THE RADAR EQUATION

-90°

Figure 2.15 Polar plots of aja o for the two-scatierer complex target [Eq. (2.37)]. (a) I = X; (b) I - 2A;
(r)l-U

aircraft28 is shown in Fig. 2.16. The aircraft is the B-26, a World War II medium-range two-
engine bomber. The radar wavelength was 10 cm. These data were obtained experimentally by
mounting the aircraft on a turntable in surroundings free from other reflecting objects and by
observing with a nearby radar set. The propellers were running during the measurement and
produced a modulation of the order of 1 to 2 kHz. The cross section can change by as much
as 15 dB for a change in aspect of only $°. The maximum echo signal occurs in the vicinity
3 of broadside, where the projected area of the aircraft is largest.
It is not usually convenient to obtain the radar cross section of aircraft by mounting the full-
size aircraft on a rotating table. Measurements can be obtained with scale models on a pattern
range.29 An example of such model measurements is given by the dashed curves in Fig. 2.17.
If care is taken in the construction of the model and in the pattern-range instrumentation, it
is possible to achieve reasonably representative measurements.
The radar cross section of an aircraft can also be obtained by computation.' 7 The target is
broken up into a number of simple geometrical shapes, the contribution of each (taking
^-'INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS

Complex targets.3233 The radar cross seciion of complex targets such as ships, aircrafl, cities,
and terrain are complicated functions of the viewing aspect and the radar frequency. Target
cross sections may be computed with the aid of digital computers, or they may be measured
experimentally. The target cross section can be measured with full-scale targets, but it is more
convenient to make cross-section measurements on scale models al the proper scaled
frequency.63
A complex target may be considered as comprising a large number of independent objects
that scatter energy in all directions. The energy scattered in the direction of the radar is of
prime interest. The relative phases and amplitudes of the echo signals from the individual
scattering objects as measured at the radar receiver determine the total cross section. The
phases and amplitudes of the individual signals might add to give a large total cross section, or
the relationships with one another might result in total cancellation. In general, the hehavior is
somewhere between total reinforcement and total cancellation. If the separation between the
individual scattering objects is large compared with the wavelength—and this is usually true
for most radar applications—the phases of the individual signals at the radar receiver will vary
as the viewing aspect is changed and cause a scintillating echo.
Consider the scattering from a relatively " simple " complex target consisting of two equal, J
isotropic objects (such as spheres) separated a distance I (Fig. 2.14). By isotropic scattering is
meant that the radar cross section of each object is independent of the viewing aspect. The
separation I is assumed to be less than ct/2, where c is the velocity of propagation and r is the
pulse duration. With this assumption, both scatterers are illuminated simultaneously by
the pulse packet. Another restriction placed on I is that it be small compared with the
distance R from radar to target. Furthermore, R| * R 2 ~ R. The cross sections of the two
targets are assumed equal and are designated a0. The composite cross section a, of the two
scatterers is
—=2 1 + COS I — (2.37)

The ratio a,ja0 can be anything from a minimum of zero to a maximum of four limes the cross
section of an individual scatterer. Polar plots of a,/aa for various values of I/I are shown in
Fig. 2.15. Although this is a rather simple example of a "complex" target, it is complicated
enough to indicate the type of behavior to be expected with practical radar targets.
The radar cross sections of actual targets are far more complicated in structure than the
simple two-scatterer target. Practical targets are composed of many individual scatlerers, each
with different scattering properties. Also, interactions may occur between the scatterers which
affect the resultant cross section.
An example of the cross section as a function of aspect angle for a propeller-driven

Sphere [* ' targe "1 Sphere large*

Radar Figure 2.14 Geometry of ihe Iwo-scatterer complex target.