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GEOTECHNICAL 1

Index and Classification Properties of Soils

W
Unit weight : γ =
V
Gs γw
Dry unit weight : γd =
1+ e
DRY H1
Moist unit weight : γ = γdry ( 1 + ω )
(Gs + e) γ w
Saturated unit weight: γsat =
1+ e
Zero air void unit weight: MOIST H2
Gsγ w
γzav = G.W.T.
1+ e
Moisture content (water content)
Ww
ω = SATURATED
Ws H3

ωG s
Degree of saturation : s =
e
e
Porosity : n = Phases of Soil
1+ e
Air void ratio = n (1 – s)
G.W.T. = ground water table
where : W = total weight
V = volume
Gs = specific gravity
e = void ratio
γw = unit weight of water
= 9.81 kN/m3 ( 1gram/cm3 )
GEOTECHNICAL 2

Relative density ( Density index ) Soil Characteristic Liquidity Index


brittle solid <0
emax - e plastic <1
Dr = or
emax - emin liquid >1
1 / γ d min -1/ γ d
Dr =
1/ γ d min -1/ γ d max Shrinkage Ratio : S.R.

e = in-situ void ratio m2


S.R. =
emax = void ratio in loosest condition V2 ρw
emin = void ratio in densest condition Specific Gravity: Gs
γd = dry unit weight in the field
γd(max) = dry unit weight in densest condition 1
Gs =
γd(min) = dry unit weight in loosest condition 1 SL
-
SR 100
Shrinkage limit : S.L.
(m1 - m2 ) (V1 - V2 )
S.L. = - ρw in %
m2 m2
m1 = initial mass in saturated state SOIL CLASSIFICATION
m2 = final mass in dry state
V1 = initial volume in saturated state U.S. Dept of Agriculture (USDA Method)
V2 = final volume in dry state Gravel Sand Silt Clay
> 2 mm 2 to 0.05mm 0.05 to 0.002mm < 0.002 mm
Plasticity Index : P.I.
P.I. = L.L. - P.L. AASHTO Method
L.L. = liquid limit Gravel Sand Silt Clay
P.L. = plastic limit 76.2 to 2mm 2 to 0.075mm 0.075 to 0.002mm < 0.002 mm

Liquidity Index : L.I.


Unified Soil Classification System
ω - P.L.
L.I. = Gravel Sand Fines (Silt & Clay)
P.I.
76.2 to 4.75 mm 4.75 to 0.075 mm < 0.075 mm
ω = in-situ moisture content
P.L. = plastic limit
P.I. = plasticity index

Consistency Index : C.I.


L.L. - ω
C.I. =
L.L. - P.I.
GEOTECHNICAL 3
Particle Size Distribution SOIL COMPACTION

Effective Size, D10


Compaction – is the densification of soils by
- is the diameter in the particle size
the application of mechanical energy. It may
distirbution curve corresponding to 10%
also involve a modification of the water
finer.
content as well as gradation of the soil.

Uniformity coefficient, Cu
Some methods for determining density of
D
Cu = 60 soil in the field:
D10

1. Sand Cone Method


Coefficient of gradation or curvature, Cc 2. Balloon Method
(D30 ) 2
Cc = 3. Oil Method
D60 • D10
D30 = particle diameter corresponding to 30% finer To determine the dry unit weight of
D60 = particle diameter corresponding to 60% finer compaction in the field:
dry unit weight excavated from the hole
Sorting Coefficient, So γd =
volume of the hole
D75
So =
D25 W -W
Volume of hole, V = s c
D75 = particle diameter corresponding to 75% finer γ d ( sand )
D25 = particle diameter corresponding to 25% finer Ws = weight of sand to fill the hole and cone
Wc = weight of sand to fill the cone only
AASHTO Classification System
Relative Compaction, R
Group Index, G.I.
= (F – 35)[ 0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10) γ
R = d ( field )
γ d (max -lab)
Partial Group Index γd(field) = compacted field dry unit weight
= 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10) γd(max-lab) = maximum dry unit weight
determined in the laboratory by Proctor
F = % passing sieve # 200 Test
LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index

Group index must be whole and positive, if the


computed value is negative use zero. If the group
classification is A-2-6 & A-2-7 attached Partial
Group Index only.
GEOTECHNICAL 4
PERMEABILITY, SEEPAGE of WATER
Absolute Permeability, K
in SOIL

K=
Coefficient of Permeability, k γw
( Laboratory Test) k = coefficient of permeability
QL η = viscosity of water
Constant Head Test : k =
Ah t γw = unit weight of water
Q = volume of water collected
A = area of cross section of soil specimen Transmissibilty of Soil Stratum, T
t = duration of water collection T=Kb
h K = average coefficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient = b = thickness of aquifer
L

a L h1 Equivalent Coefficient of Permeability in


Falling Head Test: k = ln
A t h2 Layered Soil:
a = cross-sectional area of the stand pipe
A = cross-sectional area of soil specimen
t = duration of water collection k1 H1
h1 = initial head when t1 = 0
h2 = final head when t2 = t
k2 H2
L = length of soil specimen
h h2
i = hydraulic gradient = 1
L

Rate of water flow in soil, Q Equivalent Horizontal Coeffient, KH(eq)


1
KH (eq) = (k1H1 + k2H2 + … + knHn)
H
Q=kiA

Equivalent Vertical Coefficient, KV(eq)


k = coefficient of permeability
H
i = hydraulic gradient KV(eq) =
H1 H2 H
A = cross-sectinal area of soil sample + + ... + n
k k2 kn

Discharge velocity, V
V=ki

Seepage velocity, Vs
V
Vs =
n
n = porosity
GEOTECHNICAL 5
Vertical Stresses in Soil Compressibility of Soil

A Settlement – the total vertical deformation at


the surface resulting from the load. When a soil
h1
Dry, γd deposit is loaded (by a structure or a man-made
B G.W.T. fill) deformation will occur. The movement may be
downward with an increase in load or upward
h2 Saturated, γsat (called swelling) with a decrease in load.

1. Total stress at C : σc = γd h1 + γsat h2


2. Pore water pressure at C : uc = γw h2 S
3. Effective stress at C = Total stress – Pore pressure
σc’ = σc − uc
A

h1
Dry, γd
B G.W.T.
h Components of Settlement:
h2 Saturated, γsat
S = S1 + S2 + S3
C

S = total settlement
1. Total stress at C : σc = γd h1 + γsat h2
S1 = immediate or distortion settlement
2. Pore water pressure at C : uc = γw h
S2 = primary consolidation settlement
3. Effective stress at C = Total stress – Pore pressure
σc’ = σc − uc S3 = secondary consolidation settlement

A Primary Consolidation Settlement, S2


Normally Consolidated Clays
h1
Dry, γd CcH P + ΔP
B
S2 = log o
1 + e0 Po
Cc = compression index
Moist, γ
h2 zone of capillary rise eo = in-situ void ratio
Degree of saturation, S
C G.W.T. Po = effective overburden pressure at the
middle of the clay layer
1. Total stress at C : σc = γd h1 + γ h2 ∆P = average increase of stress on clay layer
σB = γd h1 H = thickness of clay layer
2. Pore water pressure at C : uB = -S γw h2
uc = 0
3. Effective stress at C = Total stress – Pore pressure
σc’ = σc − uc
σB’ = σB − (−uB)
GEOTECHNICAL 6

Over – Consolidated Clays Compression Index, Cc


1. when Po + ∆P < Pc Cc = 0.009 (LL -10) remolded clays
C sH P + ΔP e1 - e 2
S2 = log o Cc =
1 + e0 Po P
log 2
Cs = swell index P1
= ranges from 1/5 to 1/10 of Cc Coefficient of Compressibility, av
Pc = preconsolidation pressure e1 - e 2
av =
P2 - P1
2. when Po + ∆P > Pc Coefficient of Volume Compressibility, mv
C sH P CH P + ΔP av
S2 = log c + c log o mv =
1 + e0 Po 1 + e 0 Pc 1 + e ave

Secondary Consolidation Settlement, S3 Time Rate of Consolidation, t

t2 open open
S3 = C’a H log
t1 Hdr
Ca H Hdr
C’a =
1 + ep
Δe
Ca = open closed
t
log 2
t1 Cv t
Tv =
Ca = secondary compression index H 2 dr
ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation Cv = coefficient of consolidation
= eo - ∆e Tv = time factor
Po + ΔP Hdr = drainage distance of water
∆e = Cc log
Po
Preconsolidation Pressure, Pc
t1 = time for completion of primary consolidation
t2 = time after completion of primary
Pc
consolidation OCR =
Po
Immediate Settlement, S1 OCR = overconsolidation ratio
Pc = preconsolidation pressure
(1 - μ2 ) Po = soil overburden pressure
S1 = Cs q B
Es
Cs = shape and foundation rigidity factor
q = pressure due to load
B = width of foundation or diameter of circular
foundation
µ = Poisson’s ratio of soil
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil
GEOTECHNICAL 7

Bearing Capacity of Foundations Case 2: the water table is located at the bottom
of the foundation

Terzaghi’s Bearing-Capacity

Ultimate Bearing Capacity, qult


A. General Shear Failure (Dense sand and Stiffclay)
1. Square Footing
qult = 1.3c Nc + q Nq + 0.4 γ B Nγ G.W.T.
B
2. Circular Footing
qult = 1.3c Nc + q Nq + 0.3 γ B Nγ γ = γsat - γw
c = cohesion Case 3: the water table is located so that d < B
q = effective pressure at the bottom of the
footing
B = width of footing or diameter of footing
Nc Nq Nγ = bearing capacity factors

Bearing Capacity Factors


1. see Tables
B
2. If no table available
d<B
Nc = (Nq – 1) cot φ
G.W.T.
π tan φ 2
Nq = e tan (45 + )
2 1
Nγ = (Nq + 1) tan 1.4φ  γ dry (d) + γ′ (B - d) 
B
γ=

Modification of γ value in the 3rd term of the γ ‘ = γsat - γw


ultimate bearing capacity equation:
Case 4: the water table is located so that d > B
Case 1: the water table is located above the
bottom of the foundation

G.W.T.

B
d>B
G.W.T.
B

γ = γdry
γ = γsat - γw
GEOTECHNICAL 8

Shear Strength of Soil


Unconfined Compression Test Method
Normal Force
Direct Shear Test Method
σ1
τ Shear Force

τ
σ1
φ c
σ τ

φ = angle of internal friction


c = cohesion c
= 0 if normally consolidated clay
σ
σ = normal stress
τ = shearing stress
∆σ
Tri-Axial Test Method σ3
deviator stress
σ1

Unconsolidated - Undrained Test Method


τ τ

cu
τ σ
φ c σ

σ3 deviator stress
σ3 deviator stress σ1
σ1
cu = undrained shear strength
σ3 = chamber confining pressure, cell pressure
= minor principal stress
σ1 = major principal stress
∆σ = deviator stress
GEOTECHNICAL 9

Lateral Earth Pressure Pressure diagram due to water:

σv γs = unit weight of soil


z

σh = k σv

σv = vertical pressure at depth z


σh = lateral pressure at depth z
k = coefficient of lateral earth pressure
Pressure diagram due to surcharge:

Lateral Earth Pressure on Retaining Wall with


Horizontal Backfill

At rest earth pressure coefficient, ko


(normally consolidated soil)
ko = 1 – sin φ φ = angle of internal friction

Rankine active earth pressure, ka


1 - sin φ
ka =
1 + sin φ

Rankine passive earth pressure, kp


1 + sin φ Pressure diagram due to cohesion of soil:
kp =
1 - sin φ

Pressure diagram due to effective unit weight of


soil:
GEOTECHNICAL 10
Braced Sheetings Piles on Clay
Qall
Cuts in Sand α method

End bearing capacity


Qb = C Nc Atip
assumed
hinge Frictional capcity
H
Qf = Σ αCPL
Qf
C = cohesion of soil
Nc = bearing capacity factor
Pa= 0.65 γ ka H
Atip = area of plie at the tip
α = adhesion factor
γΗ Qb
Cuts in Clay when >4 P = perimeter of pile
C
L = length of pile
0.25 H
Qb + Qf
assumed Design Load : Qall =
hinge F.S.
H
λ method Qall

End bearing capacity


Pa= γH – 4C Qb = C Nc Atip

γΗ Frictional capcity
Cuts in Clay when <4
C Qf = PLλ (Qv + 2C )

0.25 H area of Pv diagram Qf


Qv = L
assumed L
hinge
H

0.25 H Qb Pv diagram

Pa= 0.3 γH
Qb + Qf
Design Load : Qall =
ka = Rankine active pressure coefficient F.S.
C = cohesion of clay
γ = unit weight of soil
H = depth of cut
GEOTECHNICAL 11
Piles on Sand Qall Drilled Piles on Clay
Qall

Ds

Dc 1.5 m

Qf L1 L
Qf

Ds

L2
Qb Pv diagram

Db
End bearing capacity Qb
Qb = Pv Nq Atip End bearing capacity
Qb = qp Atip
Frictional capcity
Qf = P ( area of Pv diagram ) K µ L1 + L2
qp = 6C [ 1 + 0.2 ] but not greater than CNc
Db
Qb + Qf
Design Load : Qall = Db = bell diameter
F.S.
Ds = shaft diameter

Pv = vertical soil pressure at the tip Frictional capcity


Nq = bearing capacity factor Qf = Σ α C P L
K = coef of lateral bet pile and sand earth
pressure factor α = adhesion factor
µ = tan θ = 0 for the top 1.5 m and diameter Ds above
θ = angle of friction bet pile and sand the bottom of the drilled shaft or above the top
of the bell.
Critical Depth, Dc P = perimeter of pile
i. Dc = 20 x diameter of pile for dense sand L = effective length of pile that resist friction
ii. Dc = 10 x diameter of pile for loose sand
Qb + Qf
Note : The pressure below the critical depth, Dc Design Load : Qall =
F.S.
is assumed to be uniform.
GEOTECHNICAL 12
Drilled Piles on Sand Group of Piles
Qall Efficiency of Group of Piles, Eg

L Qf

Converse – Labarre Equation:

θ [(n - 1) m + (m - 1) n]
Eg = 1 -
90 m n
Qb
End bearing capacity Bowles :
Qb = qp Atip 2 ( m + n - 2) S + 4D
Eg =
πD m n
a. Nvalue < 50 m = number of rows of piles
qp = 57.5 Nvalue < 2900 kPa n = number of piles in a row
b. Nvalue > 50 D
tan θ =
P S
qp = 0.59[ Nvalue ( a )]0.8
Pvb D = diameter of pile
Pa = 100 kPa S = spacing of piles center to center
Pvb = effective vertical pressure at base elevation
Settlement of Piles
Frictional capcity : Qf = Σ β Pv P L
a. Nvalue ≥ 15 Se = Se1 + Se2 + Se3
β = 1.5 – n (z)0.5 (drilled on sand)
β = 2 – 0.15 (z)0.5 (drilled on gravel) Elastic Settlement of Pile, Se1
b. Nvalue < 15 (Qwp + ξ Qws ) L
N Se1 =
β = value [ 1.5 – n (z)0.5 ] Ap Ep
15
Qwp = load carried at the pile point under working
Pv = effective vertical overburden pressure at
load condition
depth z.
Qws = load carried by frictional resistance under
z = height from ground surface to mid-height of a
working load condition
given layer
Ap = cross sectional area of pile
n = 0.245
L = length of pile
P = perimeter of pile
L = length of pile
GEOTECHNICAL 13

Settlement of Pile caused by the Load at the Pile Settlement of Group of Piles
Tip , Se2

qwp D
Se2 = (1 - µs2 ) Iwp
Es
Qwp
qwp =
Ap
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil
µs = Poisson’s ratio of soil
Iwp = influence factor

Settlement of Pile caused by the Load


transmitted along of the pile shaft , Se3

Qws D
Se3 = (1 - µs2 ) Iws
PLEs
L
Iws = 2 + 0.35
D

P = perimeter of pile
Cc H P + ΔP
L = length of pile S= Σ log o
1 + eo Po
Iws = influence factor
D = diameter of pile
Cc = compression index
H = thickness of clay layer
eo = initial void ratio
∆P = average increase in pressure on clay
Po = effective overburden pressure at the mid-
height of the clay layer

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