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Liberalism

This article is about the ideology of liberalism. For local 1 Etymology and definition
differences in its meaning, see Liberalism by country.
“Liberals” redirects here. For other uses, see Liberal Words such as liberal, liberty, libertarian, and libertine
(disambiguation). all trace their history to the Latin liber, which means
“free”.[16] One of the first recorded instances of the word
Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview liberal occurs in 1375, when it was used to describe the
founded on ideas of liberty and equality.[1][2][3] Whereas liberal arts in the context of an education desirable for a
classical liberalism and European liberalism prioritise lib- free-born man.[16] The word’s early connection with the
erty, American liberalism and social liberalism stress classical education of a medieval university soon gave
equality.[4] Liberals espouse a wide array of views way to a proliferation of different denotations and con-
depending on their understanding of these principles, notations. Liberal could refer to “free in bestowing” as
but generally they support ideas and programs such early as 1387, “made without stint” in 1433, “freely per-
as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom mitted” in 1530, and “free from restraint” – often as a pe-
of religion, free markets, civil rights, democratic soci- jorative remark – in the 16th and the 17th centuries.[16]
eties, secular governments, and international coopera- In 16th century England, liberal could have positive or
tion.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11] negative attributes in referring to someone’s generosity or
indiscretion.[16] In Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare
Liberalism first became a distinct political movement
wrote of “a liberal villaine” who “hath...confest his vile
during the Age of Enlightenment, when it became pop-
encounters”.[16] With the rise of the Enlightenment, the
ular among philosophers and economists in the Western
word acquired decisively more positive undertones, be-
world. Liberalism rejected the prevailing social and polit-
ing defined as “free from narrow prejudice” in 1781 and
ical norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute
“free from bigotry” in 1823.[16] In 1815, the first use of
monarchy, and the Divine Right of Kings. The 17th-
the word liberalism appeared in English.[17] In Spain, the
century philosopher John Locke is often credited with
Liberales, the first group to use the liberal label in a po-
founding liberalism as a distinct philosophical tradition.
litical context,[18] fought for the implementation of the
Locke argued that each man has a natural right to life,
1812 Constitution for decades. From 1820 to 1823, dur-
liberty and property,[12] while adding that governments
ing the Trienio Liberal, King Ferdinand VII was com-
must not violate these rights based on the social contract.
pelled by the liberales to swear to uphold the Constitu-
Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to
tion. By the middle of the 19th century, liberal was used
replace absolutism in government with representative
as a politicised term for parties and movements all over
democracy and the rule of law.
the world.[19]
Prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution,
Over time, the meaning of the word “liberalism” began
the American Revolution, and the French Revolution
to diverge in different parts of the world. According to
used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow
the Encyclopedia Britannica, “In the United States, lib-
of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started
eralism is associated with the welfare-state policies of
to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution.
the New Deal program of the Democratic administration
The 19th century saw liberal governments established in
of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, whereas in Europe it is
nations across Europe, South America, and North Amer-
[13] more commonly associated with a commitment to lim-
ica. In this period, the dominant ideological oppo-
ited government and laissez-faire economic policies.”[20]
nent of classical liberalism was conservatism, but liber-
Consequently, in the U.S., the ideas of individualism and
alism later survived major ideological challenges from
laissez-faire economics previously associated with classi-
new opponents, such as fascism and communism. Dur-
cal liberalism became the basis for the emerging school
ing the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as
of libertarian thought.[21]
liberal democracies found themselves on the winning side
in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the es-
tablishment of social liberalism became a key component
in the expansion of the welfare state.[14][15] Today, liberal 2 History
parties continue to wield power and influence throughout
the world. Main article: History of liberalism

1
2 2 HISTORY

2.1 Early history

John Locke was the first to develop a liberal philosophy, including


the right to private property and the consent of the governed.

the radical notion that government acquires consent from


the governed, which has to be constantly present for a
government to remain legitimate.[26] His influential Two
The Agreement of the People (1647) was a manifesto for political Treatises (1690), the foundational text of liberal ideology,
change, proposed by the Levellers during the English Civil War. It
outlined his major ideas.[27] His insistence that lawful
called for freedom of religion, frequent convening of Parliament
government did not have a supernatural basis was a sharp
and equality under the law.
break from previous theories of governance.[28][29] Locke
also defined the concept of the separation of church and
Isolated strands of liberal thought had existed in Western
state.[30] Based on the social contract principle, Locke ar-
philosophy since the Ancient Greeks, but the first ma-
gued that there was a natural right to the liberty of con-
jor signs of liberal politics emerged in modern times.
science, which he argued must therefore remain protected
In the 17th century, political and financial disputes be-
from any government authority.[31] He also formulated
tween the English Parliament and King Charles I sparked
a general defence for religious toleration in his Letters
a massive civil war in the 1640s. The war culminated
Concerning Toleration.[32] Locke was influenced by the
in the execution of Charles and the establishment of the
liberal ideas of John Milton, who was a staunch advo-
Commonwealth of England. The period produced a sig-
cate of freedom in all its forms.[33] Milton argued for
nificant amount of political and philosophical commen-
disestablishment as the only effective way of achieving
tary. In particular, the Levellers, a radical political move-
broad toleration.[34] In his Areopagitica, Milton provided
ment, published their manifesto Agreement of the People,
one of the first arguments for the importance of freedom
in which they advocated for popular sovereignty, for ex-
of speech – “the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue
tended voting suffrage, religious tolerance and equality
freely according to conscience, above all liberties”.
before the law. Many of the liberal concepts of Locke
were foreshadowed in the radical ideas that were freely
aired at the time.[22] Algernon Sidney was second only to
2.2 Glorious Revolution
John Locke in his influence on liberal political thought in
eighteenth-century Britain.[23] He believed that absolute Main article: Glorious Revolution
monarchy was a great political evil, and his major work, The impact of these ideas steadily increased during the
Discourses Concerning Government, argued that the sub- 17th century in England, culminating in the Glorious
jects of the monarch were entitled by right to share in theRevolution of 1688 which enshrined parliamentary
government through advice and counsel. sovereignty and the right of revolution, and led to the
These ideas were first unified as a distinct ideology by the establishment of what many consider the first modern,
English philosopher John Locke, generally regarded as liberal state.[35] Significant legislative milestones in this
the father of modern liberalism.[24][25] Locke developed period included the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 which
2.3 Age of Enlightenment 3

dented freedom of the press.

2.3 Age of Enlightenment

Main article: Age of Enlightenment

The development of liberalism continued throughout the


18th century with the burgeoning Enlightenment ideals of
the era. This was a period of profound intellectual vitality
that questioned old traditions and influenced several Eu-
ropean monarchies throughout the 18th century. In con-
trast to England, the French experience in the 18th cen-
tury was characterised by the perpetuation of feudal pay-
ments and rights and absolutism. Ideas that challenged
the status quo were often harshly repressed. Most of
the philosophes of the French Enlightenment were pro-
gressive in the liberal sense and advocated the reform of
the French system of government along more constitu-
tional and liberal lines. The American Enlightenment is
a period of intellectual ferment in the thirteen Ameri-
can colonies in the period 1714–1818, which led to the
American Revolution, and the creation of the American
Republic. Influenced by the 18th-century European En-
lightenment, and its own native American Philosophy, the
American Enlightenment applied scientific reasoning to
politics, science, and religion, promoted religious toler-
ance, and restored literature, the arts, and music as im-
portant disciplines and professions worthy of study in col-
leges.

The Bill of Rights was a landmark piece of liberal legislation.

strengthened the convention that forbade detention lack-


ing sufficient cause or evidence. The Bill of Rights for-
mally established the supremacy of the law and of par-
liament over the monarch and laid down basic rights for
all Englishmen. The Bill made royal interference with
the law and with elections to parliament illegal, made the
agreement of parliament necessary for the implementa-
tion of any new taxes and outlawed the maintenance of
a standing army during peacetime without parliament’s
consent. The right to petition the monarch was granted
to everyone and "cruel and unusual punishments" were
made illegal under all circumstances.[36][37] This was fol-
lowed a year later with the Act of Toleration, which drew
its ideological content from John Locke's four letters ad-
vocating religious toleration.[38] The Act allowed freedom Montesquieu argued for the separation of the powers of govern-
of worship to Nonconformists who pledged oaths of Alle- ment.
giance and Supremacy to the Anglican Church. In 1695,
the Commons refused to renew the Licensing of the Press Baron de Montesquieu wrote a series of highly influen-
Act 1662,[39] leading to a continuous period of unprece- tial works in the early 18th century, including Persian let-
4 2 HISTORY

ters (1717) and The Spirit of the Laws (1748). The lat- debated about how to move forward. The Articles of
ter exerted tremendous influence, both inside and out- Confederation, written in 1776, now appeared inadequate
side France. Montesquieu pleaded in favor of a consti- to provide security, or even a functional government.
tutional system of government, the preservation of civil The Confederation Congress called a Constitutional Con-
liberties and the law, and the idea that political institu- vention in 1787 which resulted in the writing of a new
tions ought to reflect the social and geographical aspects Constitution of the United States establishing a federal
of each community. In particular, he argued that politi- government.
cal liberty required the separation of the powers of gov- In the context of the times, the Constitution was a re-
ernment. Building on John Locke's Second Treatise of
publican and liberal document. It established a strong
Government, he advocated that the executive, legislative, national government and provided clear Separation of
and judicial functions of government should be assigned
powers between the branches of government (executive,
to different bodies. He also emphasised the importance legislative, and judicial) to limit any one branch from ex-
of a robust due process in law, including the right to a fair
ercising the core functions of another. Additionally, the
trial, the presumption of innocence and proportionality in first ten amendments to the Constitution, known collec-
the severity of punishment. Another important figure of tively as the Bill of Rights, placed restrictions on the pow-
the French Enlightenment was Voltaire. Initially believ- ers of government and offered specific protections of sev-
ing in the constructive role an enlightened monarch could eral of the natural rights liberal thinkers used to justify the
play in improving the welfare of the people, he eventu- Revolution.[42][43] It remains the oldest liberal governing
ally came to a new conclusion: “It is up to us to cultivate document in effect worldwide.
our garden”. His most polemical and ferocious attacks
on intolerance and religious persecutions indeed began
to appear a few years later.[40] Despite much persecution,
Voltaire remained a courageous polemicist who indefati- 2.5 French Revolution
gably fought for civil rights – the right to a fair trial and
freedom of religion – and who denounced the hypocrisies Main article: Influence of the French Revolution
and injustices of the Ancien Régime.

Historians widely regard the French Revolution as one of


2.4 American Revolution the most important events in history.[44] The Revolution is
often seen as marking the “dawn of the modern era,”[45]
Main article: American Revolution and its convulsions are widely associated with “the tri-
[46]
Political tension between England and its American umph of liberalism”.
The French Revolution began in 1789 with the convo-
cation of the Estates-General in May. The first year of
the Revolution witnessed members of the Third Estate
proclaiming the Tennis Court Oath in June, the Storming
of the Bastille in July. The two key events that marked
the triumph of liberalism were the Abolition of feudalism
in France on the night of 4 August 1789, which marked
the collapse of feudal and old traditional rights and privi-
leges and restrictions, and the passage of the Declaration
of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August. The
rise of Napoleon as dictator in 1799, heralded a reverse
of many of the republican and democratic gains. How-
ever Napoleon did not restore the ancien regime. He kept
The Philadelphia Convention in 1787 adopted the United States much of the liberalism and imposed a liberal code of law,
Constitution, which is still in effect. the Code Napoleon.
Outside France the Revolution had a major impact and
colonies grew after 1765 over the issue of taxation its ideas became widespread. Furthermore, the French
without representation, culminating in the Declaration armies in the 1790s and 1800s directly overthrew feu-
of Independence of a new republic, and the resulting dal remains in much of western Europe. They liber-
American Revolutionary War to defend it. alised property laws, ended seigneurial dues, abolished
The Declaration of Independence, written in committee the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate en-
largely by Thomas Jefferson, echoed Locke: “We hold trepreneurship, legalised divorce, and closed the Jewish
these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created ghettos. The Inquisition ended as did the Holy Roman
equal, and are endowed by their creator with certain un- Empire. The power of church courts and religious au-
alienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and thority was sharply reduced, and equality under the law
the pursuit of happiness”.[41] After the war, the leaders was proclaimed for all men.[47]
2.7 Liberal economic theory 5

Artz emphasises the benefits the Italians gained from the


French Revolution:

For nearly two decades the Italians had the ex-


cellent codes of law, a fair system of taxa-
tion, a better economic situation, and more re-
ligious and intellectual toleration than they had
known for centuries.... Everywhere old phys-
ical, economic, and intellectual barriers had
been thrown down and the Italians had begun
to be aware of a common nationality.[48]

Likewise in Switzerland the long-term impact of the


French Revolution has been assessed by Martin:

It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the


law, equality of languages, freedom of thought
and faith; it created a Swiss citizenship, ba-
sis of our modern nationality, and the separa-
tion of powers, of which the old regime had
no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and
other economic restraints; it unified weights
and measures, reformed civil and penal law, au-
thorised mixed marriages (between Catholics
and Protestants), suppressed torture and im-
proved justice; it developed education and pub-
lic works.[49]

2.6 Radicalism
Main article: Radicalism Thomas Paine's The Rights of Man was a manifesto for political
The radical liberal movement began in the 1790s in radicalism.
England and concentrated on parliamentary and elec-
toral reform, emphasising natural rights and popular
sovereignty.[50] Thomas Paine's The Rights of Man (1791)
2.7 Liberal economic theory
was a response to Burke's conservative essay Reflections
on the Revolution in France. The ensuing Revolution Con-
troversy featured, among others, Mary Wollstonecraft, Main article: Classical liberalism
who followed with an early feminist tract A Vindication
of the Rights of Woman. Radicals encouraged mass sup- The development into maturity of classical liberalism
port for democratic reform along with rejection of the took place before and after the French Revolution in
monarchy, aristocracy, and all forms of privilege. The Britain, and was based on the following core concepts:
Reform Act 1832 was put through with the support of classical economics, free trade, laissez-faire government
public outcry, mass meetings of “political unions” and with minimal intervention and taxation and a balanced
riots in some cities. This now enfranchised the mid- budget. Classical liberals were committed to individu-
dle classes, but failed to meet radical demands. Follow- alism, liberty and equal rights. The primary intellectual
ing the Reform Act the mainly aristocratic Whigs in the influences on 19th century liberal trends were those of
House of Commons were joined by a small number of Adam Smith and the classical economists, and Jeremy
parliamentary Radicals, as well as an increased number Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
of middle class Whigs. By 1839 they were informally be-
ing called “the Liberal Party.” The Liberals produced one Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776,
of the greatest British prime ministers – William Glad- was to provide most of the ideas of economics, at least
stone, who was also known as the Grand Old Man and until the publication of J. S. Mill's Principles in 1848.[52]
was the towering political figure of liberalism in the 19th Smith addressed the motivation for economic activity,
century.[51] Under Gladstone, the Liberals reformed ed- the causes of prices and the distribution of wealth, and
ucation, disestablished the Church of Ireland, and intro- the policies the state should follow in order to maximise
duced the secret ballot for local and parliamentary elec- wealth.[53]
tions. Smith wrote that as long as supply, demand, prices, and
6 2 HISTORY

competition were left free of government regulation, the The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was a watershed
pursuit of material self-interest, rather than altruism, moment and encapsulated the triumph of free trade and
would maximise the wealth of a society[54] through profit- liberal economics. The Anti-Corn Law League brought
driven production of goods and services. An "invisible together a coalition of liberal and radical groups in sup-
hand" directed individuals and firms to work toward the port of free trade under the leadership of Richard Cobden
nation’s good as an unintended consequence of efforts to and John Bright, who opposed militarism and public ex-
maximise their own gain. This provided a moral justifica- penditure. Their policies of low public expenditure and
tion for the accumulation of wealth, which had previously low taxation were later adopted by the liberal chancellor
been viewed by some as sinful.[53] of the exchequer and later prime minister, William Ewart
[61]
His main emphasis was on the benefit of free inter- Gladstone. Although British classical liberals aspired
to a minimum of state activity, the passage of the Factory
nal and international trade, which he thought could in-
crease wealth through specialisation in production.[55] He Acts in the early 19th century which involved government
interference in the economy met with their approval.
also opposed restrictive trade preferences, state grants
of monopolies, and employers’ organisations and trade
unions.[56] Government should be limited to defence, 2.8 Spread of liberalism
public works and the administration of justice, financed
by taxes based on income.[57] Smith was one of the pro-
genitors of the idea, which was long central to classical
liberalism and has resurfaced in the globalisation litera-
ture of the later 20th and early 21st centuries, that free
trade promotes peace.[58]

The iconic painting Liberty Leading the People by Eugène De-


lacroix, a tableau of the July Revolution in 1830.

Abolitionist and suffrage movements spread, along with


representative and democratic ideals. France established
an enduring republic in the 1870s, and a vicious war in the
A meeting of the Anti-Corn Law League in Exeter Hall in 1846
United States ensured the integrity of the nation and the
Utilitarianism provided the political justification for the abolition of slavery in the south. Meanwhile, a mixture
implementation of economic liberalism by British gov- of liberal and nationalist sentiment in Italy and Germany
ernments, which was to dominate economic policy from brought about the unification of the two countries in the
the 1830s. Although utilitarianism prompted legislative late 19th century. Liberal agitation in Latin America led
and administrative reform and John Stuart Mill's later to independence from the imperial power of Spain and
writings on the subject foreshadowed the welfare state, it Portugal.
was mainly used as a justification for laissez-faire.[59] The In France, the July Revolution of 1830, orchestrated by
central concept of utilitarianism, which was developed by liberal politicians and journalists, removed the Bourbon
Jeremy Bentham, was that public policy should seek to monarchy and inspired similar uprisings elsewhere in Eu-
provide “the greatest happiness of the greatest number”. rope. Frustration with the pace of political progress in the
While this could be interpreted as a justification for state early 19th century sparked even more gigantic revolutions
action to reduce poverty, it was used by classical liberals in 1848. Revolutions spread throughout the Austrian Em-
to justify inaction with the argument that the net bene- pire, the German states, and the Italian states. Govern-
fit to all individuals would be higher.[60] His philosophy ments fell rapidly. Liberal nationalists demanded writ-
proved to be extremely influential on government policy ten constitutions, representative assemblies, greater suf-
and led to increased Benthamite attempts at government frage rights, and freedom of the press.[62] A second re-
social control, including Robert Peel's Metropolitan Po- public was proclaimed in France. Serfdom was abol-
lice, prison reforms, the workhouses and asylums for the ished in Prussia, Galicia, Bohemia, and Hungary. The
mentally ill. indomitable Metternich, the Austrian builder of the reign-
2.9 Social liberalism 7

ing conservative order, shocked Europe when he resigned downturns in economic growth, a growing perception of
and fled to Britain in panic and disguise.[63] the evils of poverty, unemployment and relative depriva-
Eventually, however, the success of the revolutionaries tion present within modern industrial cities, and the ag-
petered out. Without French help, the Italians were easily itation of organised labour. The ideal of the self-made
defeated by the Austrians. With some luck and skill, Aus- individual, who through hard work and talent could make
tria also managed to contain the bubbling nationalist sen- his or her place in the world, seemed increasingly im-
timents in Germany and Hungary, helped along by the plausible. A major political reaction against the changes
failure of the Frankfurt Assembly to unify the German introduced by industrialisation and laissez-faire capital-
ism came from conservatives concerned about social bal-
states into a single nation. Two decades later, however,
the Italians and the Germans realised their dreams for ance, although socialism later became a more impor-
tant force for change and reform. Some Victorian writ-
unification and independence. The Sardinian Prime Min-
ister, Camillo di Cavour, was a shrewd liberal who under- ers – including Charles Dickens, Thomas Carlyle, and
Matthew Arnold – became early influential critics of so-
stood that the only effective way for the Italians to gain
independence was if the French were on their side. [64] cial injustice.[65]
Napoleon III agreed to Cavour’s request for assistance and
John Stuart Mill contributed enormously to liberal
France defeated Austria in the Franco-Austrian War of thought by combining elements of classical liberalism
1859, setting the stage for Italian independence. German with what eventually became known as the new lib-
unification transpired under the leadership of Otto von eralism. Mill’s 1859 On Liberty addressed the nature
Bismarck, who decimated the enemies of Prussia in war and limits of the power that can be legitimately ex-
after war, finally triumphing against France in 1871 and ercised by society over the individual.[66] He gave an
proclaiming the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at impassioned defence of free speech, arguing that free
Versailles, ending another saga in the drive for nationali-
discourse is a necessary condition for intellectual and so-
sation. The French proclaimed a third republic after their
cial progress. Mill defined "social liberty" as protection
loss in the war. from “the tyranny of political rulers.” He introduced a
number of different concepts of the form tyranny can
take, referred to as social tyranny, and tyranny of the
2.9 Social liberalism majority respectively. Social liberty meant limits on the
ruler’s power through obtaining recognition of political
Main article: Social liberalism liberties or rights and by the establishment of a system of
By the end of the nineteenth century, the principles of "constitutional checks”.[67]
However, although Mill’s initial economic philosophy
supported free markets and argued that progressive tax-
ation penalised those who worked harder,[68] he later al-
tered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chap-
ters to his Principles of Political Economy in defence of a
socialist outlook, and defending some socialist causes,[69]
including the radical proposal that the whole wage system
be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system.
Another early liberal convert to greater government in-
tervention was Thomas Hill Green. Seeing the effects of
alcohol, he believed that the state should foster and pro-
tect the social, political and economic environments in
which individuals will have the best chance of acting ac-
cording to their consciences. The state should intervene
only where there is a clear, proven and strong tendency of
a liberty to enslave the individual.[70] Green regarded the
national state as legitimate only to the extent that it up-
holds a system of rights and obligations that is most likely
to foster individual self-realisation.
This strand began to coalesce into the social liberalism
movement at the turn of the twentieth century in Britain.
The New Liberals, which included intellectuals like L.T.
Hobhouse, and John A. Hobson, saw individual liberty
John Stuart Mill's On Liberty greatly influenced the course of as something achievable only under favorable social and
19th century liberalism. economic circumstances.[71] In their view, the poverty,
squalor, and ignorance in which many people lived made
classical liberalism were being increasingly challenged by
8 2 HISTORY

in Italy when Mussolini set up his dictatorship in 1922,


in Poland in 1926 under Józef Piłsudski, and in Spain
in 1939 after the Spanish Civil War. Japan, which was
generally liberal in the 1920s, saw liberalism wither away
in the 1930s under pressure from the military.
The worldwide Great Depression, starting in 1929, has-
tened the discrediting of liberal economics and strength-
ened calls for state control over economic affairs. Eco-
nomic woes prompted widespread unrest in the European
political world, leading to the strengthening of fascism
and communism. Their rise in 1939 culminated in the
Second World War. The Allies, which included most of
the important liberal nations as well as communist Russia,
won World War II, defeating Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy,
and militarist Japan. After the war, there was a falling out
between Russia and the West, and the Cold War opened
in 1947 between the Communist Eastern Bloc and the
liberal Western Alliance.

2.11 Keynesian economics

Lloyd George and Churchill passed the 1909 People’s Budget, Meanwhile, the definitive liberal response to the Great
aimed at the redistribution of wealth. Depression was given by the English economist John
Maynard Keynes (1883-1946). Keynes had been
“brought up” as a classical liberal, but especially after
it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. World War I became increasingly a welfare or social
New Liberals believed that these conditions could be liberal.[76] A prolific writer, amongst many other works,
ameliorated only through collective action coordinated he had begun a theoretical work examining the relation-
by a strong, welfare-oriented, and interventionist state.[72] ship between unemployment, money and prices back in
The People’s Budget of 1909, championed by David the 1920s.[77] His The General Theory of Employment,
Lloyd George and fellow liberal Winston Churchill, in- Interest and Money was published in 1936,[78] and served
troduced unprecedented taxes on the wealthy in Britain as a theoretical justification for the interventionist poli-
and radical social welfare programmes to the country’s cies Keynes favoured for tackling a recession. The Gen-
policies.[73] It was the first budget with the expressed in- eral Theory challenged the earlier neo-classical economic
tent of redistributing wealth among the public.[74][75] paradigm, which had held that, provided it was unfettered
by government interference, the market would naturally
establish full employment equilibrium.
2.10 1920s

Liberalism gained momentum in the beginning of the


20th century. The bastion of autocracy, the Russian Tsar,
was overthrown in the first phase of the Russian Revolu-
tion. The Allied victory in the First World War and the
collapse of four empires seemed to mark the triumph of
liberalism across the European continent, not just among
the victorious allies, but also in Germany and the newly
created states of Eastern Europe. Militarism, as typified
by Germany, was defeated and discredited. As Blinkhorn
argues, the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of
“cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic toleration, na-
tional self-determination, free-market economics, repre-
sentative and responsible government, free trade, union-
ism, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes
Unskilled laborers working for the Works Progress Administra-
through a new body, the League of Nations.”
tion, a New Deal agency that employed millions of people during
Liberalism was defeated in Russia when the Communists the Great Depression. Putting the unemployed to work through
came to power under Vladimir Lenin in October 1917, public programs is a key tenet of social liberalism.
9

The book advocated activist economic policy by govern- chose their governments through competitive, free, and
ment to stimulate demand in times of high unemploy- fair elections.” Diamond goes on to say that democracy
ment, for example by spending on public works. “Let us bounced back and by 1995 the world was “predominantly
be up and doing, using our idle resources to increase our democratic”.[84] Liberalism still faces challenges, espe-
wealth,” he wrote in 1928. “With men and plants unem- cially with the phenomenal growth of China as a model
ployed, it is ridiculous to say that we cannot afford these combination of authoritarian government and economic
new developments. It is precisely with these plants and liberalism.[85]
these men that we shall afford them.”[79] Where the mar-
ket failed to properly allocate resources, the government
was required to stimulate the economy until private funds
could start flowing again – a “prime the pump” strategy
3 Philosophy
designed to boost industrial production.[80]
Liberalism – both as a political current and an intellectual
The social liberal program launched by President Roo-
tradition – is mostly a modern phenomenon that started
sevelt in the United States in 1933, reduced the
in the 17th century, although some liberal philosophical
unemployment rate from roughly 25 percent to about 15
ideas had precursors in classical antiquity. The Roman
percent by 1940.[81] Additional state spending and the
Emperor Marcus Aurelius praised “the idea of a polity ad-
very large public works program sparked by the Sec-
ministered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom
ond World War eventually pulled the United States out
of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which re-
of the Great Depression. From 1940 to 1941, govern-
spects most of all the freedom of the governed”.[86] Schol-
ment spending increased by 59 percent, the gross domes-
ars have also recognised a number of principles familiar
tic product increased 17 percent, and unemployment fell
to contemporary liberals in the works of several Sophists
below 10 percent for the first time since 1929.[82]
and in the Funeral Oration by Pericles.[87] Liberal phi-
The comprehensive welfare state was built in the UK after losophy symbolises an extensive intellectual tradition that
the Second World War. Although it was largely accom- has examined and popularised some of the most impor-
plished by the Labour Party, it was also significantly de- tant and controversial principles of the modern world. Its
signed by John Maynard Keynes, who laid the economic immense scholarly and academic output has been charac-
foundations, and by William Beveridge, who designed the terised as containing “richness and diversity”, but that di-
welfare system.[71] By the early years of the 21st century, versity often has meant that liberalism comes in different
most countries in the world have mixed economies, which formulations and presents a challenge to anyone looking
combine capitalism with economic liberalism. for a clear definition.[88]

2.12 Post-war liberalism 3.1 Major themes


The Cold War featured extensive ideological competition Though all liberal doctrines possess a common heritage,
and several proxy wars, but the widely feared Third World scholars frequently assume that those doctrines contain
War between the Soviet Union and the United States
“separate and often contradictory streams of thought”.[88]
never occurred. While communist states and liberal The objectives of liberal theorists and philosophers have
democracies competed against one another, an economic
differed across various times, cultures, and continents.
crisis in the 1970s inspired a move away from Keynesian The diversity of liberalism can be gleaned from the nu-
economics, especially under Margaret Thatcher in the
merous adjectives that liberal thinkers and movements
UK and Ronald Reagan in the US. have attached to the very term liberalism, including
This classical liberal renewal, called pejoratively classical, egalitarian, economic, social, welfare-state, eth-
"neoliberalism" by its opponents, lasted through the ical, humanist, deontological, perfectionist, democratic,
1980s and the 1990s, although the Great Recession and institutional, to name a few.[89] Despite these varia-
prompted a resurgence in Keynesian economic thought tions, liberal thought does exhibit a few definite and fun-
recently. Meanwhile, nearing the end of the 20th damental conceptions. At its very root, liberalism is a
century, communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed philosophy about the meaning of humanity and society.
precipitously, leaving liberal democracies as the only Political philosopher John Gray identified the common
major forms of government in the West. strands in liberal thought as being individualist, egalitar-
At the beginning of the Second World War, the num- ian, meliorist, and universalist. The individualist element
ber of democracies around the world was about the same avers the ethical primacy of the human being against the
as it had been forty years before.[83] After 1945, liberal pressures of social collectivism, the egalitarian element
democracies spread very quickly, but then retreated. In assigns the same moral worth and status to all individuals,
The Spirit of Democracy, Larry Diamond argues that by the meliorist element asserts that successive generations
1974, “dictatorship, not democracy, was the way of the can improve their sociopolitical arrangements, and the
world”, and that “Barely a quarter of independent states universalist element affirms the moral unity of the human
10 3 PHILOSOPHY

species and marginalises local cultural differences.[90] of life, liberty, and property.[94] These early liberals of-
The meliorist element has been the subject of much con- ten disagreed about the most appropriate form of govern-
troversy, defended by thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, ment, but they all shared the belief that liberty was natural
who believed in human progress, while suffering from and that its restriction needed strong justification.[94] Lib-
attacks by thinkers such as Rousseau, who believed that erals generally believed in limited government, although
human attempts to improve themselves through social co- several liberal philosophers decried government outright,
operation would fail.[91] Describing the liberal tempera- with Thomas Paine writing that “government even in its
ment, Gray claimed that it “has been inspired by skepti- best state is a necessary evil”.[95]
cism and by a fideistic certainty of divine revelation ... it
As part of the project to limit the powers of government,
has exalted the power of reason even as, in other contexts, various liberal theorists such as James Madison and the
it has sought to humble reason’s claims.”
Baron de Montesquieu conceived the notion of separation
The liberal philosophical tradition has searched for of powers, a system designed to equally distribute gov-
validation and justification through several intellectual ernmental authority among the executive, legislative, and
projects. The moral and political suppositions of liber- judicial branches.[95] Governments had to realise, liber-
alism have been based on traditions such as natural rights als maintained, that poor and improper governance gave
and utilitarian theory, although sometimes liberals even the people authority to overthrow the ruling order through
requested support from scientific and religious circles.[90] any and all possible means, even through outright vio-
Through all these strands and traditions, scholars have lence and revolution, if needed.[96] Contemporary liber-
identified the following major common facets of liberal als, heavily influenced by social liberalism, have contin-
thought: believing in equality and individual liberty, sup- ued to support limited constitutional government while
porting private property and individual rights, supporting also advocating for state services and provisions to en-
the idea of limited constitutional government, and recog- sure equal rights. Modern liberals claim that formal or
nising the importance of related values such as pluralism, official guarantees of individual rights are irrelevant when
toleration, autonomy, bodily integrity, and consent.[92] individuals lack the material means to benefit from those
rights and call for a greater role for government in the
administration of economic affairs.[97]
3.2 Classical and modern Early liberals also laid the groundwork for the separation
of church and state. As heirs of the Enlightenment, liber-
Enlightenment philosophers are given credit for shaping als believed that any given social and political order em-
liberal ideas. Thomas Hobbes attempted to determine anated from human interactions, not from divine will.[98]
the purpose and the justification of governing authority Many liberals were openly hostile to religious belief itself,
in a post-civil war England. Employing the idea of a state but most concentrated their opposition to the union of
of nature – a hypothetical war-like scenario prior to the religious and political authority, arguing that faith could
State – he constructed the idea of a social contract which prosper on its own, without official sponsorship or admin-
individuals enter into to guarantee their security and in istration by the state.[98]
so doing form the State, concluding that only an abso-
lute sovereign would be fully able to sustain such a peace. Beyond identifying a clear role for government in mod-
John Locke, while adopting Hobbes’s idea of a state of ern society, liberals also have obsessed over the meaning
nature and social contract, nevertheless argued that when and nature of the most important principle in liberal phi-
the monarch becomes a tyrant, that constituted a viola- losophy: liberty. From the 17th century until the 19th
tion of the social contract, which bestows life, liberty, and century, liberals – from Adam Smith to John Stuart Mill
property as a natural right. He concluded that the people – conceptualized liberty as the absence of interference
have a right to overthrow a tyrant. By placing life, liberty from government and from other individuals, claiming
and property as the supreme value of law and authority, that all people should have the freedom to develop their
Locke formulated the basis of liberalism based on social own unique abilities and capacities without being sabo-
contract theory. To these early enlightenment thinkers taged by others.[99] Mill’s On Liberty (1859), one of the
securing the most essential amenities of life – liberty and classic texts in liberal philosophy, proclaimed that “the
private property among them – required the formation of only freedom which deserves the name, is that of pursu-
a “sovereign” authority with universal jurisdiction.[93] In ing our own good in our own way”.[99] Support for laissez-
a natural state of affairs, liberals argued, humans were faire capitalism is often associated with this principle,
driven by the instincts of survival and self-preservation, with Friedrich Hayek arguing in The Road to Serfdom
and the only way to escape from such a dangerous exis- (1944) that reliance on free markets would preclude to-
tence was to form a common and supreme power capa- talitarian control by the state.[100]
ble of arbitrating between competing human desires.[94] Beginning in the late 19th century, however, a new con-
This power could be formed in the framework of a civil ception of liberty entered the liberal intellectual arena.
society that allows individuals to make a voluntary social This new kind of liberty became known as positive lib-
contract with the sovereign authority, transferring their erty to distinguish it from the prior negative version, and
natural rights to that authority in return for the protection
3.3 Criticism and support 11

much of the world in the 20th century. In addition to ex-


amining negative and positive liberty, liberals have tried
to understand the proper relationship between liberty and
democracy. As they struggled to expand suffrage rights,
liberals increasingly understood that people left out of the
democratic decision-making process were liable to the
tyranny of the majority, a concept explained in Mill’s On
Liberty and in Democracy in America (1835) by Alexis de
Tocqueville.[105] As a response, liberals began demanding
proper safeguards to thwart majorities in their attempts at
suppressing the rights of minorities.[105]
Besides liberty, liberals have developed several other
principles important to the construction of their philo-
sophical structure, such as equality, pluralism, and
toleration. Highlighting the confusion over the first
principle, Voltaire commented that “equality is at once
the most natural and at times the most chimeral of
things”.[106] All forms of liberalism assume, in some
basic sense, that individuals are equal.[4] In maintain-
ing that people are naturally equal, liberals assume that
they all possess the same right to liberty.[107] In other
words, no one is inherently entitled to enjoy the benefits
Thomas Hill Green was an influential liberal philosopher. In of liberal society more than anyone else, and all people
Prolegomena to Ethics (1884), he established the first major are equal subjects before the law.[108] Beyond this ba-
foundations for what later became known as positive liberty. In sic conception, liberal theorists diverge on their under-
a few years, his ideas became the official policy of the Liberal
standing of equality. American philosopher John Rawls
Party in Britain, precipitating the rise of social liberalism and the
modern welfare state.
emphasised the need to ensure not only equality under
the law, but also the equal distribution of material re-
sources that individuals required to develop their aspira-
it was first developed by British philosopher Thomas Hill tions in life.[108] Libertarian thinker Robert Nozick dis-
Green. Green rejected the idea that humans were driven agreed with Rawls, championing the former version of
solely by self-interest, emphasising instead the complex Lockean equality instead.[108] To contribute to the devel-
circumstances that are involved in the evolution of our opment of liberty, liberals also have promoted concepts
moral character.[101] In a very profound step for the future like pluralism and toleration. By pluralism, liberals re-
of modern liberalism, he also tasked society and political fer to the proliferation of opinions and beliefs that char-
institutions with the enhancement of individual freedom acterise a stable social order.[109] Unlike many of their
and identity and the development of moral character, will competitors and predecessors, liberals do not seek con-
and reason. And the state to create the conditions that formity and homogeneity in the way that people think; in
allow for the above, giving the opportunity for genuine fact, their efforts have been geared towards establishing
choice.[101] Foreshadowing the new liberty as the free- a governing framework that harmonises and minimises
dom to act rather than to avoid suffering from the acts of conflicting views, but still allows those views to exist and
others, Green wrote the following: flourish.[110] For liberal philosophy, pluralism leads easily
to toleration. Since individuals will hold diverging view-
points, liberals argue, they ought to uphold and respect
If it were ever reasonable to wish that the right of one another to disagree.[111] From the liberal
the usage of words had been other than it perspective, toleration was initially connected to religious
has been... one might be inclined to wish toleration, with Spinoza condemning “the stupidity of re-
that the term 'freedom' had been confined to ligious persecution and ideological wars”.[111] Toleration
the...power to do what one wills.[102] also played a central role in the ideas of Kant and John
Stuart Mill. Both thinkers believed that society will con-
Rather than previous liberal conceptions viewing society tain different conceptions of a good ethical life and that
as populated by selfish individuals, Green viewed society people should be allowed to make their own choices with-
as an organic whole in which all individuals have a duty to out interference from the state or other individuals.[111]
promote the common good.[103] His ideas spread rapidly
and were developed by other thinkers such as L. T. Hob-
house and John Hobson. In a few years, this New Liberal-
ism had become the essential social and political program
of the Liberal Party in Britain,[104] and it would encircle
12 4 WORLDWIDE

tinents leading national governments in many countries.


Liberal socialism is a socialist political philosophy that
includes liberal principles within it.[118] Liberal social-
ism does not have the goal of abolishing capitalism with a
socialist economy;[119] instead, it supports a mixed econ-
omy that includes both public and private property in
capital goods.[120][121] Principles that can be described
as “liberal socialist” have been based upon or developed
by the following philosophers: John Stuart Mill, Eduard
Bernstein, John Dewey, Carlo Rosselli, Norberto Bobbio
and Chantal Mouffe.[122] Other important liberal socialist
figures include Guido Calogero, Piero Gobetti, Leonard
[123]
Execution of Torrijos and his men in 1831. Spanish King Trelawny Hobhouse, and R. H. Tawney. Liberal so-
Ferdinand VII took repressive measures against the liberal forces cialism has been particularly prominent in British and
in his country. Italian politics.[123]
One of the most outspoken critics of liberalism was the
Roman Catholic Church,[124] which resulted in lengthy
3.3 Criticism and support power struggles between national governments and the
Church. In the same vein, conservatives have also at-
Liberalism has drawn both criticism and support in its his- tacked what they perceive to be the reckless liberal pur-
tory from various ideological groups. Some scholars sug- suit of progress and material gains, arguing that such pre-
gest that liberalism gave rise to feminism, although others occupations undermine traditional social values rooted
maintain that liberal democracy is inadequate for the re- in community and continuity.[125] However, a few vari-
alisation of feminist objectives.[112] Liberal feminism, the ations of conservatism, like liberal conservativism, ex-
dominant tradition in feminist history, hopes to eradicate pound some of the same ideas and principles championed
all barriers to gender equality – claiming that the contin- by classical liberalism, including “small government and
ued existence of such barriers eviscerates the individual thriving capitalism”.[115]
rights and freedoms ostensibly guaranteed by a liberal so-
cial order.[113] British philosopher Mary Wollstonecraft is Social democracy, an ideology advocating progressive
widely regarded as the pioneer of liberal feminism, with modification of capitalism, emerged in the 20th century
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) expand- and was influenced by socialism. Yet unlike socialism,
ing the boundaries of liberalism to include women in the it was not collectivist nor anti-capitalist. Broadly defined
political structure of liberal society.[114] Less friendly to as a project that aims to correct, through government re-
the goals of liberalism has been conservatism. Edmund formism, what it regards as the intrinsic defects of capi-
Burke, considered by some to be the first major propo- talism by reducing inequalities,[126] social democracy was
nent of modern conservative thought, offered a blistering also not against the state. Several commentators have
critique of the French Revolution by assailing the liberal noted strong similarities between social liberalism and so-
pretensions to the power of rationality and to the natural cial democracy, with one political scientist even calling
equality of all humans.[115] American liberalism “bootleg social democracy” due to
the absence of a significant social democratic tradition
Some confusion remains about the relationship between in the United States that liberals have tried to rectify.[127]
social liberalism and socialism, despite the fact that many Another movement associated with modern democracy,
variants of socialism distinguish themselves markedly Christian democracy, hopes to spread Catholic social
from liberalism by opposing capitalism, hierarchy, and ideas and has gained a large following in some Euro-
private property. Socialism formed as a group of re- pean nations.[128] The early roots of Christian democ-
lated yet divergent ideologies in the 19th century such racy developed as a reaction against the industrialisation
as Christian socialism, Communism (with the writings and urbanisation associated with laissez-faire liberalism
of Karl Marx), and Social Anarchism (with the writ- in the 19th century.[129] Despite these complex relation-
ings of Mikhail Bakunin), the latter two influenced by ships, some scholars have argued that liberalism actually
the Paris Commune. These ideologies – as with lib- “rejects ideological thinking” altogether, largely because
eralism and conservatism – fractured into several ma- such thinking could lead to unrealistic expectations for
jor and minor movements in the following decades.[116] human society.[130]
Marx rejected the foundational aspects of liberal theory,
hoping to destroy both the state and the liberal distinc-
tion between society and the individual while fusing the
two into a collective whole designed to overthrow the 4 Worldwide
developing capitalist order of the 19th century.[117] To-
day, socialist parties and ideas remain a political force Main article: Liberalism by country
with varying degrees of power and influence on all con-
4.1 Europe 13

Liberals are committed to build and safeguard free, fair


and open societies, in which they seek to balance the fun-
damental values of liberty, equality and community, and
in which no one is enslaved by poverty, ignorance or con-
formity ... Liberalism aims to disperse power, to foster
diversity and to nurture creativity.
Liberal International[131]

Liberalism is frequently cited as the dominant ideology of


modern times.[132][133] Politically, liberals have organised
extensively throughout the world. Liberal parties, think
tanks, and other institutions are common in many nations,
although they advocate for different causes based on their
ideological orientation. Liberal parties can be centre-left,
centrist, or centre-right depending on their location.
They can further be divided based on their adherence to
social liberalism or classical liberalism, although all lib-
eral parties and individuals share basic similarities, in-
cluding the support for civil rights and democratic insti-
tutions. On a global level, liberals are united in the Liberal
International, which contains over 100 influential lib-
eral parties and organisations from across the ideological
spectrum.
Some parties in the LI are among the most famous in the
world, such as the Liberal Party of Canada, while oth-
ers are among the smallest, such as the Gibraltar Liberal
Party. Regionally, liberals are organised through various
institutions depending on the prevailing geopolitical con-
text. The European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party,
for example, represents the interests of liberals in Europe
while the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe
is the predominant liberal group in the European Parlia-
ment.

4.1 Europe

See also: Liberalism in Europe


In Europe, liberalism has a long tradition dating back
to 17th century.[134] Scholars often split those traditions
into British and French versions, with the former version
of liberalism emphasising the expansion of democratic
values and constitutional reform and the latter rejecting
authoritarian political and economic structures, as well
as being involved with nation-building.[135] The conti-
nental French version was deeply divided between mod-
erates and progressives, with the moderates tending to
elitism and the progressives supporting the universalisa-
tion of fundamental institutions, such as universal suf-
frage, universal education, and the expansion of property
rights.[135] Over time, the moderates displaced the pro-
The torch in politics symbolises enlightenment and liberty. It is
gressives as the main guardians of continental European often used by liberals as a political symbol.
liberalism. A prominent example of these divisions is
the German Free Democratic Party, which was histori-
cally divided between national liberal and social liberal
factions.[136] Before World War I, liberal parties dominated the Eu-
14 4 WORLDWIDE

ropean political scene, but they were gradually displaced


by socialists and social democrats in the early 20th cen-
tury. The fortunes of liberal parties since World War II
have been mixed, with some gaining strength while oth-
ers suffered from continuous declines.[137] The fall of the
Soviet Union and the breakup of Yugoslavia at the end
of the 20th century, however, allowed the formation of
many liberal parties throughout Eastern Europe. These
parties developed varying ideological characters. Some,
such as the Slovenian Liberal Democrats or the Lithua-
nian Social Liberals, have been characterised as centre-
left.[138][139] Others, such as the Romanian National Lib-
eral Party, have been classified as centre-right.[140]
In Western Europe, some liberal parties have undergone
renewal and transformation, coming back to the politi-
cal limelight after historic disappointments. One of the
most notable examples features the Liberal Democrats in
Britain. The Liberal Democrats are the heirs of the once-
mighty Liberal Party, which suffered a huge erosion of
support to the Labour Party in the early 20th century.
After nearly vanishing from the British political scene al-
together, the Liberals eventually united with the Social
Democratic Party, a Labour splinter group, in 1988 to Colour photo of Roosevelt as the Man of the Year of TIME Mag-
form the current Liberal Democrats, a social liberal party. azine, January 1933
The Liberal Democrats earned significant popular sup-
port in the general election of 2005 and in local council
elections, marking the first time in decades that a British literature.[143][144][145] In Canada, the long-dominant Lib-
party with a liberal ideology has achieved such electoral eral Party, colloquially known as the Grits, ruled the coun-
success. Following the general election of 2010, the Lib- try for nearly 70 years during the 20th century. The party
eral Democrats formed a coalition government with the produced some of the most influential prime ministers
Conservatives resulting in party leader Nick Clegg be- in Canadian history, including Pierre Trudeau, Lester B.
coming the Deputy Prime Minister of the United King- Pearson and Jean Chrétien, and has been primarily re-
dom and many other members becoming ministers. sponsible for the development of the Canadian welfare
state. The enormous success of the Liberals – virtu-
Both in Britain and elsewhere in Western Europe, lib-
ally unmatched in any other liberal democracy – has
eral parties have often cooperated with socialist and social
prompted many political commentators over time to iden-
democratic parties, as evidenced by the Purple Coalition
tify them as the nation’s natural governing party.[146]
in the Netherlands during the late 1990s and into the 21st
century. The Purple Coalition, one of the most conse- In the United States, modern liberalism traces its history
quential in Dutch history, brought together the progres- to the popular presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt,
sive left-liberal D66,[141] the economic liberal and centre- who initiated the New Deal in response to the Great De-
right VVD,[142] and the social democratic Labour Party – pression and won an unprecedented four elections. The
an unusual combination that ultimately legalised same- New Deal coalition established by Franklin Roosevelt left
sex marriage, euthanasia, and prostitution while also in- a decisive legacy and influenced many future American
stituting a non-enforcement policy on marijuana. presidents, including John F. Kennedy, a self-described
liberal who defined a liberal as “someone who looks ahead
and not behind, someone who welcomes new ideas with-
4.2 Americas out rigid reactions...someone who cares about the welfare
of the people”.[147]
See also: Liberalism in the United States, Liberalism in In the late 20th century, a conservative backlash against
Canada and Liberalism and conservatism in Latin Amer- the kind of liberalism championed by Roosevelt and
ica Kennedy developed in the Republican Party.[148] This
In North America, unlike in Europe and Latin America, brand of conservatism primarily reacted against the civil
the word liberalism almost exclusively refers to social lib- unrest and the cultural changes that transpired during the
eralism in contemporary politics. The dominant Cana- 1960s.[148] It helped launch into power such presidents
dian and American parties, the Liberal Party and the as Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and George W.
Democratic Party, are frequently identified as being mod- Bush.[149] Economic woes in the early 21st century led
ern liberal or centre-left organisations in the academic to a resurgence of social liberalism with the election of
4.3 Other regions 15

Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election.[150] the creation of a more liberal and autonomous India.[158]
In Latin America, liberal unrest dates back to the 19th Liberalism continued to be the main ideological current
century, when liberal groups frequently fought against of the group through the early years of the 20th century,
and violently overthrew conservative regimes in several but socialism gradually overshadowed the thinking of the
countries across the region. Liberal revolutions in coun- party in the next few decades.
tries such as Mexico and Ecuador ushered in the modern In Asia, liberalism is a much younger political current
world for much of Latin America. Latin American lib- than in Europe or the Americas. Continentally, liber-
erals generally emphasised free trade, private property, als are organised through the Council of Asian Liberals
and anti-clericalism.[151] Today, market liberals in Latinand Democrats, which includes powerful parties such the
America are organised in the Red Liberal de América Liberal Party in the Philippines, the Democratic Progres-
Latina (RELIAL), a centre-right network that brings to- sive Party in Taiwan, and the Democrat Party in Thailand.
gether dozens of liberal parties and organisations. Two notable examples of liberal influence can be found in
RELIAL features parties as geographically diverse as the India and Australia, although several Asian nations have
Mexican Nueva Alianza and the Cuban Liberal Union, rejected important liberal principles.
which aims to secure power in Cuba. Some major liberal A famous struggle led by the INC eventually earned
parties in the region continue, however, to align them- India’s independence from Britain. In recent times, the
selves with social liberal ideas and policies – a notable party has adopted more of a liberal streak, championing
case being the Colombian Liberal Party, which is a mem- open markets while simultaneously seeking social justice.
ber of the Socialist International. Another famous exam- In its 2009 Manifesto, the INC praised a “secular and
ple is the Paraguayan Authentic Radical Liberal Party, liberal” Indian nationalism against the nativist, commu-
one of the most powerful parties in the country, which nal, and conservative ideological tendencies it claims are
has also been classified as centre-left.[152] espoused by the right.[159] In general, the major theme
of Asian liberalism in the past few decades has been the
rise of democratisation as a method facilitate the rapid
4.3 Other regions economic modernisation of the continent.[160] In nations
such as Myanmar, however, liberal democracy has been
replaced by military dictatorship.[161]
In Africa, liberalism is comparatively weak. The Wafd
Party (“Delegation Party”) was a nationalist liberal polit-
ical party in Egypt. It was said to be Egypt’s most popu-
lar and influential political party for a period in the 1920s
and 30s. Recently, however, liberal parties and institu-
tions have made a major push for political power. On
a continental level, liberals are organised in the Africa
Liberal Network, which contains influential parties such
as the Popular Movement in Morocco, the Democratic
Party in Senegal, and the Rally of the Republicans in Côte
d'Ivoire.
Among African nations, South Africa stands out for hav-
ing a notable liberal tradition that other countries on the
continent lack. In the middle of the 20th century, the
Liberal Party and the Progressive Party were formed to
oppose the apartheid policies of the government. The
Liberals formed a multiracial party that originally drew
considerable support from urban Blacks and college-
In 2014, Saudi Arabian writer and the creator of the website educated Whites.[162] It also gained supporters from the
Free Saudi Liberals, Raif Badawi, was sentenced to 10 years in “westernised sectors of the peasantry", and its public
prison and 1000 lashes for “insulting Islam”. meetings were heavily attended by Blacks.[163] The party
had 7,000 members at its height, although its appeal to the
In Australia, liberalism is primarily championed by the White population as a whole was too small to make any
centre-right Liberal Party.[153] The Liberals are a fu- meaningful political changes.[162] The Liberals were dis-
sion of classical liberal and conservative forces and are banded in 1968 after the government passed a law that
affiliated with the centre-right International Democrat prohibited parties from having multiracial membership.
Union.[154] [153][155][156][157] In India, the most populous Today, liberalism in South Africa is represented by the
democracy in the world, the Indian National Congress has Democratic Alliance, the official opposition party to the
long dominated political affairs. The INC was founded ruling African National Congress. The Democratic Al-
in the late 19th century by liberal nationalists demanding
16 7 NOTES

liance is the second largest party in the National Assembly Another major liberal accomplishment includes the rise
and currently leads the provincial government of Western of liberal internationalism, which has been credited with
Cape. the establishment of global organisations such as the
League of Nations and, after World War II, the United
Nations.[168] The idea of exporting liberalism worldwide
and constructing a harmonious and liberal internation-
5 Impact and influence alist order has dominated the thinking of liberals since
the 18th century.[169] “Wherever liberalism has flourished
domestically, it has been accompanied by visions of lib-
The fundamental elements of contemporary society have eral internationalism,” one historian wrote.[169] But re-
liberal roots. The early waves of liberalism popularised sistance to liberal internationalism was deep and bitter,
economic individualism while expanding constitutional with critics arguing that growing global interdependency
government and parliamentary authority.[164] One of the would result in the loss of national sovereignty and that
greatest liberal triumphs involved replacing the capri- democracies represented a corrupt order incapable of ei-
cious nature of royalist and absolutist rule with a decision- ther domestic or global governance.[170]
making process encoded in written law.[164] Liberals
sought and established a constitutional order that prized Other scholars have praised the influence of liberal inter-
important individual freedoms, such as the freedom of nationalism, claiming that the rise of globalisation “con-
speech and of association, an independent judiciary and stitutes a triumph of the liberal vision that first appeared
public trial by jury, and the abolition of aristocratic in the eighteenth century” while also writing that liber-
privileges.[164] alism is “the only comprehensive and hopeful vision of
world affairs”.[171] The gains of liberalism have been sig-
These sweeping changes in political authority marked nificant. In 1975, roughly 40 countries around the world
the modern transition from absolutism to constitutional were characterised as liberal democracies, but that num-
rule.[164] The expansion and promotion of free markets ber had increased to more than 80 as of 2008.[172] Most of
was another major liberal achievement. Before they the world’s richest and most powerful nations are liberal
could establish markets, however, liberals had to destroy democracies with extensive social welfare programs.[173]
the old economic structures of the world. In that vein, lib-
erals ended mercantilist policies, royal monopolies, and
various other restraints on economic activities.[164] They
also sought to abolish internal barriers to trade – eliminat- 6 See also
ing guilds, local tariffs, the Commons and prohibitions on
the sale of land along the way.[164] • Constitutional liberalism
Later waves of modern liberal thought and struggle were • Friedrich Naumann Foundation is a global advocacy
strongly influenced by the need to expand civil rights. In organisation that supports liberal ideas and policies.
the 1960s and 1970s, the cause of Second Wave femi-
nism in the United States was advanced in large part by • Muscular liberalism
liberal feminist organisations such as the National Orga-
nization for Women.[165] In addition to supporting gender • Rule according to higher law
equality, liberals also have advocated for racial equality in
their drive to promote civil rights, and a global civil rights • The American Prospect is an American political
movement in the 20th century achieved several objectives magazine that backs social liberal policies.
towards both goals. Among the various regional and na- • The Liberal was a British magazine dedicated to cov-
tional movements, the civil rights movement in the United erage of liberal politics and liberal culture.
States during the 1960s strongly highlighted the liberal ef-
forts for equal rights. Describing the political efforts of
the period, some historians have asserted that “the voting
rights campaign marked...the convergence of two politi- 7 Notes
cal forces at their zenith: the black campaign for equality
and the movement for liberal reform,” further remarking [1] “liberalism In general, the belief that it is the aim of pol-
about how “the struggle to assure blacks the ballot coin- itics to preserve individual rights and to maximize free-
cided with the liberal call for expanded federal action to dom of choice.” Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics,
protect the rights of all citizens”.[166] The Great Society Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, Third edition 2009,
project launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson over- ISBN 978-0-19-920516-5
saw the creation of Medicare and Medicaid, the estab- [2] “political rationalism, hostility to autocracy, cultural dis-
lishment of Head Start and the Job Corps as part of the taste for conservatism and for tradition in general, toler-
War on Poverty, and the passage of the landmark Civil ance, and ... individualism.” John Dunn, “Western Politi-
Rights Act of 1964 – an altogether rapid series of events cal Theory in the Face of the Future”, Cambridge Univer-
that some historians have dubbed the Liberal Hour.[167] sity Press, (1993), ISBN 978-0521437554
17

[3] “With a nod to Robert Trivers' definition of altruistic be- [12] “All mankind...being all equal and independent, no one
havior (Trivers 1971, p. 35), Satoshi Kanazawa defines ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or pos-
liberalism (as opposed to conservatism) as “the genuine sessions”, John Locke, Second Treatise of Government
concern for the welfare of genetically unrelated others and
the willingness to contribute larger proportions of private [13] New Liberalism: Matthew Kalkman: 9781926991047:
resources for the welfare of such others” (Kanazawa 2010, Amazon.com: Books. amazon.com. ISBN 1926991044.
p. 38).
[14] Often referred to simply as “liberalism” in the United
[4] Young 2002, p. 39. States.
[5] “The Liberal Agenda for the 21st Century”. Retrieved 20 [15] Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans by Arthur
March 2015. Schlesinger, Jr. (1956) from: The Politics of Hope
[6] Nader Hashemi (11 March 2009). Islam, Secularism, (Boston: Riverside Press, 1962). “Liberalism in the U.S.
and Liberal Democracy: Toward a Democratic Theory usage has little in common with the word as used in the
for Muslim Societies. Oxford University Press. ISBN politics of any other country, save possibly Britain.”
9780199717514. Liberal democracy requires a form of [16] Gross, p. 5.
secularism to sustain itself
[7] Kathleen G. Donohue (19 December 2003). Freedom [17] Kirchner, pp. 2–3.
from Want: American Liberalism and the Idea of the [18] Colton and Palmer, p. 479.
Consumer (New Studies in American Intellectual and Cul-
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9780801874260. Retrieved 31 December 2007. Three of eral parties were among the first political parties to form,
them – freedom from fear, freedom of speech, and free- and their long-serving and influential records, as partic-
dom of religion – have long been fundamental to liberal- ipants in parliaments and governments, raise important
ism. questions ... ", Cambridge University Press, 1988, ISBN
[8] The Economist, Volume 341, Issues 7995-7997. The 978-0521323949
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a society that provides constitutional government (rule by [21] Rothbard, The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revo-
law, not by men) and freedom of religion, thought, expres- lution and Classical Liberalism.
sion and economic interaction; a society in which ...
[22] “The Rise, Decline, and Reemergence of Classical Liber-
[9] Sehldon S. Wolin (2004). Politics and Vision: Continuity alism”. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
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31 December 2007. While liberalism practically disap-
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included freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion, [25] Godwin et al., p. 12.
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[26] Copleston, pp. 39–41.
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2007. Democracy attaches itself to a form of government: realm of religion.”)
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[57] Mills, p. 68 [82] Knoop, p. 151.


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[128] Riff, pp. 34–6.


[101] Adams, pp. 54–5.
[129] Riff, p. 34.
[102] Wempe, p. 123.
[130] Wolfe, p. 116.
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[132] Wolfe, p. 23.
[105] Young 2002, p. 36.
[133] Adams, p. 11.
[106] Wolfe, p. 63.
[134] German songs like "Die Gedanken sind frei" (thoughts are
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[108] Young 2002, p. 40. [135] Kirchner, p. 3.

[109] Young 2002, pp. 42–3. [136] Kirchner, p. 4.

[137] Kirchner, p. 10.


[110] Young 2002, p. 43.
[138] Karatnycky et al., p. 247.
[111] Young 2002, p. 44.
[139] Hafner and Ramet, p. 104.
[112] Jensen, p. 1.
[140] Various authors, p. 1615.
[113] Jensen, p. 2.
[141] Schie and Voermann, p. 121.
[114] Falco, pp. 47–8.
[142] Gallagher et al., p. 226.
[115] Grigsby, p. 108.
[143] Puddington, p. 142. After a dozen years of centre-left
[116] Grigsby, pp. 119–22. Liberal Party rule, the Conservative Party emerged from
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[117] Koerner, pp. 9–12. tablished a fragile minority government.
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[144] Grigsby, pp. 106-7. [Talking about the Democratic Party] 8 References and further reading
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[149] Patrick Allitt, “The Conservatives”, p. 253, Yale Univer- • Amin, Samir. The liberal virus: permanent war
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York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-19-
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• Wallerstein, Immanuel. The Modern World-
System IV: Centrist Liberalism trimphant 1789-1914.
Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California
Press, 2011.
• Wempe, Ben. T. H. Green’s theory of positive free-
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Imprint Academic, 2004. ISBN 0-907845-58-4

• Whitfield, Stephen. Companion to twentieth-century


America. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. ISBN
0-631-21100-4

• Wolfe, Alan. The Future of Liberalism. New York:


Random House, Inc., 2009. ISBN 0-307-38625-2

• Worell, Judith. Encyclopedia of women and gender,


Volume I. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2001. ISBN 0-12-
227246-3
• Young, Shaun (2002). Beyond Rawls: An Analysis
of the Concept of Political Liberalism. Lanham, MD:
University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-2240-2.

• Zvesper, John. Nature and liberty. New York:


Routledge, 1993. ISBN 0-415-08923-9

9 External links
• Liberalism an article by Encyclopædia Britannica
• Liberalism entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
• Liberalism at DMOZ

• Liberalism/Antiliberalism A critical survey

• Guide to Classical Liberal Scholarship


24 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses


10.1 Text
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Ross, Eloquence, The Anome, Andre Engels, Roadrunner, Camembert, Bth, R Lowry, Modemac, Leandrod, Stevertigo, Edward, Michael
Hardy, Earth, Kpearce, Gabbe, Chris Horvath, Zanimum, Shoaler, GTBacchus, Delirium, Skysmith, Stevenj, William M. Connolley,
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Academic Challenger, Rursus, Timrollpickering, Sunray, Matty j, Saulisagenius, Kzhr, Lupo, Stirling Newberry, Ancheta Wis, DocWat-
son42, Lunkwill, Christopher Parham, Nikodemos, Slizor, Tom harrison, Wilfried Derksen, Everyking, No Guru, Lussmu~enwiki, Drat-
man, Curps, Spartanette11, Michael Devore, Waltpohl, DO'Neil, Iota, Joshuapaquin, Grant65, Wiki Wikardo, Avaragado, Wmahan, Neilc,
Stevietheman, Wgoetsch, Chowbok, Ben Arnold, Dvavasour, SarekOfVulcan, Formeruser-81, Jdevine, PauloColacino~enwiki, Antandrus,
Piotrus, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Borameer, ArcticFrog, Soman, Creidieki, Neutrality, Dcandeto, Djyang~enwiki, Kasreyn, Ookami~enwiki, Zon-
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danaphalus, Intangible, Veinor, Fightindaman, SmackBot, Looper5920, Britannicus, Amcbride, Unschool, Mira, Prodego, Martin.Budden,
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fle, Arcan~enwiki, PJM, Cessator, Frymaster, Vilerage, Alsandro, Srnec, Peter Isotalo, Sloman, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik,
MPD01605, Finnfilm, BenAveling, The monkeyhate, KDRGibby, Chris the speller, EYOB, Kurykh, Jabbi, Kaiwanxiao, Jdhunt, Rmt2m,
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JonHarder, Xeeron, Rrburke, JMLofficier, VMS Mosaic, Bolivian Unicyclist, Thrane, Stevenmitchell, Eugene Pivovarov, Agrofelipe,
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lotguy, Kukini, John Reid, Byelf2007, Checco, Amtiss, Nishkid64, Thesmothete, Rory096, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Kuru,
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Localist, Collect, 16@r, Davemcarlson, SandyGeorgia, Dalstadt, Dhp1080, Ambuj.Saxena, Riffic, Liberty4u, Sea horn, Agonizing Fury,
Esoltas, HiMom, BranStark, Typelighter, Fan-1967, Iridescent, Myopic Bookworm, Tamino, The Giant Puffin, Bristow1, Lottamiata,
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George100, Ghaly, Ko'oy, JForget, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Van helsing, Makeemlighter, Vision Thing, Page Up, Gedto, N2e, FlyingToaster,
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N5iln, Jcoleno, Mojo Hand, Anupam, Marek69, Davidlawrence, West Brom 4ever, Tapir Terrific, Bobblehead, Second Quantization, Hip-
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Quintote, SmokeyTheCat, Lingeron, LibLord, Spencer, L0b0t, ChadRiden, Pheonix1974, TaurusTheBull, Carewolf, Azby~enwiki, Gh-
myrtle, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Dshsfca, Mike D 26, Skomorokh, Lifthrasir1, Steve762us, TheWaterFishVirus, Nwe, Mujokan, ACDCrules,
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tries, Cgingold, Hamiltonstone, Message for Sakura Avalon, Yarub, Gomm, Nikolaj Christensen, BrentJ277, JaGa, Wdflake, Textorus,
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ABF, Skaraoke, Steamclock, Jeff G., Indubitably, Inventionno14, Jackattack18, Soliloquial, Philip Trueman, Sbfenian1916, Childhood-
10.2 Images 25

send, TXiKiBoT, Cosmic Latte, Xenophrenic, Java7837, Technopat, Andyrmyers, Dexter099, Korporaal1, Aymatth2, Monkey Bounce,
Oxfordwang, Melsaran, ^demonBot2, Veggieburgerfish, Vgranucci, Saturn star, DeschainPK, Madhero88, Eubulides, Lerdthenerd, Stu-
artLaJoie, BobTheTomato, Falcon8765, Some Guy421, Turgan, Monty845, Burningdwarf, Kyle112, Tmmullin, Logan, Hasam, Rjakew,
Ohshorse, Lokihatr11, Ponyo, Dustintml, SieBot, Shorerebel, WTucker, Dawn Bard, King of Corsairs, SE7, Smsarmad, Yintan, Rub-
bersoul20, GlassCobra, Europarliament, MinorContributor, Arbor to SJ, Yerpo, Political Guru, Dominik92, Alustgarten, Lightmouse,
SinisterSin, Likeminas, VersaWorka, Fuddle, Bombastus, The Four Deuces, Franciscoh, Dabomb87, Pinkadelica, DutchTreat, ShajiA,
Faithlessthewonderboy, Martarius, Elassint, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, The Thing That Should Not Be, Sonarpulse, Eusebius, Wysprgr2005,
Saddhiyama, Mild Bill Hiccup, SuperHamster, Tradewater, Place Clichy, RafaAzevedo, Neverquick, Chuckton, Excirial, Alexbot, TonyBal-
lioni, Jlacount, EARamos, Leonard^Bloom, Ageor, Tyler, Bubbles4sale, NuclearWarfare, Arrabear, I dont know what’s going on, Dn9ahx,
Tnxman307, Morel, Razorflame, Zoso businessman, Doprendek, SchreiberBike, Ckincaid77, Leroyinc, Ottawa4ever, ChrisHodgesUK,
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goonwall, Dendlai, Citation bot, Eskandarany, ArthurBot, Britisit, CABlankenship, Marciohaas, Xqbot, Asaph cinders, Iamkuku4coco,
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J04n, JanDeFietser, Gnarlymtb, Whatupnegro, Omnipaedista, Mortotron 77777, RibotBOT, Many Heads, Amaury, Grapphti, Dou-
los Christos, Someone963852, Drdpw, QwertyLP95925, Mizzlefizz, Shadowjams, What are you on about?, Introman, Leewells2000,
SD5, Thehelpfulbot, BoomerAB, Bekus, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Billyoffland, FrescoBot, Redvoltfaction, Sock, NYUism, LucienBOT,
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Patrick.clune, Alexkbarr77, CynofGavuf, HamburgerRadio, Sheplola, OgreBot, Harleyrocker, Onegiantstep555, Pinethicket, I dream of
horses, LittleWink, Edyer1, Jake grey, Skyerise, Olivemountain, Acereap, Motorizer, MeUser42, RandomStringOfCharacters, Jujutacular,
Hawk shadow, Jazzydave, White Shadows, Keri, Cwood4ever, Bullet Dropper, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Colchester121891, Bbarkley2,
Lotje, Spiritpower, Callanecc, Vrenator, Clarkcj12, January, Mattcierpiot, Cowlibob, DA1, Muffins88, Pwningyourpage, Tbhotch, Beeea,
SnBaonner, Keegscee, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, Woohoo63, RjwilmsiBot, Krbi2009, Marksoul314, Steve03Mills, EmausBot,
Therussiandog, John of Reading, Secretduck, Gfoley4, Dewritech, Iris91, RenamedUser01302013, Hanxu9, Klbrain, Sterrettc, Dallen13,
Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Peeweebee, Wikipelli, K6ka, Kkm010, Susfele, Lesswealth, Josve05a, Tulandro, LuvGoldfish, Godor031,
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Killerprey23, Donner60, Pochsad, FurryAminal, ChuispastonBot, Tricee, Peter Karlsen, Cheesecottage, GrayFullbuster, DASHBotAV,
Tentontunic, Hypocritepedia3, Hypocritepedia4, Hypocritepedia5, Alcazar84, E. Fokker, BravoAlphaSix, Eduardobibm, ClueBot NG,
Peter James, Derfel73, Tuck1234, ATX-NL, MelbourneStar, Iandrussell, BozellHammer, Purple1342, RJFF, Wilber.pitt, Braincricket,
O.Koslowski, Tygman, Sulawesi99, 22weaverroad, Xomthas, Widr, North Atlanticist Usonian, Atlantica45235432, Helpful Pixie Bot, Elar-
son13, Strike Eagle, Titodutta, AlterBerg, Brain Researcher, BG19bot, Holmgard~enwiki, Armadillopteryx, The Banner Turbo, Juro2351,
ISTB351, Fadoodle, Graham11, Simonhardt93, Dolfan10, User1961914, Cadiomals, Scientiom, Wikih101, Tony Tan, Aeroplanepics0112,
Harizotoh9, Thewordandthevoid, GregGatsby, Supercowman2001, Stumenglish, Achowat, Shaun, Zachy580, SaudiPseudonym, Clewis98,
WOLfan112, Brittablez, Ameritopia, Jonosbro, Cyberbot II, Powellzy the scientist, Mediran, Bmankin1, Khazar2, JoshWiki123, JYBot,
Dexbot, Amurrican, Rothbardanswer, Mr. Guye, Spirit of Eagle, Enapmot, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Sadfqwt, LiamFitzGilbert, Eldr
comms, Cupco, Geocapp, Hillbillyholiday, Herbtea, F6Zman, Okeechobee3, FallingGravity, Zmandude2, I am One of Many, Laplace-
mat, Nonsenseferret, Cmckain14, Ragingbearcat, ApertureScienceInc., Hendrick 99, Jakec, Liberalufp, LudicrousTripe, DavidLeighEllis,
Urmom123824, Sadgwtfrghsdfsfdhsdfg, 12uy3r232yef23uy, Spikybebot, Ginsuloft, UncappingCone64, Atotalstranger, Whizz40, Blon-
deguynative, Hoopout, Dfine7218, Kckranger, DagonAmigaOS, Azertopius, Loni91, Barjimoa, JaconaFrere, Epic Failure, Tristanbratz,
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Aman223, Courtneysellers, Stricker518, McRapin, BrightonC, Forced Freedom, Toddcates, Cburge10, Sigehelmus, Rapjeknowxl, Ajboes,
Treed85, Labracadabrador, Bobolicener, 19bayoudog66, Peet2000, Qsubject, DarvivraD, Colonial Overlord, YeOldeGentleman, F W
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fect, Tim.robbins123, Zachnow4, BowlAndSpoon, Kyd568, IWillBuildTheRoads, Digitalstyle and Anonymous: 1538

10.2 Images
• File:1846_-_Anti-Corn_Law_League_Meeting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/1846_-_
Anti-Corn_Law_League_Meeting.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.uoregon.edu/~{}kimball/EUR.REV.2.PHASES.
htm Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Agreement_of_the_People_(1647-1649).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Agreement_of_the_
People_%281647-1649%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:ChurchillGeorge0001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/ChurchillGeorge0001.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Krockow: CHurchill Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
26 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/


Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:English_Bill_of_Rights_of_1689.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/English_Bill_of_Rights_of_
1689.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The source is the National Archives of the United Kingdom. The image was embedded
at http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/making_history_rise.htm . The actual URL was http://www.
nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/images/rise_parliament/bill_rights.jpg . Original artist: Parliament of the United Kingdom
• File:Eugène_Delacroix_-_La_liberté_guidant_le_peuple.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Eug%
C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This page from this gallery.
Original artist: Eugène Delacroix
• File:Franklin_D._Roosevelt_TIME_Man_of_the_Year_1933_color_photo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/4/47/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_TIME_Man_of_the_Year_1933_color_photo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/36b7090ba6b34d8f.html (large) Original artist: O.J. Jordan (photographer) published in TIME
Magazine
• File:Fusilamiento_de_Torrijos_(Gisbert).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Fusilamiento_
de_Torrijos_%28Gisbert%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.museodelprado.es/coleccion/galeria-on-line/
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