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This article is about the ideology of liberalism. For local 1 Etymology and definition
differences in its meaning, see Liberalism by country.
“Liberals” redirects here. For other uses, see Liberal Words such as liberal, liberty, libertarian, and libertine
(disambiguation). all trace their history to the Latin liber, which means
“free”.[16] One of the first recorded instances of the word
Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview liberal occurs in 1375, when it was used to describe the
founded on ideas of liberty and equality.[1][2][3] Whereas liberal arts in the context of an education desirable for a
classical liberalism and European liberalism prioritise lib- free-born man.[16] The word’s early connection with the
erty, American liberalism and social liberalism stress classical education of a medieval university soon gave
equality.[4] Liberals espouse a wide array of views way to a proliferation of different denotations and con-
depending on their understanding of these principles, notations. Liberal could refer to “free in bestowing” as
but generally they support ideas and programs such early as 1387, “made without stint” in 1433, “freely per-
as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom mitted” in 1530, and “free from restraint” – often as a pe-
of religion, free markets, civil rights, democratic soci- jorative remark – in the 16th and the 17th centuries.[16]
eties, secular governments, and international coopera- In 16th century England, liberal could have positive or
tion.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11] negative attributes in referring to someone’s generosity or
indiscretion.[16] In Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare
Liberalism first became a distinct political movement
wrote of “a liberal villaine” who “hath...confest his vile
during the Age of Enlightenment, when it became pop-
encounters”.[16] With the rise of the Enlightenment, the
ular among philosophers and economists in the Western
word acquired decisively more positive undertones, be-
world. Liberalism rejected the prevailing social and polit-
ing defined as “free from narrow prejudice” in 1781 and
ical norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute
“free from bigotry” in 1823.[16] In 1815, the first use of
monarchy, and the Divine Right of Kings. The 17th-
the word liberalism appeared in English.[17] In Spain, the
century philosopher John Locke is often credited with
Liberales, the first group to use the liberal label in a po-
founding liberalism as a distinct philosophical tradition.
litical context,[18] fought for the implementation of the
Locke argued that each man has a natural right to life,
1812 Constitution for decades. From 1820 to 1823, dur-
liberty and property,[12] while adding that governments
ing the Trienio Liberal, King Ferdinand VII was com-
must not violate these rights based on the social contract.
pelled by the liberales to swear to uphold the Constitu-
Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to
tion. By the middle of the 19th century, liberal was used
replace absolutism in government with representative
as a politicised term for parties and movements all over
democracy and the rule of law.
the world.[19]
Prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution,
Over time, the meaning of the word “liberalism” began
the American Revolution, and the French Revolution
to diverge in different parts of the world. According to
used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow
the Encyclopedia Britannica, “In the United States, lib-
of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started
eralism is associated with the welfare-state policies of
to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution.
the New Deal program of the Democratic administration
The 19th century saw liberal governments established in
of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, whereas in Europe it is
nations across Europe, South America, and North Amer-
[13] more commonly associated with a commitment to lim-
ica. In this period, the dominant ideological oppo-
ited government and laissez-faire economic policies.”[20]
nent of classical liberalism was conservatism, but liber-
Consequently, in the U.S., the ideas of individualism and
alism later survived major ideological challenges from
laissez-faire economics previously associated with classi-
new opponents, such as fascism and communism. Dur-
cal liberalism became the basis for the emerging school
ing the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as
of libertarian thought.[21]
liberal democracies found themselves on the winning side
in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the es-
tablishment of social liberalism became a key component
in the expansion of the welfare state.[14][15] Today, liberal 2 History
parties continue to wield power and influence throughout
the world. Main article: History of liberalism
1
2 2 HISTORY
ters (1717) and The Spirit of the Laws (1748). The lat- debated about how to move forward. The Articles of
ter exerted tremendous influence, both inside and out- Confederation, written in 1776, now appeared inadequate
side France. Montesquieu pleaded in favor of a consti- to provide security, or even a functional government.
tutional system of government, the preservation of civil The Confederation Congress called a Constitutional Con-
liberties and the law, and the idea that political institu- vention in 1787 which resulted in the writing of a new
tions ought to reflect the social and geographical aspects Constitution of the United States establishing a federal
of each community. In particular, he argued that politi- government.
cal liberty required the separation of the powers of gov- In the context of the times, the Constitution was a re-
ernment. Building on John Locke's Second Treatise of
publican and liberal document. It established a strong
Government, he advocated that the executive, legislative, national government and provided clear Separation of
and judicial functions of government should be assigned
powers between the branches of government (executive,
to different bodies. He also emphasised the importance legislative, and judicial) to limit any one branch from ex-
of a robust due process in law, including the right to a fair
ercising the core functions of another. Additionally, the
trial, the presumption of innocence and proportionality in first ten amendments to the Constitution, known collec-
the severity of punishment. Another important figure of tively as the Bill of Rights, placed restrictions on the pow-
the French Enlightenment was Voltaire. Initially believ- ers of government and offered specific protections of sev-
ing in the constructive role an enlightened monarch could eral of the natural rights liberal thinkers used to justify the
play in improving the welfare of the people, he eventu- Revolution.[42][43] It remains the oldest liberal governing
ally came to a new conclusion: “It is up to us to cultivate document in effect worldwide.
our garden”. His most polemical and ferocious attacks
on intolerance and religious persecutions indeed began
to appear a few years later.[40] Despite much persecution,
Voltaire remained a courageous polemicist who indefati- 2.5 French Revolution
gably fought for civil rights – the right to a fair trial and
freedom of religion – and who denounced the hypocrisies Main article: Influence of the French Revolution
and injustices of the Ancien Régime.
2.6 Radicalism
Main article: Radicalism Thomas Paine's The Rights of Man was a manifesto for political
The radical liberal movement began in the 1790s in radicalism.
England and concentrated on parliamentary and elec-
toral reform, emphasising natural rights and popular
sovereignty.[50] Thomas Paine's The Rights of Man (1791)
2.7 Liberal economic theory
was a response to Burke's conservative essay Reflections
on the Revolution in France. The ensuing Revolution Con-
troversy featured, among others, Mary Wollstonecraft, Main article: Classical liberalism
who followed with an early feminist tract A Vindication
of the Rights of Woman. Radicals encouraged mass sup- The development into maturity of classical liberalism
port for democratic reform along with rejection of the took place before and after the French Revolution in
monarchy, aristocracy, and all forms of privilege. The Britain, and was based on the following core concepts:
Reform Act 1832 was put through with the support of classical economics, free trade, laissez-faire government
public outcry, mass meetings of “political unions” and with minimal intervention and taxation and a balanced
riots in some cities. This now enfranchised the mid- budget. Classical liberals were committed to individu-
dle classes, but failed to meet radical demands. Follow- alism, liberty and equal rights. The primary intellectual
ing the Reform Act the mainly aristocratic Whigs in the influences on 19th century liberal trends were those of
House of Commons were joined by a small number of Adam Smith and the classical economists, and Jeremy
parliamentary Radicals, as well as an increased number Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
of middle class Whigs. By 1839 they were informally be-
ing called “the Liberal Party.” The Liberals produced one Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776,
of the greatest British prime ministers – William Glad- was to provide most of the ideas of economics, at least
stone, who was also known as the Grand Old Man and until the publication of J. S. Mill's Principles in 1848.[52]
was the towering political figure of liberalism in the 19th Smith addressed the motivation for economic activity,
century.[51] Under Gladstone, the Liberals reformed ed- the causes of prices and the distribution of wealth, and
ucation, disestablished the Church of Ireland, and intro- the policies the state should follow in order to maximise
duced the secret ballot for local and parliamentary elec- wealth.[53]
tions. Smith wrote that as long as supply, demand, prices, and
6 2 HISTORY
competition were left free of government regulation, the The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was a watershed
pursuit of material self-interest, rather than altruism, moment and encapsulated the triumph of free trade and
would maximise the wealth of a society[54] through profit- liberal economics. The Anti-Corn Law League brought
driven production of goods and services. An "invisible together a coalition of liberal and radical groups in sup-
hand" directed individuals and firms to work toward the port of free trade under the leadership of Richard Cobden
nation’s good as an unintended consequence of efforts to and John Bright, who opposed militarism and public ex-
maximise their own gain. This provided a moral justifica- penditure. Their policies of low public expenditure and
tion for the accumulation of wealth, which had previously low taxation were later adopted by the liberal chancellor
been viewed by some as sinful.[53] of the exchequer and later prime minister, William Ewart
[61]
His main emphasis was on the benefit of free inter- Gladstone. Although British classical liberals aspired
to a minimum of state activity, the passage of the Factory
nal and international trade, which he thought could in-
crease wealth through specialisation in production.[55] He Acts in the early 19th century which involved government
interference in the economy met with their approval.
also opposed restrictive trade preferences, state grants
of monopolies, and employers’ organisations and trade
unions.[56] Government should be limited to defence, 2.8 Spread of liberalism
public works and the administration of justice, financed
by taxes based on income.[57] Smith was one of the pro-
genitors of the idea, which was long central to classical
liberalism and has resurfaced in the globalisation litera-
ture of the later 20th and early 21st centuries, that free
trade promotes peace.[58]
ing conservative order, shocked Europe when he resigned downturns in economic growth, a growing perception of
and fled to Britain in panic and disguise.[63] the evils of poverty, unemployment and relative depriva-
Eventually, however, the success of the revolutionaries tion present within modern industrial cities, and the ag-
petered out. Without French help, the Italians were easily itation of organised labour. The ideal of the self-made
defeated by the Austrians. With some luck and skill, Aus- individual, who through hard work and talent could make
tria also managed to contain the bubbling nationalist sen- his or her place in the world, seemed increasingly im-
timents in Germany and Hungary, helped along by the plausible. A major political reaction against the changes
failure of the Frankfurt Assembly to unify the German introduced by industrialisation and laissez-faire capital-
ism came from conservatives concerned about social bal-
states into a single nation. Two decades later, however,
the Italians and the Germans realised their dreams for ance, although socialism later became a more impor-
tant force for change and reform. Some Victorian writ-
unification and independence. The Sardinian Prime Min-
ister, Camillo di Cavour, was a shrewd liberal who under- ers – including Charles Dickens, Thomas Carlyle, and
Matthew Arnold – became early influential critics of so-
stood that the only effective way for the Italians to gain
independence was if the French were on their side. [64] cial injustice.[65]
Napoleon III agreed to Cavour’s request for assistance and
John Stuart Mill contributed enormously to liberal
France defeated Austria in the Franco-Austrian War of thought by combining elements of classical liberalism
1859, setting the stage for Italian independence. German with what eventually became known as the new lib-
unification transpired under the leadership of Otto von eralism. Mill’s 1859 On Liberty addressed the nature
Bismarck, who decimated the enemies of Prussia in war and limits of the power that can be legitimately ex-
after war, finally triumphing against France in 1871 and ercised by society over the individual.[66] He gave an
proclaiming the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at impassioned defence of free speech, arguing that free
Versailles, ending another saga in the drive for nationali-
discourse is a necessary condition for intellectual and so-
sation. The French proclaimed a third republic after their
cial progress. Mill defined "social liberty" as protection
loss in the war. from “the tyranny of political rulers.” He introduced a
number of different concepts of the form tyranny can
take, referred to as social tyranny, and tyranny of the
2.9 Social liberalism majority respectively. Social liberty meant limits on the
ruler’s power through obtaining recognition of political
Main article: Social liberalism liberties or rights and by the establishment of a system of
By the end of the nineteenth century, the principles of "constitutional checks”.[67]
However, although Mill’s initial economic philosophy
supported free markets and argued that progressive tax-
ation penalised those who worked harder,[68] he later al-
tered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chap-
ters to his Principles of Political Economy in defence of a
socialist outlook, and defending some socialist causes,[69]
including the radical proposal that the whole wage system
be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system.
Another early liberal convert to greater government in-
tervention was Thomas Hill Green. Seeing the effects of
alcohol, he believed that the state should foster and pro-
tect the social, political and economic environments in
which individuals will have the best chance of acting ac-
cording to their consciences. The state should intervene
only where there is a clear, proven and strong tendency of
a liberty to enslave the individual.[70] Green regarded the
national state as legitimate only to the extent that it up-
holds a system of rights and obligations that is most likely
to foster individual self-realisation.
This strand began to coalesce into the social liberalism
movement at the turn of the twentieth century in Britain.
The New Liberals, which included intellectuals like L.T.
Hobhouse, and John A. Hobson, saw individual liberty
John Stuart Mill's On Liberty greatly influenced the course of as something achievable only under favorable social and
19th century liberalism. economic circumstances.[71] In their view, the poverty,
squalor, and ignorance in which many people lived made
classical liberalism were being increasingly challenged by
8 2 HISTORY
Lloyd George and Churchill passed the 1909 People’s Budget, Meanwhile, the definitive liberal response to the Great
aimed at the redistribution of wealth. Depression was given by the English economist John
Maynard Keynes (1883-1946). Keynes had been
“brought up” as a classical liberal, but especially after
it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. World War I became increasingly a welfare or social
New Liberals believed that these conditions could be liberal.[76] A prolific writer, amongst many other works,
ameliorated only through collective action coordinated he had begun a theoretical work examining the relation-
by a strong, welfare-oriented, and interventionist state.[72] ship between unemployment, money and prices back in
The People’s Budget of 1909, championed by David the 1920s.[77] His The General Theory of Employment,
Lloyd George and fellow liberal Winston Churchill, in- Interest and Money was published in 1936,[78] and served
troduced unprecedented taxes on the wealthy in Britain as a theoretical justification for the interventionist poli-
and radical social welfare programmes to the country’s cies Keynes favoured for tackling a recession. The Gen-
policies.[73] It was the first budget with the expressed in- eral Theory challenged the earlier neo-classical economic
tent of redistributing wealth among the public.[74][75] paradigm, which had held that, provided it was unfettered
by government interference, the market would naturally
establish full employment equilibrium.
2.10 1920s
The book advocated activist economic policy by govern- chose their governments through competitive, free, and
ment to stimulate demand in times of high unemploy- fair elections.” Diamond goes on to say that democracy
ment, for example by spending on public works. “Let us bounced back and by 1995 the world was “predominantly
be up and doing, using our idle resources to increase our democratic”.[84] Liberalism still faces challenges, espe-
wealth,” he wrote in 1928. “With men and plants unem- cially with the phenomenal growth of China as a model
ployed, it is ridiculous to say that we cannot afford these combination of authoritarian government and economic
new developments. It is precisely with these plants and liberalism.[85]
these men that we shall afford them.”[79] Where the mar-
ket failed to properly allocate resources, the government
was required to stimulate the economy until private funds
could start flowing again – a “prime the pump” strategy
3 Philosophy
designed to boost industrial production.[80]
Liberalism – both as a political current and an intellectual
The social liberal program launched by President Roo-
tradition – is mostly a modern phenomenon that started
sevelt in the United States in 1933, reduced the
in the 17th century, although some liberal philosophical
unemployment rate from roughly 25 percent to about 15
ideas had precursors in classical antiquity. The Roman
percent by 1940.[81] Additional state spending and the
Emperor Marcus Aurelius praised “the idea of a polity ad-
very large public works program sparked by the Sec-
ministered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom
ond World War eventually pulled the United States out
of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which re-
of the Great Depression. From 1940 to 1941, govern-
spects most of all the freedom of the governed”.[86] Schol-
ment spending increased by 59 percent, the gross domes-
ars have also recognised a number of principles familiar
tic product increased 17 percent, and unemployment fell
to contemporary liberals in the works of several Sophists
below 10 percent for the first time since 1929.[82]
and in the Funeral Oration by Pericles.[87] Liberal phi-
The comprehensive welfare state was built in the UK after losophy symbolises an extensive intellectual tradition that
the Second World War. Although it was largely accom- has examined and popularised some of the most impor-
plished by the Labour Party, it was also significantly de- tant and controversial principles of the modern world. Its
signed by John Maynard Keynes, who laid the economic immense scholarly and academic output has been charac-
foundations, and by William Beveridge, who designed the terised as containing “richness and diversity”, but that di-
welfare system.[71] By the early years of the 21st century, versity often has meant that liberalism comes in different
most countries in the world have mixed economies, which formulations and presents a challenge to anyone looking
combine capitalism with economic liberalism. for a clear definition.[88]
species and marginalises local cultural differences.[90] of life, liberty, and property.[94] These early liberals of-
The meliorist element has been the subject of much con- ten disagreed about the most appropriate form of govern-
troversy, defended by thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, ment, but they all shared the belief that liberty was natural
who believed in human progress, while suffering from and that its restriction needed strong justification.[94] Lib-
attacks by thinkers such as Rousseau, who believed that erals generally believed in limited government, although
human attempts to improve themselves through social co- several liberal philosophers decried government outright,
operation would fail.[91] Describing the liberal tempera- with Thomas Paine writing that “government even in its
ment, Gray claimed that it “has been inspired by skepti- best state is a necessary evil”.[95]
cism and by a fideistic certainty of divine revelation ... it
As part of the project to limit the powers of government,
has exalted the power of reason even as, in other contexts, various liberal theorists such as James Madison and the
it has sought to humble reason’s claims.”
Baron de Montesquieu conceived the notion of separation
The liberal philosophical tradition has searched for of powers, a system designed to equally distribute gov-
validation and justification through several intellectual ernmental authority among the executive, legislative, and
projects. The moral and political suppositions of liber- judicial branches.[95] Governments had to realise, liber-
alism have been based on traditions such as natural rights als maintained, that poor and improper governance gave
and utilitarian theory, although sometimes liberals even the people authority to overthrow the ruling order through
requested support from scientific and religious circles.[90] any and all possible means, even through outright vio-
Through all these strands and traditions, scholars have lence and revolution, if needed.[96] Contemporary liber-
identified the following major common facets of liberal als, heavily influenced by social liberalism, have contin-
thought: believing in equality and individual liberty, sup- ued to support limited constitutional government while
porting private property and individual rights, supporting also advocating for state services and provisions to en-
the idea of limited constitutional government, and recog- sure equal rights. Modern liberals claim that formal or
nising the importance of related values such as pluralism, official guarantees of individual rights are irrelevant when
toleration, autonomy, bodily integrity, and consent.[92] individuals lack the material means to benefit from those
rights and call for a greater role for government in the
administration of economic affairs.[97]
3.2 Classical and modern Early liberals also laid the groundwork for the separation
of church and state. As heirs of the Enlightenment, liber-
Enlightenment philosophers are given credit for shaping als believed that any given social and political order em-
liberal ideas. Thomas Hobbes attempted to determine anated from human interactions, not from divine will.[98]
the purpose and the justification of governing authority Many liberals were openly hostile to religious belief itself,
in a post-civil war England. Employing the idea of a state but most concentrated their opposition to the union of
of nature – a hypothetical war-like scenario prior to the religious and political authority, arguing that faith could
State – he constructed the idea of a social contract which prosper on its own, without official sponsorship or admin-
individuals enter into to guarantee their security and in istration by the state.[98]
so doing form the State, concluding that only an abso-
lute sovereign would be fully able to sustain such a peace. Beyond identifying a clear role for government in mod-
John Locke, while adopting Hobbes’s idea of a state of ern society, liberals also have obsessed over the meaning
nature and social contract, nevertheless argued that when and nature of the most important principle in liberal phi-
the monarch becomes a tyrant, that constituted a viola- losophy: liberty. From the 17th century until the 19th
tion of the social contract, which bestows life, liberty, and century, liberals – from Adam Smith to John Stuart Mill
property as a natural right. He concluded that the people – conceptualized liberty as the absence of interference
have a right to overthrow a tyrant. By placing life, liberty from government and from other individuals, claiming
and property as the supreme value of law and authority, that all people should have the freedom to develop their
Locke formulated the basis of liberalism based on social own unique abilities and capacities without being sabo-
contract theory. To these early enlightenment thinkers taged by others.[99] Mill’s On Liberty (1859), one of the
securing the most essential amenities of life – liberty and classic texts in liberal philosophy, proclaimed that “the
private property among them – required the formation of only freedom which deserves the name, is that of pursu-
a “sovereign” authority with universal jurisdiction.[93] In ing our own good in our own way”.[99] Support for laissez-
a natural state of affairs, liberals argued, humans were faire capitalism is often associated with this principle,
driven by the instincts of survival and self-preservation, with Friedrich Hayek arguing in The Road to Serfdom
and the only way to escape from such a dangerous exis- (1944) that reliance on free markets would preclude to-
tence was to form a common and supreme power capa- talitarian control by the state.[100]
ble of arbitrating between competing human desires.[94] Beginning in the late 19th century, however, a new con-
This power could be formed in the framework of a civil ception of liberty entered the liberal intellectual arena.
society that allows individuals to make a voluntary social This new kind of liberty became known as positive lib-
contract with the sovereign authority, transferring their erty to distinguish it from the prior negative version, and
natural rights to that authority in return for the protection
3.3 Criticism and support 11
4.1 Europe
Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election.[150] the creation of a more liberal and autonomous India.[158]
In Latin America, liberal unrest dates back to the 19th Liberalism continued to be the main ideological current
century, when liberal groups frequently fought against of the group through the early years of the 20th century,
and violently overthrew conservative regimes in several but socialism gradually overshadowed the thinking of the
countries across the region. Liberal revolutions in coun- party in the next few decades.
tries such as Mexico and Ecuador ushered in the modern In Asia, liberalism is a much younger political current
world for much of Latin America. Latin American lib- than in Europe or the Americas. Continentally, liber-
erals generally emphasised free trade, private property, als are organised through the Council of Asian Liberals
and anti-clericalism.[151] Today, market liberals in Latinand Democrats, which includes powerful parties such the
America are organised in the Red Liberal de América Liberal Party in the Philippines, the Democratic Progres-
Latina (RELIAL), a centre-right network that brings to- sive Party in Taiwan, and the Democrat Party in Thailand.
gether dozens of liberal parties and organisations. Two notable examples of liberal influence can be found in
RELIAL features parties as geographically diverse as the India and Australia, although several Asian nations have
Mexican Nueva Alianza and the Cuban Liberal Union, rejected important liberal principles.
which aims to secure power in Cuba. Some major liberal A famous struggle led by the INC eventually earned
parties in the region continue, however, to align them- India’s independence from Britain. In recent times, the
selves with social liberal ideas and policies – a notable party has adopted more of a liberal streak, championing
case being the Colombian Liberal Party, which is a mem- open markets while simultaneously seeking social justice.
ber of the Socialist International. Another famous exam- In its 2009 Manifesto, the INC praised a “secular and
ple is the Paraguayan Authentic Radical Liberal Party, liberal” Indian nationalism against the nativist, commu-
one of the most powerful parties in the country, which nal, and conservative ideological tendencies it claims are
has also been classified as centre-left.[152] espoused by the right.[159] In general, the major theme
of Asian liberalism in the past few decades has been the
rise of democratisation as a method facilitate the rapid
4.3 Other regions economic modernisation of the continent.[160] In nations
such as Myanmar, however, liberal democracy has been
replaced by military dictatorship.[161]
In Africa, liberalism is comparatively weak. The Wafd
Party (“Delegation Party”) was a nationalist liberal polit-
ical party in Egypt. It was said to be Egypt’s most popu-
lar and influential political party for a period in the 1920s
and 30s. Recently, however, liberal parties and institu-
tions have made a major push for political power. On
a continental level, liberals are organised in the Africa
Liberal Network, which contains influential parties such
as the Popular Movement in Morocco, the Democratic
Party in Senegal, and the Rally of the Republicans in Côte
d'Ivoire.
Among African nations, South Africa stands out for hav-
ing a notable liberal tradition that other countries on the
continent lack. In the middle of the 20th century, the
Liberal Party and the Progressive Party were formed to
oppose the apartheid policies of the government. The
Liberals formed a multiracial party that originally drew
considerable support from urban Blacks and college-
In 2014, Saudi Arabian writer and the creator of the website educated Whites.[162] It also gained supporters from the
Free Saudi Liberals, Raif Badawi, was sentenced to 10 years in “westernised sectors of the peasantry", and its public
prison and 1000 lashes for “insulting Islam”. meetings were heavily attended by Blacks.[163] The party
had 7,000 members at its height, although its appeal to the
In Australia, liberalism is primarily championed by the White population as a whole was too small to make any
centre-right Liberal Party.[153] The Liberals are a fu- meaningful political changes.[162] The Liberals were dis-
sion of classical liberal and conservative forces and are banded in 1968 after the government passed a law that
affiliated with the centre-right International Democrat prohibited parties from having multiracial membership.
Union.[154] [153][155][156][157] In India, the most populous Today, liberalism in South Africa is represented by the
democracy in the world, the Indian National Congress has Democratic Alliance, the official opposition party to the
long dominated political affairs. The INC was founded ruling African National Congress. The Democratic Al-
in the late 19th century by liberal nationalists demanding
16 7 NOTES
liance is the second largest party in the National Assembly Another major liberal accomplishment includes the rise
and currently leads the provincial government of Western of liberal internationalism, which has been credited with
Cape. the establishment of global organisations such as the
League of Nations and, after World War II, the United
Nations.[168] The idea of exporting liberalism worldwide
and constructing a harmonious and liberal internation-
5 Impact and influence alist order has dominated the thinking of liberals since
the 18th century.[169] “Wherever liberalism has flourished
domestically, it has been accompanied by visions of lib-
The fundamental elements of contemporary society have eral internationalism,” one historian wrote.[169] But re-
liberal roots. The early waves of liberalism popularised sistance to liberal internationalism was deep and bitter,
economic individualism while expanding constitutional with critics arguing that growing global interdependency
government and parliamentary authority.[164] One of the would result in the loss of national sovereignty and that
greatest liberal triumphs involved replacing the capri- democracies represented a corrupt order incapable of ei-
cious nature of royalist and absolutist rule with a decision- ther domestic or global governance.[170]
making process encoded in written law.[164] Liberals
sought and established a constitutional order that prized Other scholars have praised the influence of liberal inter-
important individual freedoms, such as the freedom of nationalism, claiming that the rise of globalisation “con-
speech and of association, an independent judiciary and stitutes a triumph of the liberal vision that first appeared
public trial by jury, and the abolition of aristocratic in the eighteenth century” while also writing that liber-
privileges.[164] alism is “the only comprehensive and hopeful vision of
world affairs”.[171] The gains of liberalism have been sig-
These sweeping changes in political authority marked nificant. In 1975, roughly 40 countries around the world
the modern transition from absolutism to constitutional were characterised as liberal democracies, but that num-
rule.[164] The expansion and promotion of free markets ber had increased to more than 80 as of 2008.[172] Most of
was another major liberal achievement. Before they the world’s richest and most powerful nations are liberal
could establish markets, however, liberals had to destroy democracies with extensive social welfare programs.[173]
the old economic structures of the world. In that vein, lib-
erals ended mercantilist policies, royal monopolies, and
various other restraints on economic activities.[164] They
also sought to abolish internal barriers to trade – eliminat- 6 See also
ing guilds, local tariffs, the Commons and prohibitions on
the sale of land along the way.[164] • Constitutional liberalism
Later waves of modern liberal thought and struggle were • Friedrich Naumann Foundation is a global advocacy
strongly influenced by the need to expand civil rights. In organisation that supports liberal ideas and policies.
the 1960s and 1970s, the cause of Second Wave femi-
nism in the United States was advanced in large part by • Muscular liberalism
liberal feminist organisations such as the National Orga-
nization for Women.[165] In addition to supporting gender • Rule according to higher law
equality, liberals also have advocated for racial equality in
their drive to promote civil rights, and a global civil rights • The American Prospect is an American political
movement in the 20th century achieved several objectives magazine that backs social liberal policies.
towards both goals. Among the various regional and na- • The Liberal was a British magazine dedicated to cov-
tional movements, the civil rights movement in the United erage of liberal politics and liberal culture.
States during the 1960s strongly highlighted the liberal ef-
forts for equal rights. Describing the political efforts of
the period, some historians have asserted that “the voting
rights campaign marked...the convergence of two politi- 7 Notes
cal forces at their zenith: the black campaign for equality
and the movement for liberal reform,” further remarking [1] “liberalism In general, the belief that it is the aim of pol-
about how “the struggle to assure blacks the ballot coin- itics to preserve individual rights and to maximize free-
cided with the liberal call for expanded federal action to dom of choice.” Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics,
protect the rights of all citizens”.[166] The Great Society Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, Third edition 2009,
project launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson over- ISBN 978-0-19-920516-5
saw the creation of Medicare and Medicaid, the estab- [2] “political rationalism, hostility to autocracy, cultural dis-
lishment of Head Start and the Job Corps as part of the taste for conservatism and for tradition in general, toler-
War on Poverty, and the passage of the landmark Civil ance, and ... individualism.” John Dunn, “Western Politi-
Rights Act of 1964 – an altogether rapid series of events cal Theory in the Face of the Future”, Cambridge Univer-
that some historians have dubbed the Liberal Hour.[167] sity Press, (1993), ISBN 978-0521437554
17
[3] “With a nod to Robert Trivers' definition of altruistic be- [12] “All mankind...being all equal and independent, no one
havior (Trivers 1971, p. 35), Satoshi Kanazawa defines ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or pos-
liberalism (as opposed to conservatism) as “the genuine sessions”, John Locke, Second Treatise of Government
concern for the welfare of genetically unrelated others and
the willingness to contribute larger proportions of private [13] New Liberalism: Matthew Kalkman: 9781926991047:
resources for the welfare of such others” (Kanazawa 2010, Amazon.com: Books. amazon.com. ISBN 1926991044.
p. 38).
[14] Often referred to simply as “liberalism” in the United
[4] Young 2002, p. 39. States.
[5] “The Liberal Agenda for the 21st Century”. Retrieved 20 [15] Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans by Arthur
March 2015. Schlesinger, Jr. (1956) from: The Politics of Hope
[6] Nader Hashemi (11 March 2009). Islam, Secularism, (Boston: Riverside Press, 1962). “Liberalism in the U.S.
and Liberal Democracy: Toward a Democratic Theory usage has little in common with the word as used in the
for Muslim Societies. Oxford University Press. ISBN politics of any other country, save possibly Britain.”
9780199717514. Liberal democracy requires a form of [16] Gross, p. 5.
secularism to sustain itself
[7] Kathleen G. Donohue (19 December 2003). Freedom [17] Kirchner, pp. 2–3.
from Want: American Liberalism and the Idea of the [18] Colton and Palmer, p. 479.
Consumer (New Studies in American Intellectual and Cul-
tural History). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN [19] Emil J. Kirchner, Liberal Parties in Western Europe, “Lib-
9780801874260. Retrieved 31 December 2007. Three of eral parties were among the first political parties to form,
them – freedom from fear, freedom of speech, and free- and their long-serving and influential records, as partic-
dom of religion – have long been fundamental to liberal- ipants in parliaments and governments, raise important
ism. questions ... ", Cambridge University Press, 1988, ISBN
[8] The Economist, Volume 341, Issues 7995-7997. The 978-0521323949
Economist. 1996. Retrieved 31 December 2007. For all [20] Liberalism, Encyclopædia Britannica
three share a belief in the liberal society as defined above:
a society that provides constitutional government (rule by [21] Rothbard, The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revo-
law, not by men) and freedom of religion, thought, expres- lution and Classical Liberalism.
sion and economic interaction; a society in which ...
[22] “The Rise, Decline, and Reemergence of Classical Liber-
[9] Sehldon S. Wolin (2004). Politics and Vision: Continuity alism”. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
and Innovation in Western Political Thought. Princeton
University Press. ISBN 9780691119779. Retrieved [23] West 1996, p. xv.
31 December 2007. While liberalism practically disap-
peared as a publicly professed ideology, it retained a vir- [24] Delaney, p. 18.
tual monopoly in the ... The most frequently cited rights
included freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion, [25] Godwin et al., p. 12.
property, and procedural rights
[26] Copleston, pp. 39–41.
[10] Edwin Brown Firmage, Bernard G. Weiss, John Wood-
land Welch (1990). Religion and Law: Biblical- [27] Locke, p. 170.
Judaic and Islamic Perspectives. Eisenbrauns. ISBN
9780931464393. Retrieved 31 December 2007. There [28] Forster, p. 219.
is no need to expound the foundations and principles of [29] Zvesper, p. 93.
modern liberalism, which emphasises the values of free-
dom of conscience and freedom of religion [30] Feldman, Noah (2005). Divided by God. Farrar, Straus
[11] John Joseph Lalor (1883). Cyclopædia of Political Sci- and Giroux, pg. 29 (“It took John Locke to translate the
ence, Political Economy, and of the Political History of demand for liberty of conscience into a systematic argu-
the United States. Nabu Press. Retrieved 31 December ment for distinguishing the realm of government from the
2007. Democracy attaches itself to a form of government: realm of religion.”)
liberalism, to liberty and guarantees of liberty. The two [31] Feldman, Noah (2005). Divided by God. Farrar, Straus
may agree; they are not contradictory, but they are neither and Giroux, pg. 29
identical, nor necessarily connected. In the moral order,
liberalism is the liberty to think, recognised and practiced. [32] McGrath, Alister. 1998. Historical Theology, An In-
This is primordial liberalism, as the liberty to think is it- troduction to the History of Christian Thought. Oxford:
self the first and noblest of liberties. Man would not be Blackwell Publishers. pp. 214–5.
free in any degree or in any sphere of action, if he were
not a thinking being endowed with consciousness. The [33] Bornkamm, Heinrich (1962). “Die Religion in
freedom of worship, the freedom of education, and the Geschichte und Gegenwart - Chapter: Toleranz. In der
freedom of the press are derived the most directly from Geschichte des Christentums” (in German)., 3. Auflage,
the freedom to think. Band VI, col. 942
18 7 NOTES
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Its liberalism is for the most part the later version of liber-
alism – modern liberalism.
• Adams, Ian. Ideology and politics in Britain today.
[145] Arnold, p. 3. Modern liberalism occupies the left-of-center Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998.
in the traditional political spectrum and is represented by ISBN 0-7190-5056-1
the Democratic Party in the United States.
• Alterman, Eric. Why We're Liberals. New York:
[146] Chodos et al., p. 9. Viking Adult, 2008. ISBN 0-670-01860-0
[153] Monsma and Soper, p. 95. • Arnold, N. Scott. Imposing values: an essay on liber-
alism and regulation. New York: Oxford University
[154] “International Democrat Union » Member Parties”. Inter- Press, 2009. ISBN 0-495-50112-3
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• Auerbach, Alan and Kotlikoff, Laurence. Macroe-
[155] “A new battleline for Liberal ideas”. The Australian. 26 conomics Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998. ISBN 0-
October 2009. 262-01170-0
[156] “Vote 1 Baillieu to save small-l liberalism”. The Age (Mel- • Barzilai, Gad. Communities and Law: Politics and
bourne). Cultures of Legal Identities University of Michigan
[157] Karatnycky, p. 59.
Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-472-03079-8
[161] Steinberg, pp. 1–2. • George Brandis, Tom Harley & Donald Markwell
(editors). Liberals Face the Future: Essays on Aus-
[162] Van den Berghe, p. 56. tralian Liberalism, Melbourne: Oxford University
Press, 1984.
[163] Van den Berghe, p. 57.
• Alan Bullock & Maurice Shock (editors). The Lib-
[164] Gould, p. 3.
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[165] Worell, p. 470. don Press, 1967.
[166] Mackenzie and Weisbrot, p. 178. • Chodos, Robert et al. The unmaking of Canada: the
hidden theme in Canadian history since 1945. Hal-
[167] Mackenzie and Weisbrot, p. 5. ifax: James Lorimer & Company, 1991. ISBN 1-
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[168] Sinclair, p. 145.
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[169] Schell, p. 266.
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[170] Schell, pp. 273–80.
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London: Verso. 2011
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• Lyons, Martyn. Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy (Princeton UP, 2012)
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23
9 External links
• Liberalism an article by Encyclopædia Britannica
• Liberalism entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
• Liberalism at DMOZ
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J04n, JanDeFietser, Gnarlymtb, Whatupnegro, Omnipaedista, Mortotron 77777, RibotBOT, Many Heads, Amaury, Grapphti, Dou-
los Christos, Someone963852, Drdpw, QwertyLP95925, Mizzlefizz, Shadowjams, What are you on about?, Introman, Leewells2000,
SD5, Thehelpfulbot, BoomerAB, Bekus, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Billyoffland, FrescoBot, Redvoltfaction, Sock, NYUism, LucienBOT,
Tobby72, Uncle187, Cismador, Adam9389, Blank124, Bloody1956, Usedmagic1, Nowthen123, I42, Twood97, Свифт, HJ Mitchell,
Patrick.clune, Alexkbarr77, CynofGavuf, HamburgerRadio, Sheplola, OgreBot, Harleyrocker, Onegiantstep555, Pinethicket, I dream of
horses, LittleWink, Edyer1, Jake grey, Skyerise, Olivemountain, Acereap, Motorizer, MeUser42, RandomStringOfCharacters, Jujutacular,
Hawk shadow, Jazzydave, White Shadows, Keri, Cwood4ever, Bullet Dropper, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Colchester121891, Bbarkley2,
Lotje, Spiritpower, Callanecc, Vrenator, Clarkcj12, January, Mattcierpiot, Cowlibob, DA1, Muffins88, Pwningyourpage, Tbhotch, Beeea,
SnBaonner, Keegscee, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, Woohoo63, RjwilmsiBot, Krbi2009, Marksoul314, Steve03Mills, EmausBot,
Therussiandog, John of Reading, Secretduck, Gfoley4, Dewritech, Iris91, RenamedUser01302013, Hanxu9, Klbrain, Sterrettc, Dallen13,
Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Peeweebee, Wikipelli, K6ka, Kkm010, Susfele, Lesswealth, Josve05a, Tulandro, LuvGoldfish, Godor031,
Zap Rowsdower, Makecat, Letsrockthegalaxy, TyA, Longhorn777, Rostz, L Kensington, VLADIMIRSAMUEL, Pass3456, Noodleki,
Killerprey23, Donner60, Pochsad, FurryAminal, ChuispastonBot, Tricee, Peter Karlsen, Cheesecottage, GrayFullbuster, DASHBotAV,
Tentontunic, Hypocritepedia3, Hypocritepedia4, Hypocritepedia5, Alcazar84, E. Fokker, BravoAlphaSix, Eduardobibm, ClueBot NG,
Peter James, Derfel73, Tuck1234, ATX-NL, MelbourneStar, Iandrussell, BozellHammer, Purple1342, RJFF, Wilber.pitt, Braincricket,
O.Koslowski, Tygman, Sulawesi99, 22weaverroad, Xomthas, Widr, North Atlanticist Usonian, Atlantica45235432, Helpful Pixie Bot, Elar-
son13, Strike Eagle, Titodutta, AlterBerg, Brain Researcher, BG19bot, Holmgard~enwiki, Armadillopteryx, The Banner Turbo, Juro2351,
ISTB351, Fadoodle, Graham11, Simonhardt93, Dolfan10, User1961914, Cadiomals, Scientiom, Wikih101, Tony Tan, Aeroplanepics0112,
Harizotoh9, Thewordandthevoid, GregGatsby, Supercowman2001, Stumenglish, Achowat, Shaun, Zachy580, SaudiPseudonym, Clewis98,
WOLfan112, Brittablez, Ameritopia, Jonosbro, Cyberbot II, Powellzy the scientist, Mediran, Bmankin1, Khazar2, JoshWiki123, JYBot,
Dexbot, Amurrican, Rothbardanswer, Mr. Guye, Spirit of Eagle, Enapmot, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Sadfqwt, LiamFitzGilbert, Eldr
comms, Cupco, Geocapp, Hillbillyholiday, Herbtea, F6Zman, Okeechobee3, FallingGravity, Zmandude2, I am One of Many, Laplace-
mat, Nonsenseferret, Cmckain14, Ragingbearcat, ApertureScienceInc., Hendrick 99, Jakec, Liberalufp, LudicrousTripe, DavidLeighEllis,
Urmom123824, Sadgwtfrghsdfsfdhsdfg, 12uy3r232yef23uy, Spikybebot, Ginsuloft, UncappingCone64, Atotalstranger, Whizz40, Blon-
deguynative, Hoopout, Dfine7218, Kckranger, DagonAmigaOS, Azertopius, Loni91, Barjimoa, JaconaFrere, Epic Failure, Tristanbratz,
Henrypgreenwood, Uvalacrosse18, Whomyl, Hayek79, GINGERTROLLOL123, Liberty89, Filedelinkerbot, Proudcommunist111111,
Aman223, Courtneysellers, Stricker518, McRapin, BrightonC, Forced Freedom, Toddcates, Cburge10, Sigehelmus, Rapjeknowxl, Ajboes,
Treed85, Labracadabrador, Bobolicener, 19bayoudog66, Peet2000, Qsubject, DarvivraD, Colonial Overlord, YeOldeGentleman, F W
Egglestone, Wikipedian555, Hanskog, Chaskelrevs, Some Gadget Geek, Ahmed hallow, Ckoch57, Cnbr15, Tcrackcrack, Nøkkenbuer,
Byronica, KasparBot, Crazy4magic, Compassionate727, WellsIndustries, Liberalscumsuck, Faddddd, CAPTAIN RAJU, TheMeissnerEf-
fect, Tim.robbins123, Zachnow4, BowlAndSpoon, Kyd568, IWillBuildTheRoads, Digitalstyle and Anonymous: 1538
10.2 Images
• File:1846_-_Anti-Corn_Law_League_Meeting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/1846_-_
Anti-Corn_Law_League_Meeting.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.uoregon.edu/~{}kimball/EUR.REV.2.PHASES.
htm Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Agreement_of_the_People_(1647-1649).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Agreement_of_the_
People_%281647-1649%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:ChurchillGeorge0001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/ChurchillGeorge0001.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Krockow: CHurchill Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
26 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES