of microorganisms (pH, temperature, moisture, nutrients, ...), the
critical areas of the process are the wet-end, coating section and the size emulsion. In the wet-
end, it is important to inspect the machine frame under the wire, the surface of the foils, the
suction boxes, the white water tanks and the clarifiers, in order to detect any possible presence
of deposits and, if that is the case, the aspect of the deposits, e.g. smell, texture and colour.
In the coating division area, the presence of bad smell indicates the existence of
microbiological problems. The infection of the solutions can also be checked by measuring the
pH and the viscosity.
Table 6.4 summarizes the main methods for the determination of the microbiological
contamination level and for the study of the efficiency of the biocides. In general, for the study
of the microbiological contamination, several different techniques are used (Farkas et al,
1987):
Aerobic plate count. It is based on the principle that any viable bacterial cell is able
to divide itself to form two daughter cells. The aerobic plate count is achieved by
counting the number of colonies formed after incubation in a plate that contains an
ideal culture media. The incubation time is 48 or 72 hours for the bacteria, and 5-7
days in the case of fungi (Cloete et al., 1992).
Rapid counts. As the traditional plate count method requires a lot of handling, some
rapid tests have been developed. The 'Dipslides' are used when great accuracy is not
required. The 'Petrifilms' are employed when a greater precision is demanded or when
the contamination is lower than 103bact/ml. Finally, the spiral plate count is used, in
general, for the selection of biocides.
Direct cell counts. In this group are considered the count of the direct cells by
epifluorescence (Wolfaardt et al, 1993), and the determination of the metabolic
166
activity, by the assay of the dehydrogenase activity (Prasad, 1989b; Salzburger et al.,
1990), catalase (Prasad, 1989a), reductase (Heck and Hollis, 1984) and the assay of
bioluminescence (Guerin, 1983; Young-Bandala and Boho, 1987; Barclay, 1994).
These assays are based on the metabolic activity of the microorganisms and are
employed basically in the selection of the most appropriate biocide in a given system.
Table 6.4.
Methods for the determination of the microbiological contamination level.
Technic Principle Incubation Dilution Application
PLATE COUNT 1 cell = 1 colony Yes Yes CaCOj, Kaolin, starch

Pulps
Paper and board
DIPSLIDES 1 cell = I colony Yes No Aerobic bacteria and

(standard) fungi
'SRB
Water analysis
PETRIFILMS count Yes No Bacteria and fungi
SPIRAL PLATE COUNT count Yes Yes Biocide selection
BIOLUMINESCENCE bioluminiscence No No Biocide selection

(ATP) Determination of
microbial
contamination level
REDUCTASE TEST redox colour indicator Yes No Biocide selection

(control) Determination of
microbial
ccntamination level
OXYGEN ELECTRODE oxygen consumption/min - - Determination of

microbial
contamination level
IMPEDIMETRIC - - Determination of
MEASURES time to produce an microbial
electrical current contamination level
167
Light microscopy. Through techniques of cryoembedding and cryosection, the

microbiological deposits can be examinated by light microscopy to analyze the
structural characteristics (Yu et al., 1994; Murga ef al, 1995). The phase-contrast
microscopy can be used to observe the viable cells, to differentiate the type of
microorganisms and to observe what happen to the cells when they are exposed to the
action of biocides (Robertson, 1992).
Scanning electron microscopy. It enables the study of the extension of the biofilm and
the correlation of the obtained result with other methods (Wolfaardt et al., 1993).
Confocal laser microscopy. With this type of microscope, the laser goes through the
different layers of biofilm, exciting the dyes material with fluorescent dyes and
enabling the observation of the microbiological deposits in three dimensions (Robertson
and Taylor, 1994).
Besides the traditional techniques used to study the microbiological contamination there are
also some devices to monitor the development of biofilms in the white water systems, e.g. the
devices of Robbins, for the study of the development of biofilms in pressurized water systems
(McCoy et al, 1981; Von Holy and Cloete, 1988; Cloete et al, 1992); the modified Pedersen
device and the insertion of ceramic tiles in the interior of the piping system (Harris and
Garnett, 1989; Wolfaardt et al., 1993). In table 6.5, the main advantages and disadvantages
of the most used methods are summarized.
6.5 THE CONTROL OF MICROBIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
To reduce the problems associated to microorganisms, it is essential to keep their number in

the tolerated limits for which there are two alternatives:
The control of the contamination sources, as for example, the treatment of fresh water
and additives, control of the residence time in the storage tanks, and control of the
stagnant flow areas.
The control of the microbiological population through the systematic maintenance and
cleaning of the system and by using different chemicals or treatments to reduce the
formation of deposits and to eliminate the already formed deposits.
168
Table 6.5.
Main advantages and disadvantages of most used methods for determination of microbiological contamination.
Technic Advantages Disadvantages
PLATE COUNT I demi Γι cation of microorganisms Lot of handling, long incubation period (48-72 h)
From 1 to IO1 -IO1* microorg/ml Depends of dilution that it was used
Very low cost False negative results in biocide selection test
Small samples (0.1-1 ml)
D1PSLIDES Easy Semiquantitative

Direct test in the sample Not very precise count η
73
10M07 bacteria/ml o
Medium cost CD
PETRIFILMS Very precise counts Very expensive and it requires a lot of handling
Limited concerning the viscosity of the samples
Sensitive to pressure, hot temperatures and humidity •D
η
SPIRAL PLATE COUNT Low cost per sample Not very precise count Η
Quick Very expensive, but low cost per sample
Sample of 50 μΙ
Viscosity limitation 73
m
o
BIOLUMINESCENCE Very quick False positive results in biocide selection test -<
(ATP) Medium cost It is not useful with starch suspensions η
pH and temperature dependent r
Viscosity limitation ζ
Interference with CaJ* and Al1* ο
Sample of 100 μΙ ■ν
No difference between bacteria and fungi
>
-σ
Influenced by MOD pigments m
73
REDUCTASE TEST Quick 20 h. of incubation

Ζ
α
Precise Nutrients have to be added α
Redox indicator is affected by any change in redox potential Η
Aerobic contribution > Anaerobic contribution 73
Only for bacteria <
OXYGEN ELECTRODE Portati le Only aerobic bacteria
Quick > 10'- 10*bacteria/m
IMPED1METR1C Quick Very expensive

MEASUREMENTS Sensitivity is very high Influence of temperature and pH
Make distinctions between different types of microorganisms
ON
Any programme of microbiological control requires a good knowledge of the system as well
as the main sources of contamination. Once the sources of contamination have been
minimized, the paper manufacturer can control the microbiological population of the system.
So as to reduce the number of maintenance shut downs in the paper machines, chemical
products are introduce into the system to eliminate the microorganisms, to avoid their
development or to reduce the negative effects that they produce. With this aim, the most
commonly used chemical products are dispersants and biocides. Other control methods are the
enzymatic degradation of the microbiological deposits and the control of the population by the
limitation of nutrients.
6.5.1 Biocides
The mechanism of action of industrial biocides is an issue of growing interest nowadays. In

spite of the many years of experience in the use of certain compounds of the biocides, there
is no clear knowledge about the way they act. In table 6.6, some of the active compounds,as
well as some of the possible ways they might act are shown. In general, the biocides are
classified in one of the following groups:
Agents that inactivate the enzymes of the cell membrane (quaternary ammonium
compounds, methylenebisthiocyanate).
Electrophyllic agents, that act upon the nucleophyllic material of the cells, as do, for
example dithiocarbamates.
Agents that act through oxidative decomposition of microorganisms (oxygen, ozone

and peroxides).
An issue of great importance at present is the regulation of the biocides at worldwide level,
because of their effect upon the human health and its disposal to the environment. Therefore,
not only are the efficiency and the compatibility of the biocide with the process, and the costs
important but the toxicity and the ecotoxicity must also be considered.
170
Table 6.6.
Active compounds and possible mode of action of biocides.
Dithiocarbamates
1.- Dialkyldithiocarbamates (sodium or potassium dimelhyldithiocarbamate)
Strong chelating agents which tie up essential elements (membrane level)
• Formation of 1:1 complexes with metals (e.g. cooper), which attaches to or is incorporated into
essential cellular metabolites such as cytochromes thereby blocking their activity
Promotion of the formation of free radicals with subsequent reaction with cellular components
2.- Monoalkyldithiocarbamates (sodium or potassium N-methyldithiocarbamates; sodium ethylenebis-
dithiocarbamate)
Methylenebis
Uncoupler of oxydative phosphorylation
Poly[oxyethylene(dimethyliminio)ethylene(dimethyliminio)ethylene dichloride]
Reacts at the membrane level causing osmotic irregularities
2-(thyocyanomethylthio)benzothiazole
Inactivation of metal-enzyme complexes
• Possible reaction with -SH groups
2-Mercaptobenzothiazole
Chelant. Specifically effective in chelating metals in metal-enzyme complexes
2-Bromo-4-hydroxyacetophenone
• Active at membrane level, probably inactivation of transport enzymes
Can bind with proteins
• Some oxidation power
2,2-Dibromo-3-nitrilpropionamide
Membrane level, probably inhibition of permease enzymes
• General oxidative capacity
Barium metaborate
Free barium probably functions as a heavy metal, e.g., combines with SH groups
Molecular boric acid has been reported to interfere with phosphate metabolism
l-Carboxymethyl-3,5,7-triaza-l-azoniatricyclodecane chloride
• Interacts with and forms cross-links with proteins, specifically amide groups
In table 6.7, the main characteristics that biocides should accomplished are stated (Hoeckstra,
1992). In table 6.8, the biocides of restricted use are mentioned.
171
Table 6.7.
Main characteristics that biocides should accomplished.
1.- Effectiveness
Toxic to microorganisms in low concentration
Broad spectrum of activity
Ability to penetrate and break up microbial slimes
2.- Compatibility
Non reactive with organic substances
Non reactive with other additives
Non reactive with construction materials
3.- Safety
Non toxic to higher forms of life at concentrations used
Non persistent, i.e., ultimately biodegradable when discharged into
sewage systems and rivers
Safe to handle, not spontaneously flammable or explosive
Low volatility and odour
4.- Costs
So as to select a biocide, the microbial activity of process waters with and without biocides,
is analyzed through:
Reductase activity test, for the study of accumulated activity.
Bioluminescence test (ATP measurements), that indicates the immediate

activity.
The plate count method, which is the most suitable in assays for the
preservation of coatings and starches.
To control the efficiency of a treatment, the analysis of white water would be sufficient, and
eventually that of the brokes, the freshwater in summer, and the suspensions of starch and
coatings.
172
Table 6.8.
Biocides with restricted use.
Biocide Reason for restriction
Mercury- containing Potential human effects such as: nervous system effects and
compounds acute poisonings
Concern for potential bioaccumulation in aquatic species
Pentachlorophenol Potential human effects including: reproductive systems, liver

and cancer
Concern for aquatic toxicity and bioaccumulation
Organotin compounds Potential human effects to the liver and immune system
Concern for potential bioaccumulation and toxicity to mollusc
Simazine Cancellation from swimming pool use due to excessive cancer

risk
Formaldehyde Potential inhalation cancer risk
Chlorine Potential for formation of chlorinated organics which may be

hazardous to the environment and humans
Chromium Potential human carcinogen
The main objective of the microbiological control programme in paper and board mills is the
control of the growth of biofilms in the surfaces of the machine. Keeping clean the primary
circuit of the white water requires the addition of biocides in the fanpump, the machine chest
and white water tank. The biocide can be dose in two ways: continuously or discontinuously.
For example, in the wet-end the biocide is added discontinuously whereas for the preservation
of the sizings and coatings, a constant treatment is usually employed. Table 6.9 shows the
main advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly used biocides, and figure 6.6, the
dosing points most widely adopted in the paper mills.
173
Table 6.9.
Advantages and disadvantages of major classes of slimicides.
Class of product Advantages Disadvantages
Organobromines Good bactericides Possible effect on size

Widely used Possible foam
Some have odor problems
Not effective on fungi
Dissolved in solvents
Organosulphurs Good bactericides Very high pH

Water-based Occasional odor problems
Some are good fungicides Possibly detrimental effect on
Widely used brightness in some machines
Cationics Effective in some situations May not work well in systems with
high levels of solids
Isothiazolinones Water-based Less effective on fungi

Good bactericides Some problems with irritation and skin
sensitization
Thiocyanates Broad spectrum Some problems with irritation and skin

Control of fungi and bacteria sensitization
Not stable at pH levels above 8
Oxidizers Widely used for water treatment Must add continuously

Low cost-per pound Can damage machine fabrics
Not effective on all microorganisms
174
* Pulper Washing/Screening De-inking Wet-end Pressing Drying F inishing
Fibres
Fillers
lives K_
Additives fanpump * ' ~<p *=—' *
Waterr Alkaline loop Acid loop ρ i Ρ
4 Iciarifïer | |Clarifier | Isaveall white-water
broke
Pulper
wastewater
treatment
STOCK PREPARATION PAPER MACHINE
»- Dosing points
Figure 6.6.
Dosing points of biocide most widely used.
6.5.2 Dispersants
The use of biodispersants has increased during last years due to the trend to reduce the toxicity
of the deposit control systems. The main characteristic of the dispersant is its capacity
to reduce the size of dispersed particles, reducing the possibility of the formation of
microbiological deposits (Safade, 1988). On the other hand, the dispersants also act as
biopenetrators, opening the biofilms and allowing the biocides to penetrate through the
exopolysaccharidal toward the interior of the cells (Barnes, 1984).
Not all the dispersants are equally effective in microbiological control. The non-ionic
dispersant inhibit or reduce the formation of the microbiological deposits, forming deposits
of less thickness and consistency, although in the presence of calcium carbonate great amounts
of dispersant are required. However, the lignosulphonates are not very efficient under
papermaking conditions, and may even enhance the growth of these under certain
circumstances due to the presence of sugars that serve as nutrients to the microflora (Cardoso,
1992; Robertson and Taylor, 1992).
175
6.5.3 Enzymatic degradation of the biofilm
The use of enzymes to control the microbiological deposits in the paper industry is efficient
under the current operating conditions of the mills (Colasurdo and Wilson, 1988). The most
extended enzyme is called EDC-1 and was developed by Moor and Hach (1984). The EDC-1
hydrolizes and despolymerizes the fructose of the levan, one of the components of the biofilm,
to its lower molecular weight soluble forms and continue hydrolizing the soluble polymer to
form fructose which is not sticky. This enzyme only reacts with the levan, and does not
hydrolize the glucose of starch or cellulose, as the fructose has not got the sticky
characteristics that the levan possesses, EDC-1 eliminates the existing deposits in the machine
and prevents the formation of these (Safade, 1988; Colasurdo and Wilton, 1988).
The production of microbiological deposits and the activity of EDC-1 depends on pH and
temperature conditions. The appropriate conditions for the production of biofilm are similar
to the ideal conditions of the EDC-1. The effect of this enzyme can be increased by adding
10% of the normal dose of biocides to the system, due to the synergic effect (Freis, 1984).
6.5.4 Elimination of biofilms by the limitation of nutrients
This process was also developed as an alternative to the application of biocides. It is based
upon the biological equilibrium between the levels of bacteria and the concentration of
available nutrients. If this equilibrium were altered, for example by a rapid variation of the
pH, or the temperature or by the addition of toxic substances, the bacteria might response to
the aggression in different ways, as for example by the production of slime to protect
themselves from aggressive medium. This technique for the control of the activity of the
microorganisms is based in the establishment of a biological equilibrium that allowed the
correct runnability of the paper machine. This equilibrium is established amongst the
microorganisms and the concentration of available nutrients. The control of bioavailability of
the nutrients is accomplished through the inmovilization of the molecules that have different
function in the cell by means of (Oberkofler, 1990; Morros, 1995; Porton and Dubout, 1995):
The chelation of metallic ions essential to the metabolism.
The complexation of biomolecules that participate in the cellular respiration in such
176
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF RECYCLING PAPER INDUSTRY
way that potential growth is reduced.
The tensoactive effect that influences the cell membrane and its exchanges with the
medium.
The consequence of this control is a natural reduction of the number of bacteria. The natural
equilibrium between the different types of bacteria is held. Its result in:
The bacteria that produce slime are reduced to the minimum, particularly the
development of filamentous bacteria is less because of the quicker growth of the mobile
and individual bacteria.
The biofilms formed are less dense and easier to disperse. Therefore, the effect on
paper machine runnability is reduced.
• The development of anaerobic species becomes also more difficult due to a higher
permeability of oxygen into these deposits.
Without bacteria as a nutrient source, the development of fungi is avoided.
The microorganism resistance against the treatment is difficult, because the process is
not a direct aggression to the bacteria.
The implementation of this treatment in the mills can be accompanied by the addition of a
biocide in a different point of the machine. This treatment is particularly appropriate in paper
mills with closed water systems as the necessary biological equilibrium for this treatment is
easily achieved (Oberkofler, 1990).
6.6 CONCLUSIONS
To optimize the microbiological control in paper and board mills a wide knowledge of the
mechanism of formation of the biofilms is required and it is necessary therefore to improve
the methods that allow observation in vivo of the bacterial deposits.
The control of the microbiological activity in the paper industry is necessary in modern mill
177
conditions to reduce maintenance costs and downtime and to increase production and quality
of the final product. Therefore, the slime control is not a nonprofit making expense but an
integral part of a successful mill. The methodology for an optimum control system takes into
account the following aspects:
1.- Identification of the type of microorganisms which cause the problem.

2.- Minimization of the contamination sources.
3.- Control of the additive slurries.
4.- Keeping a clean system by means of an adequate maintenance shut down programme.
5.- Prevention of the growth of anaerobic bacteria, especially of spore-forming species.
6.- Selection of the most suitable control programme.
Due to the resistance of microorganisms to the traditional control systems based on biocides,
the environmental considerations, and the biological treatment of the effluent, other types of
systems to control microbiological deposits have to be applied, e.g. enzymatic treatments and
the limitation of nutrients. Furthermore, the synergetic effect of the combination of these
treatments has to be established in order to increase the efficiency using minor concentrations
of chemicals.
178
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Robertson LR (1992) The use of phase contarsi microscope to asses and diferentiate the
microbial population in the paper mill. TAPPI Papermaker Conference: 585-591
Rochibaud WT (1991) Controlling anaerobic bacteria to improve product quality and mill
safety. Tappi J, 74(2): 149-153
Rowbottom RS (1989) Bacteria cause fatal explosion at corrugating medium mill. Pulp Pap
Can, 90(4): 75-81
Rowbottom RS (1993) Risks of bacterial hydrogen generation in white water systems. Tappi
J, 76(1): 97-98
Safade TL (1988) Tackling the slime problem in a paper-mill. Pap Technol Ind, September:
280-285
Salzburger W, Greitner D, Hoffman C, Clauss G (1990) Biochemische schnell test zur

Wertbestimmung von schlein-bekamfpfungmitteln. Wochenbl Papierfabrik, 11/12: 516-519
Sanborn JR (1965) Nature of slime-forming and other troublesome microorganism. Pap Trade
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182
Sorrelle PH, Belgard W (1992) Growth in recycling escalates costs for paper machine
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Väätanen Ρ, Niemelä SI (1983) Factors regulating the density of bacteria in process waters of
a paper mill. J Appi Bacteriol, 54: 367-371
Von Holy A, Cloete TE (1988) Practical aspects of monitoring biofilms and microbiologically
induced corrosion in water systems. South Afr J Sci, 84: 17-19
Von Holy A (1985) Microbiological corrosion. Pap South Afr, September/October: 12-16
Wolfaardt G, Smith A, Hall F , Cloete TE (1993) Techniques for biofouling monitoring during
alkaline paper manufacture. Pap South Afr, December: 16-24
Young-Bandala L, Boho MJ (1987) An innovative method for monitoring microbiological

deposits in pulp and paper mills. Tappi J, 70(1): 68-71
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183
APPENDIX
TERM DEFINITION
CONTRIBUTORS
The editor acknowledge with thanks the contribution of following persons to this appendix.
M. Angeles Blanco
Complutense University of Madrid (Spain)
Björn Krogerus
Johana Butcher KCL (Finland)
VTT (Finland)
M. Concepción Monte
Bruno Carré Complutense University of Madrid (Spain)
CTP (France)
Basha Nazir
Hans-Curt Fleming PIRA International (United Kingdom)
Duisburg University (Germany)
Carlos Negro
Gérard Galland Complutense University of Madrid (Spain)
CTP (France)
Gabriela Novak
Julia Garcia ICP (Slovenia)
Esa Pirttinen
Isabel Gaspar Helsinki University of Technology (Finland)
Eva Polyanszky
Harald Grossman PPR (Hungary)
PTS (Germany)
Rhitu Rao
Anneli Gustafsson Helsinki University of Technology (Finland)
STFI (Sweden)
Lars Sjöström
Bjarne Holmbom STFI (Sweden)
Abo Akademi University (Finland)
Per Stenius
Arie Hooimeijer Helsinki University of Technology (Finland)
TNO (The Netherlands)
Julio Tijero
Joaquin Klahre Complutense University of Madrid (Spain)
Duisburg University (Germany)
Maria Tuohy
Annti Korpela Galway University (Irland)
KCL (Finland)
Nicholas Wiseman
UMIST (United Kingdom)
187
TERM DEFINITION
ALUM
Term applied by papermakers to aluminum sulphate which is widely used in papermaking
systems for pH control, as an acidic source of aluminum to precipitate rosin size, as a
retention aid, and as a mordant for dyes.
Synonym term: PAPERMAKERS ALUM.
ALUMINA
Aluminum oxide or hydrated aluminum oxide.
ANIONIC TRASH
A category of detrimental substances that disturb in papermaking because of their
interaction (complex formation) with cationic process chemicals (such as retention aids).
Anionic trash includes mainly dissolved anionic oligomers and polymers.lt should not be
used as detrimental subtances or DCM.
Related terms: DETRIMENTAL SUBSTANCES, DISSOLVED AND COLLOIDAL
SUBSTANCES, CATIONIC DEMAND.
BACTERIA
Single-celled microrganisms that reproduce by binary fission. They occur in many shapes,
e.g. round (coccus), rods (bacillus) and spiral (spirillum).
BACTERICIDE
Chemical compound that kill bacteria or inhibit their growth.
Related terms: BACTEROSTATIC, BIOCIDE, SLIMICIDE.
189
TERM DEFINITION
BACTEROSTATIC
Chemical compound that inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Related terms: BACTERICIDE, BIOCIDE, SLIMICIDE.
BIOCIDE
Chemical compounds which kill microorganisms. Bactericides, fungicides, etc. are
examples. In the paper industry they are tipically used to control slime.
Related terms: BACTERICIDE, BACTEROSTATIC, SLIMICIDE.
BIODISPERSANTS
Chemical compounds that act as 'biopenetrators', opening the biofilms and allowing the
biocides to penetrate the layer of the slime. They can also prevent the formation of non
biological deposits, which could be a nutrient source for the microorganisms, facilitating
the action of biocides.
Synonym term: BIODISPERSANTING AGENT.
Related term: DISPERSANT.
BIOFILM
Biological deposit of surface adherent microorganisms with surrounding protective
extracellular matrices.
Synonym term: SLIME.
Related terms: BIOFOULING, SLIME DEPOSIT.
BIOFOULING
The accumulation and detrimental effects of microorganisms on surfaces caused by
extensive slime formation.
Related terms: BIOFILM, SLIME DEPOSIT.
BIOLOGICAL CORROSION
Chemical attack occurring directly from the metabolic activity of bacteria special corrosion
under biofilms. Examples include sulphate reducers and filamentous iron and sulphur
bacteria.
190
TERM DEFINITION
Related terms: CORROSION, ELECTROLYTIC CORROSION, GALVANIC

CORROSION, MICROBIAL INDUCED CORROSION, PITTING
CORROSION, WELD ASSOCIATED CORROSION.
BIOLUMINESCENCE
The production of light by living organisms, e.g. fireflies, many bacteria and fungi.
BROKE
Paper or board which is discarded at any stage during the manufacturing or finishing
processes, which is usually repulped. There are two kinds:
Wet broke: Broke accumulated on the wet-end of the paper or
board machine.
Dry broke: Accumulated at any stage on the dry-end of the
making machine, trimmings from the reeling, slitting and cutting
operations, as well as paper or board rejected during sorting.
Related terms: COATED BROKE, COATED PAPER, WHITE PITCH.
CATIONIC DEMAND
A measure of anionic oligomers and polymers (anionic trash) in papermaking process
waters determined by polyelectrolyte titration. Cationic demand can be determinated also
for fibres, providing a measure of anionic groups on the fibre surface.
Related terms: ANIONIC TRASH, DETRIMENTAL SUBSTANCES, DISSOLVED
AND COLLOIDAL SUBSTANCES.
CLEANER
Device used in paper mills to remove unwanted particles by separating and removing
them from the fibre suspensions using e.g. centrifugal force and fluid shear (centrifugal
cleaner).
Related term: SCREEN.
191
TERM DEFINITION
CLOSTRIDIUM
A genus of anaerobic, heterotrophic and spore forming bacteria. They produce a large
amounts of gas and putrefactive odours. Under anaerobic conditions, they produce slime.
Related term : BACTERIA.
COATED BROKE
Broke after a coater, whether on the paper machine or off.
Related terms: COATED PAPER, WHITE PITCH.
COATED PAPER
(Any type of) paper that contains a layer of coating material, such as clay, various
pigments, and/or other special substances in combination with adhesive(s). Also, paper
treated with a surface layer of varnish or lacquer in order to improve their surface
characteristics, e.g. opacity, smoothness, printing quality, etc.
Related terms: COATED BROKE, WHITE PITCH.
COATING
Treatment of a paper surface with clay or some other pigment and adhesive mixture to
improved the finish with respect to printing quality, colour and surface properties.
Related terms: COATED BROKE, COATED PAPER, COATING BINDER, WHITE
PITCH.
COATING BINDER
Component of coating dispersion that serves to bind the pigment particles together in the
coating, bind the coating to the rawstock, reinforce the rawstock and fill the pores in the
pigment structure, as for example starch, latex, styrene butadiene.
Related terms: COATED BROKE, COATED PAPER, COATING, WHITE PITCH.
COLLOIDAL RESIN
Colloidally dispersed wood resin in papermaking process waters. The resin emulsion is
stabilized by electrostatic or steric mechanisms, opposing aggregation of colloidal
droplets. Colloidal resin in mechanical pulp suspensions is composed mainly of
triglycerides, steryl esters, fatty acids, resin acids and sterols, and is stabilized by
negative charge and/or by hemicellulose acting as protecting hydrocolloids.
192
TERM DEFINITION
Related terms: ANIONIC TRASH, CATIONIC DEMAND, EXTRACTIVES,

DISSOLVED AND COLLOIDAL SUBSTANCES, WOOD
EXTRACTIVES, WOOD RESIN.
CORROSION
Gradual destruction of metals, alloys and nonmetals by chemical action. Uniform or
general corrosion is the most common type and is characterized by the same rate of
deterioration over the entire wetted or exposed surface.
Related terms: BIOLOGICAL CORROSION, GALVANIC CORROSION,
ELECTROLYTIC CORROSION, WELD ASSOCIATED
CORROSION, PITTING CORROSION.
CORRUGATED BOARD
Structure formed from one or more paperboard facings (sometimes erroneously called
liners) and one or more adjoining corrugated members (fluted portion), used for making
corrugated board boxes and other products.
CREVICE CORROSION
Localized chemical attack on the portion of a metal surface which is partially shielded,
such as around gaskets, lap joints, bolts, rivets, etc. This type of corrosion may be
accelerated by dirt deposits, scratches, changes in acidity and lack of oxygen.
Related terms: CORROSION, ELECTROLYTIC CORROSION, GALVANIC
CORROSION, PITTING CORROSION, WELD ASSOCIATED
CORROSION.
DEPOSIT
Any material that laid down on a surface by a natural process. Typical papermill deposits
include scale, pitch, slime and various combinations of material with fibres.
Related terms: GUNK, PITCH DEPOSIT, SLIME DEPOSIT, STICKIES, WHITE
PITCH.
193
TERM DEFINITION
DETACKIFICATION
Elimination of the contact adhesion properties often associated with the high tack surfaces
of the stickies. Detackification also inhibits the agglomeration of stickies. It is achieved
by talc.
DETRIMENTAL SUBSTANCES
Those dissolved and colloidal substances in paper stock that interfere with papermaking
or process chemicals.
Related terms: ANIONIC TRASH, DISSOLVED AND COLLOIDAL SUBSTANCES,
TRAMP ORGANICS.
DISSOLVED AND COLLOIDAL SUBSTANCES (DCS)

All dissolved and colloidal substances in paper stock or papermaking process waters that
are dissolved or colloidally dispersed. They are sometimes shortly called Disco
substances. They can be of biological, organic or inorganic nature. A water sample
containing mainly Disco's can be obtained by centrifugation. In mechanical pulp
suspensions the Disco's include dissolved wood components such as hemicelluloses,
pectins, lignins, lignans and various salts, as well as colloidal wood resin and colloidal
fibre fragments. Some of the Disco's are detrimental substances, but some can even be
beneficial in the papermaking process.
Synonym term: DISSOLVED AND COLLOIDAL MATERIAL (DCM).
Related terms: ANIONIC TRASH, CATIONIC DEMAND, COLLOIDAL RESIN,
DETRIMENTAL SUBSTANCES, SECONDARY STICKIES.
DISPERSANT
Any material added to a suspended medium to promote the separation of the individual,
extremely fine particles or solids, which are usually of colloidal size. They are a class
of surfactant chemical used in papermaking systems to reduce deposits of pitch and slime,
in de-inking systems to disperse the ink particles, and in coating formulations to keep the
clay particles in suspension.
Synonym terms: DISPERSING AGENT, EMULSIFIER.
Related terms: BIODISPERSANT, PITCH DISPERSANT, PITCH CONTROL.
194
TERM DEFINITION
ELECTROLYTIC CORROSION
Generic term for all types of corrosion associated with electric current flow in an
electrolyte.
Related terms: CORROSION, CREVICE CORROSION, GALVANIC CORROSION,
PITTING CORROSION, WELD ASSOCIATED CORROSION.
ETHYLENE VINYL ACETATE (EVA)

Raw material for hot melt adhesives, which determines its adhesiveness (adhesion) and
its internal strength. It may be one of the substances present in the stickies.
Related term: HOT MELT ADHESIVES.
EXTRACELLULAR POLYMERS (EPS)

The polysaccharide material produced by microorganisms which lying surround the
microbial cells, which enhances the attachment to surfaces.
Related terms: BIOFILM, SLIME.
EXTRACTIVES
All substances that can be extracted from solid or liquid samples by solvents that do not
-react chemically with the sample components. They include both hydrophyllic and
lipophyllic substances, mostly of low molar mass.
Related terms: WOOD RESIN, WOOD EXTRACTIVES.
FATTY ACIDS
A variety of carboxylic acids composed of a linear or methyl-branched alkyl chain and
a terminal carboxyl group. Common fatty acids in wood have chain lengths of 14 to 24
carbon atoms. The dominant fatty acids in woods are oleic and linoleic acids having 18
195
TERM DEFINITION
carbon atoms with one and two double bonds in the chain, respectively. Fatty acids occur
in wood parenchyma resin, mainly in form of triglycerides and steryl esters. The
saturated acids palmitic and stearic acid with 16 and 18 carbon atoms, respectively, are
predominant fatty acids in deinking chemicals.
Related terms: WOOD EXTRACTIVES, WOOD RESIN.
FUNGICIDE
Chemical compounds used against fungi.
Related terms: BACTERICIDE, BIOCIDE.
GALVANIC CORROSION
Chemical attack occurring when two dissimilar metals are in electrical contact, both
exposed to a conductive solution. It can be recognized by increased attack close to the
junction of the two metals.
Related terms: CORROSION, ELECTROLYTIC CORROSION, CREVICE
CORROSION.
GUNK
Coloquialism for unidentify deposits in the secondary pulp or papermaking system.
Related term: DEPOSIT.
HOT MELT ADHESIVES (HMA)

Solvent-free adhesives, that when heated and in liquid form, are capable of effectively
wetting substrate surfaces and that, after cooling and solidifying, adhere firmly to those
196
TERM DEFINITION
surfaces. They do not undergo any chemical changes during the melting process. Most
holt melts are applied between 150 and 190 °C. They are used in the binding of
magazines, catalogues, as well as corrugated containers.
Related terms: ETHYLENE VINYL ACETATE, PRIMARY STICKIES, STICKIES.
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
Chemical attack at the grain boundaries or adjacent areas of a metal which has lost
elements necessary for corrosion resistance, usually as a result of improper heat treatment
of the metal.
Related terms: CORROSION, CREVICE CORROSION, ELECTROLYTIC
CORROSION.
MICROBIAL INDUCED CORROSION (MIC)

Corrosion processes initiated by or accelerated by the growth of microorganisms at the
metal surface.
Synonym term: MICROBIALLY INFLUENCED CORROSION.
Related terms: BIOLOGICAL CORROSION, CORROSION.
197
TERM DEFINITION
PASSIVATION
Use of a product to create an insoluble barrier to keep an area free of stickies.
Passivation technology inhibits deposition of stickies and does not remove existing
deposits of stickies.
Related term: DETACKIFICATION.
PITCH CONTROL
Prevention of the formation of pitch deposits and agglomerates within the papermaking
system. The usual control strategy is either to keep the material dispersed or add a high-
specific-surface substance like talc, which has an affinity for pitch particles.
Related terms: DISPERSANT, PITCH DISPERSANT.
PITCH DEPOSITS
The term is used for pulp and paper mill deposits containing considerable amounts of
wood resin components. The term is not recommended as a synonym to wood resin or
wood extractives.
Synonym term: PITCH.
Related term: DEPOSIT.
PITCH DISPERSANT
An agent that stabilizes colloidal pitch particles and prevents their deposition in
pulp/paper. The dispersed pitch particles leave the papermaking system at water loss
points.
Related terms: DISPERSANT, PITCH CONTROL.
PITTING CORROSION
Localized chemical attack on an unshielded area of metal surface.
Related terms: BIOLOGICAL CORROSION, CORROSION, ELECTROLYTIC
CORROSION.
198
TERM DEFINITION
PLANKTONIC ORGANISMS
Free-living organisms (which swim or float in the water phase).
PLATE COUNT
Test method for the determination of a microbiological contamination and/or for testing
the efficiency of biocides. It is based on the principle that one cell grows out to form one
colony. After incubation of a certain amount of the sample, by the use of a certain culture
media and for a certain period of time, the number of colonies formed is counted.
Synonym terms: VIABLE COUNT, COLONY COUNTS
PRESSURE SENSITIVE ADHESIVES (PSA'S)

PSA's are permanently tacky substances that, in solvent-free or dispersant-free form,
adhere spontaneously to the surfaces of most materials, under only light pressure. PSA's
are used mainly for coating supports, adhesive labels or self-adhesive decorating
sheeting.
SECONDARY STICKIES, STICKIES.
PRIMARY STICKIES
Primary stickies are present in the incoming paper and are the insoluble components of
synthetic adhesives (hot melts and pressure sensitive), resin size, binders, wet strength
resin, which are tacky under the appropiate temperatures and pressures.
Related terms: DEPOSIT, HOT MELT ADHESIVES, PRESSURE SENSITIVE
ADHESIVES, STICKIES.
REPULPABLE ADHESIVES
Adhesives that can be removed by existing screens and cleaners during the recycling
process.
SECONDARY STICKIES.
199
TERM DEFINITION
RESIN ACIDS
Diterpenoic acids originating in softwood canal resin. The most common resin acids are
abietic, levopimaric, palustric, neoabietic and dehydroabietic acids (classified as abietic-
type acids), and pimaric, isopimaric and sandaropimaric acids (classified as pimaric-type
acids). All these resin acids have a three-ring fused structure with 20 carbon atoms.
Related terms: WOOD EXTRACTIVES, WOOD RESIN.
SALTS
The inorganic compounds, contents in addition to pulp and wood extracts, additives and
water, which are formed by, for example, the following inorganic ions: Al 3+ , Ca2+,
Cu2+, CL, Fe 2+ /Fe 3+ , K + , Mn 2+ , Na + , NO3', silicates, S0 4 2 \ phosphates and Zn2+.
SCREEN
A device which separates debris that is larger than fibres, from fibres, by size separation,
in which the fibres pass through a small hole or slot in the screening media, while the
debris particles do not.
Related term: CLEANER.
SECONDARY STICKIES
Are composed of the soluble and colloidal components of adhesives, waxes, coated
broke, plastics, coating binders, mineral salts, latex, contained in recycled paper or in
papermaking chemicals. Secondary stickies could be also generated when there are
sudden changes in the wet end chemistry. The soluble components react to produce a
colloidal or an insoluble particle.
AND COLLOIDAL SUBSTANCES, STICKIES.
SESSILE ORGANISMS
Organisms that are attached to surfaces.
Related term: PLANKTONIC ORGANISMS.
200
TERM DEFINITION
SIZE
Any material used in the internal sizing or surface sizing of paper and paperboard.
Typical sizes are rosin, alkyl ketene dimer (AKD), alkenyl succinic acid anhydride
(ASA), styrene maleic anhydride (SMA), glue, gelatin, starch, modified celluloses,
synthetic resins, latexes and waxes.
Related term: SIZING.
SIZING
The addition of materials either to the stock (internal sizing) or to the surface of a paper
or board (surface sizing) in order to increase its resistance to the penetration and
spreading of liquids, for example writing ink. Surface size may also be used to increase
surface strenght.
• Acid sizing: A type of sizing in which the stock is made acidic,
usually less than pH 6.
• Alkaline sizing: A type of sizing in which the stock is made
alkaline, usually more than pH 8.
Neutral sizing: A type of sizing in which the stock is made
neutral, i.e. at pH close to 7.
Related term: SIZE.
SLIME CONTROL
Inhibition or elimination of slime formation.
Related terms: SLIME DEPOSITS, SLIMICIDE.
SLIME DEPOSITS
Deposits in the papermaking system characterized by some degree of microorganism
activity, but also consisting of various combinations of organic and inorganic material.
Related terms: DEPOSIT, EXTRACELLULAR POLYMERS.
SLIMICIDE
Chemical product used to inhibit the formation of slime.
Related terms: BACTERICIDE, BIOCIDE, BIODISPERSANT.
201
TERM DEFINITION
SOAPS
Water-soluble sodium, potassium or ammonium salts of fatty and resin acids. Insoluble
fatty and resin acids salts can be formed by reaction with calcium, magnesium, aluminum
and other metal ions
Related terms: PITCH DEPOSIT, FATTY ACID, RESIN ACID.
SPORE/SPORE-FORMING BACTERIA
Dormant form of the cell, capable of resisting heat, radiations and poisonous chemicals.
Two major types of spore-forming bacteria are Bacillus and Clostridium.
Related terms: BACTERIA, CLOSTRIDIUM.
STICKIES
Material in waste paper which, because of its sticky nature or tendency to form
aggregates, leads to deposit problems in papermaking.
Related terms: DEPOSIT, HOT MELT ADHESIVES, PRIMARY STICKIES,
SECONDARY STICKIES.
SULPHATE-REDUCING BACTERIA (SRB)

Strict anaerobes which oxidize organic substrates and use sulphate or other oxidized
sulphur compounds as terminal electron acceptors. The reduced sulphur is released into
the environment as hydrogen sulphide gas. They produce a very bad smell; a black iron
sulphide precipitate is formed; they are actively involved in microbiologically induced
corrosion and form explosive gas (H2S) at certain concentrations.
Related terms: BACTERIA, BIOLOGICAL CORROSION.
TACKINESS
The sticky property of paper and paperboard adhesives and glue-coating materials.
Synonym term: STICKINESS.
202
TERM DEFINITION
TRAMP ORGANICS
All unwanted organics which may include substances such as pitch, spent defoamer,
residue, lubricating oils and greases, rosin from sizing operations and asphalt.
AND COLLOIDAL SUSBSTANCES.
WELD ASSOCIATED CORROSION

Chemical attack at a weld or in the heat-affected zone of a weld, either in the form of
pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion or intergranular attack.
Related terms : CORROSION, ELECTROLYTIC CORROSION, INTERGRANULAR
CORROSION, PITTING CORROSION.
WHITE PITCH
A term used for deposits mainly containing agglomerated polymeric synthetic binders
from coated broke. They often appear white. White pitch commonly contains also
inorganic pigment particles, wood resin components and fibres.
Related terms: BROKE, COATED BROKE, COATED PAPER, COATING,
COATING BINDER, DEPOSIT.
WOOD EXTRACTIVES
The term includes a variety of wood components that are no polymeric cell-wall
constituents, but are lower molar-mass substances extractable with organic solvents and
water. They include both hydrophyllic and lipophyllic substances.
Related terms: EXTRACTIVES, WOOD RESINS.
WOOD RESINS
Those water-insoluble, lipophyllic wood extractives that are soluble in nonpolar organic
solvents such as alkanes and ethers. Chemically this definition is not precise since the
solvent and the extraction procedure have a strong influence on the resin yield and
203
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European Commission
EUR 17775 — COST E1: Paper recycling: An introduction to problems and

their solutions
Edited by M. A. Blanco, C. Negro and J. Tijero
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
1998 - XVI, 204 pp. - 16.2 χ 22.9 cm
ISBN 92-828-1801-2
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: ECU 21.50

TERM DEFINITION
composition. Wood resin includes mainly canal resin (oleoresin) and parenchyma resin
components.
Synonym term: LIPOPHYLLIC WOOD EXTRACTIVES.
Related terms: COLLOIDAL RESIN, EXTRACTIVES, FATTY ACIDS, RESIN
ACID, WOOD EXTRACTIVES.
204
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ISSN 1018-5593

Edith CRESSON, Member of the Commission

An introduction to problems and their solutions

1997 EUR 17775 EN

Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1998

© European Communities, 1998

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

PRINTED ON WHITE CHLORINE-FREE PAPER

1. THE RECYCLING PAPER INDUSTRY 3

1.2 Stock preparation 6

1.3 Wastepaper grades 11

1.4 Closed loop recycling 12

1.5 European research needs in recycling 14

1.6 Consumer and environmental questions 15

2. WATER IN THE PAPER INDUSTRY 19

2.2 Water in the papermaking process 22

2.2.2 Quality criteria depending on application 23

2.3 Polluting sources in water systems 26

2.3.1 Fibrous raw materials 26

2.3.3 Feed waters 31

2.4 Water system closing in the paper industry 32

2.4.1 Most frequent alternatives 32

3. STICKIES PROBLEMS IN RECYCLING 49

3.2 Potential sources of stickies: contaminants and their chemical nature . . . 52

3.3 Classification of stickies 58

3.4 Formation of stickies deposits: mechanism and variables 59

3.5 Methods for quantitative characterization of stickies 62

3.5.1 Extraction methods 62

3.5.5 Special methods 66

3.6 Methods for qualitative analysis of stickies 66

3.7 Methods for control, removal and prevention 68

3.7.1 Selection and inspection of raw materials 70

3.8 Stickies control programme in paper mills 83

3.9 Future trends in stickies research studies 85

WHITE PITCH DEPOSITION 95

4.2 Potential white pitch formers 97

4.3 Deposition mechanims 100

4.4 Problems associated to white pitch deposits 104

4.5 Study, analysis and characterization of white pitch 105

4.6 Methods for white pitch control 109

4.6.1 Methods for white pitch removal 109

4.7 References 119

5. INORGANIC DISSOLVED SOLIDS 127

5.1 Introduction 128

5.2 Origin of salts 129

5.3 Influence of salts of fibres fraction 131

5.3.1 Salt effect on fibre swelling 132

5.3.3 Salt effect on fibre hornification 137

5.4 Salt influence undissolved and colloidal material 137

5.4.1 Salt effect on retention agents 138

5.5 Salt influence on process efficiency 142

5.6 Salt influence on product quality 144

5.7 Conclusions 146

5.8 References 147

6. MICROBIAL ASPECTS IN RECYCLING PAPER INDUSTRY 153

6.1 Introduction 154

6.2 Sources of microbiological contamination 158

6.3 Consequences of the microorganism activity 159

6.3.1 Formation of microbiological deposits 159

6.4 Microbiological survey of the mill 165

6.5 The control of microbiological problems 168

6.5.1 Biocides 170