Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No.

2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE

Sulawesi: a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia

Kehadiran Sulfida Nikel yang berkaitan dengan Serpentin di Latao,

Sulawesi Tenggara: suatu Frontier Baru Eksplorasi Nikel di Indonesia

Robby Rafianto, Frans Attong, Alan Matano, and M. Erwin Syam Noor

Mines and Exploration Department PT. INCO Tbk.,

Sorowako, South Sulawesi 92984, Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Along the history of nickel exploration and mining in Indonesia, there was no nickel sulfide deposit
reported and relatively unknown. All known nickel deposits in Indonesia are lateritic deposits
as a weathering product of ultramafic rocks. The major nickel sulfide deposit types in the world are
under category of komattites associated, basal and stratabound in mafic-ultramafic intrusions, as-
trobleme associated (Sudbury type), and few others reported hosted in black-shale deposits, epigenetic
hydrothermal or serpentine-related deposits. The latter type is discussed in this paper that potentially
related to nickel sulfide occurrences in PT. INCO’s Latao Contract of Work concession. At the begin-
ning, the exploration in Latao was taken during 1970 - 1975 and 1980 to confirm the occurrences of
podiform chromite deposits. The Exploration Department conducted a modern exploration in 2007
- 2009 in order to get basic information for chromite potentials. The preliminary results showed that
the podiform chromite is relatively small potential. However, some findings were surprising during
detail geological mapping programs. Some series of silica alteration, rich magnetite rock bodies, altered
serpentinized ultramafic rocks related to Ni – Co mineralizations (0.5% to 2% Ni; 0.05% - 0.2% Co)
were found. During a 2008 drill test program, four holes intersected unusual Ni-Co mineralizations
at certain depths and related to the silica alterations. These mineralizations could not be explained by
a traditional nickel laterite theory as normally applied in Indonesian geological setting. The visual
sulfide minerals are difficult to observe. However, the petrographic and EPMA mineralogical analyses
from some surface rock samples showed the occurrences of pentlandite, Co-pentlandite, and millerite
as representing the nickel sulfide minerals. The Ni-Co mineralization is interpreted to have relation-
ships with serpentine and mainly epigenetic nickel-sulphide type. Due to serpentinization of olivine,
the nickel in the olivine was released and nickel bearing sulfides were formed depending on sulfur
availability. The 2011 detail IP geophysical survey and further test drilling program are required to
validate further this unique mineralization type. The large tonnage-low grade nickel sulfide deposits
(+ 200 Mt @ 0.1% Ni) that can produce high grade nickel concentrate like Ronnbacken serpentinite
deposit in Sweden is a current major exploration target. This is a potential new frontier of nickel
exploration in Indonesia.
Keywords: nickel sulfide, serpentine, lateritic, ultramafic, new frontier, nickel exploration, Latao,
Sulawesi

SARI
Sepanjang sejarah eksplorasi dan penambangan nikel di Indonesia, laporan mengenai cebakan
sulfida nikel tidak pernah ada, sehingga keberadaannya relatif tak diketahui. Semua cebakan nikel
yang diketahui di Indonesia berupa cebakan lateritis hasil pelapukan batuan ultramafik. Di dunia,
tipe cebakan nikel sulfida utama hadir dalam kategori yang berasosiasi dengan komatit, basal, dan
lapisan yang berada dalam intrusi mafik-ultramafik, asosiasi astrobleme (tipe Sudbury), dan beberapa
lainnya yang terdapat dalam endapan serpih hitam, hidrotermal epigenetis atau cebakan yang terkait
dengan serpentin. Tipe terakhir yang didiskusikan dalam makalah ini adalah yang berpotensi berkaitan

Naskah diterima: 11 Oktober 2011, revisi terakhir: 26 Juli 2012, disetujui: 06 Agustus 2012 87
 Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

dengan kehadiran sulfida nikel di daerah konsesi Latao, PT.INCO. Eksplorasi awal di Latao dilak-
sanakan pada 1970 – 1975 dan pada 1980 ditemukan keberadaan cebakan khromit podiform. Untuk
mendapatkan informasi dasar potensi kromit, pada 2007 – 2009, Departemen Eksplorasi melak-
sanakan sebuah eksplorasi modern. Hasil awal memperlihatkan bahwa kromit podiform potensinya
relatif kecil. Namun, selama program pemetaan geologi terperinci ditemukan sejumlah seri alterasi
silika, batuan yang kaya akan magnetit, serta batuan ultramafik terserpentinkan dan terubah yang
berkaitan dengan mineralisasi Ni-Co (0,5 – 2 % Ni; 0,05 – 0,2 Co). Dalam program pengeboran
uji 2008, pada kedalaman tertentu, empat lubang menembus mineralisasi Ni-Co yang tidak lazim
dan berkaitan dengan alterasi silika. Mineralisasi ini tidak dapat diterangkan dengan teori laterit
tradisional seperti yang biasanya diterapkan dalam tataan geologi Indonesia. Secara visual, mineral
sulfida ini susah diamati. Namun, analisis petrografi dan mineralogis EPMA terhadap percontoh
batuan permukaan menunjukkan keberadaan pentlandit, Co-pentlandit, dan milerit sebagai repre-
sentasi kehadiran mineral sulfida nikel. Mineralisasi Ni-Co diduga mempunyai hubungan dengan
serpentin dan terutama tipe sulfida nikel epigenetis. Akibat proses serpentinisasi terhadap olivin,
nikel dalam olivin terlepaskan dan sulfida pembawa nikel terbentuk bergantung pada ketersediaan
sulfur. Survei geofisika IP terperinci 2011 dan program pemboran uji yang lebih lanjut diperlukan
untuk memvalidasi lebih jauh tipe mineralisasi yang unik tersebut. Cebakan sulfida nikel yang besar
(+ 200 Mt @ 0,1 % Ni) yang dapat menghasilkan konsentrat nikel kualitas tinggi seperti cebakan
serpentinit Ronnbacken di Swedia adalah target eksplorasi utama saat ini. Hal ini merupakan suatu
eksplorasi nikel new frontier yang potensial di Indonesia.
Kata kunci: : sulfida nikel, serpertin, lateritik, ultramafik, new frontier, eksplorasi nikel, Latao,
Sulawesi

INTRODUCTION The major nickel sulfide deposit types

The Latao (Contract of Work) CoW located
in the western coast of the southeastern
arm of Sulawesi Island. Administratively
fall under in Batuputih subregency, Kolaka
Utara Regency, Southeast Sulawesi Prov-
ince. It is approximately 115 km or 3 hours
land travel from Sorowako (Figure 1). The
3,148.11 ha areas have altitudes ranging of
10 to 370 m above sea level.
in the world are under categorized into
komatiites associated, basal and stratabound
in mafic- ultramafic intrusions, astrobleme
associated (Sudbury type) and few others
reported hosted in black-shale deposits, epi-
genetic hydrothermal or serpentine related
deposits. The latter type is discussed in this
paper that potentially related to nickel sul-
fides occurrences in PT. INCO’s (PTI) Latao
Contract of Work concession.

Along the history of nickel exploration and

mining in Indonesia, no nickel sulfide de-
posit was reported and relatively unknown.
All known nickel deposits in Indonesia are
lateritic deposits as weathering product of
ultramafic rocks. The finding of nickel sul-
fide occurrence in Indonesia is an important
milestone to the history of nickel exploration
in Indonesia.
The nickel sulfide deposits can be defined as
a broad group of deposits containing nickel
with additional copper, cobalt, and platinum
group elements (PGE), occurring as sulfide
concentrations and associated with a vari-
able mafic and ultramafic rocks.
EXPLORATION HISTORY AND
METHODOLOGY
Pre 2007
The Latao Block was explored by PT Inco
due to its chromite occurrence. Chromite
was reported in Sulawesi by Julius and
Dickmann during the Dutch colonial era
from Warau - Balambano road, Sapiri Island
(Latao) and Lapaopao in 1924. A Dutch
company called MMC had done a short
period of studies on the nickel laterite and
chromite potential of Latao area in 1941
(Sumardjo, 1972).

88
 The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:
a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

120o30"0'E 120o40"0'E 120o50"0'E 121o0"0'E 121o10"0'E 121o20"0'E 121o30"0'E 121o40"0'E 121o50"0'E 122o0"0'E

2o0"0'S
2o0"0'S

2o10"0'S
2o10"0'S

Sorowaka
Jakarta
Makassar

2o20"0'S
2o20"0'S

2o30"0'S
2o30"0'S

PTI Contract of Work

2o40"0'S
2o40"0'S

Legend

2o50"0'S
2o50"0'S

PTI Contract of Work

Roads
Lake LATAO
Province
PROJECT

3o0"0'S
3o0"0'S

120o30"0'E 120o40"0'E 120o50"0'E 121o0"0'E 121o10"0'E 121o20"0'E 121o30"0'E 121o40"0'E 121o50"0'E 122o0"0'E

Figure 1. Latao Project Geographic Location.

PTI reconnaissance team had done some containing chromium in magnetic and non-
drilling and pit resampling in 1969 (Nasu- magnetic fractions. The other program is
tion, 1973). In 1975, Auger drill program, Ground geophysical survey - IP along the
test pit, and ground magnetic surveys were soil sampling anomaly areas to define the
carried out over the old MMC trenches vertical distribution of podiform chromite
(Ahmad, 1976). Butler (1980) conducted bodies.
a geochemical sampling program using
backpack augers and field mapping along The preliminary result showed that the podi-
the Latao shoreline. After 1980, there was form chromite is relatively small potential.
no significant exploration activity in the However, some findings were surprising
Latao Block. during 2007 - 2008 detail geological map-
ping programs. Some series of silica al-
2007 - Present teration, rich magnetite rock bodies, altered
serpentinized ultramafic rocks related to
In 2007, the exploration program for Latao
Ni-Co mineralizations (up to 2% Ni, 0.2%
was designed to confirm its chromite po-
tential (Rafianto, 2007). Field activity was Co) are found. During 2008 drill test pro-
carried out by conducting soil sampling gram, four holes intersected unusual Ni-Co
using back pack auger combined with a mineralisations at certain depths and related
geological mapping. The target was to find to the silica alterations. These mineraliza-
anomalous areas of chromite in soil samples, tions could not be explained by traditional
which can be detected from its significant nickel laterite theory as normally applied in
concentration of heavy mineral concentrate Indonesian geological setting.

89
 Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107
In 2008, PTI changed the exploration strat-
egy from chromite exploration to exploring
for nickel sulfide potential (Rafianto et al.,
2008). Ground magnetic survey and core
drilling programs were carried out to sharp-
ening the 2007 IP/Resistivity results (Su-
harto et al., 2009). The EPMA analysis from
rock chip samples showed nickel sulfide
minerals such as pentlandite and millerite.
Since soil and rock chip samples showed
unexplainable broad anomalies across Latao
area, in first half of 2011 PTI conducted a
120 km IP/Resistivity survey and directional
core rilling program (Attong et al., 2011).
To understand the nickel sulfide mineraliza-
tion, we need to differentiate between nickel
sulfide and nickel silicate-oxides miner-
alisations. A special assaying technique to
selectively analyze Ni from NiS only using
Bromine Methanol Br(Me)OH has been
applied in Latao exploration.
GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS
Regional Tectonics and Geology
A regional tectonic setting description was
provided by Fugro (2009) during ground
magnetic survey for PTI Latao project. The
summary of the tectonic of Sulawesi can
be described as below: Sulawesi located
at the convergence between the Eurasian
(Sundaland), the Pacific-Philippine Sea and
the Australian Plates (Hinschberger et al.,
2005; Kadarusman et al., 2004, Hall, 1996;
Lee and Lawver, 1995). The present config-
uration of Sulawesi reflects the interaction
between these plates and the amalgama-
tion of a number of micro-plates from the
Middle Miocene (approximately 15 Ma) to
the present.
The island of Sulawesi consists of four dis-
tinct lithotectonic belts, bounded by large
scale tectonic structures. The four belts
90
are: (i) West Sulawesi Tertiary Magmatic
Arc and Associated Sediments, (ii) Cen-
tral Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt, (iii) East
Sulawesi Ophiolite (ESO), and (iv) accreted
continental fragments of Banggai-Sula Is-
lands and the Tukang Besi-Buton Platforms
(Figure 2; Kadarusman et al., 2004). The
tectonic evolution of the Sulawesi can be
chronologically summarized as follows:
Early Paleogene (65 Ma) - Middle Oligo-
cene (30 Ma)
The formation of Sulawesi began in the
Early Paleogene with the opening of
the Makassar Basin (Hall, 1996) followed
closely by the opening of the Celebes Basins
and the rifting of the west and north arms of
Sulawesi. The opening of the Celebes Sea
was thought to have started by the Middle
Eocene. The sea widened to the southeast
until the mid-Oligocene. This opening com-
bined with the northwards movement of the
Indo-Australian Plate, allowed for the ob-
duction of the ESO and Pompangeo Schist
Belt (PSB) onto the Sundaland margin.
Late Oligocene (25 Ma)
By the end of the Oligocene, the ESO had
been overthrusted onto the PSB of the west
Sulawesi continental margin. This was fol-
lowed by a change in plate boundaries and
the subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate
under the ESO (Hall, 1996). This compres-
sional event could be responsible for the
NW-SE trending folding of both the East
Sulawesi Ophiolite and the Pompangeo
Schist Belt.
Early-Middle Miocene (20 - 15 Ma)
As a result of the Indo-Australian Plate
subducting west under the ESO, arc magma-
tism formed the Neogene Volcano Clastics
(NVC). Kadarusman et al. (2004) noted
that these volcanoclastic rocks have been
mistakenly identified in some cases as a ba-
saltic layer of the ESO (Monnier et al., 1995;
Mubroto et al., 1994; Silver et al., 1983).
 The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:
a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

West and North Sulawesi

Volcano-Plutonic Arc
Quaternary sediments

Cenozoic volcanics
and plutonic rocks
Tertiary sediments

Central Sulawesi
Metamorphic Belt
Ophiolite Melange
HP Metamorphic Rock
(Pompangeo schists)
East Sulawesi
Ophiolite Belt
Neogene and Quaternary
sediments
Ophiolite

Banggai-Sula & Tukang Besi

Continental Fragments
Continental basement and cover

Continental basement below

sea level

Major thrust
Major strike-slip fault
Active volcano

Figure 2. Geological setting of the Sulawesi Region (Kadarusman et al., 2004).

Middle Miocene - Pleistocene (15 - 5 Ma) was moving approximately northwest,

The opening of the Ayu Trough in the
east, starting in the middle Miocene (15 Ma.)
initiated a series of E - W wrench faults ex-
tending into Sulawesi (Hall, 1996). Further
obduction of the ESO and PSB during the
Pliocene was caused by the buoyant subduc-
tion of the Banggai-Sula microcontinent
(Kadarusman et al., 2004). This period of
intense activity was followed by a period
of extensional collapse in the Late Pliocene.
The Late Oligocene was a period of thrust-
ing, where the ESO was overthrusted onto
the PSB. Post or syn-folding was a period
NW-SE trending folding which can be at-
tributed to compression during the Late
Oligocene when the Indo-Australian Plate
subducting underneath the ESO. The major
NW - SE trending sinistral wrench faults
(including the Matano and Lewanopo Faults
- Figure 3) can be attributed to the opening
of the Ayu Trough in the east starting in the
Middle Miocene (Hall, 1996) followed by
a Pliocene westward extensional transpres-
sion and a Quaternary transtensional defor-
mation regime.
Closer to Latao area in Southeast Sulawesi,
Rusmana et al. (1993) distinguished the re-
gion into two geological provinces known
as Hialu (oceanic crust - ophiolite) and Ti-
nondo (continental terrain). The continental
terrain comprises metamorphic basement,
and Mesozoic sediments (Triassic Meluhu

91
 Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107
Legend
Major fault - inferred
Major fault - thrust
Geological boundary - inferred
0 5 10 20 30
Figure 3. Major tectonic and structural geology related to Latao Project (Fugro, 2009).
and Tokala Formations). The oceanic crust
of Cretaceous Ophiolite rock consists of
peridotite, harzburgite, dunite, gabbro, and
serpentinite (Figure 4).
RESULT
Rock Types
The Latao survey block is situated in the
Southeast Arm of the Sulawesi Region. The
geologically the Latao survey block is domi-
nated by Cretaceous ophiolitic ultramafic
rocks (Figure 5), comprising predominantly
moderately to highly serpentinised perido-
tite. The ophiolite sequence is believed to
be obducted over the Meluhu and Tokala
Formations.
In Latao CoW, there are four major types of
identified rock types, as follows:
92
50
km
Metamorphic Rocks
The metamorphics exposed in northern
Latao area comprise phyllite and schist hav-
ing a tectonic contact with ultramafic rock.
It is doubtful whether it is part of Triassic
Meluhu Formation or part of Mekongga
Complex.
Petrographically the rocks exhibit hetero-
blastic textures, consisting of nematoblastic
mineral of opaque (hematite) and tourma-
line, granoblastic minerals of quartz, and
lepidoblastic minerals of muscovite, fine to
medium grain sized (0.2 – 0.7 mm), anhedral
to subhedral in crystals shape. Schistose
structure is shown by the orientation of
muscovite and opaque minerals (hema-
tite). The porphyroblastic texture is present
in the some area of thin section where the
porphyroblasts (maybe garnet) are usually
altered or pseudomorphosed by iron oxide
 The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:
a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

Figure 4. Regional geology map (Rusmana et al., 1993). Pzm = Palaeozoic Metamorphics (Carboniferous);
TRJt = Tokala Formation (Triassic); TRJm= Meluhu Formation (Triassic) Ku = Ophiolites Rocks (Cret-
ceous); Tmpp = Pandua Formation (Pliocene).

282000 282500 283000 283500 284000 284500 285000 285500 286000 286500 287000 287500 288000 288500 289000 289500 290000

9667500
9667500

9667000
9667000

966500
966500

0 245 490 980 1,470 1,960

m
1:25000

Latao Project
966000
966000

9665500
9665500

9665000
9665000

Legend
9664500
9664500

Structure
Tidal Zone
Swamp
Basalt
9664000
9664000

Gabro Cumulate
Metasedimen Limestone
Hydrotermal and Polymict Breccia ?
Tectonic Breccia
9663500
9663500

Dunite alter
Magnetite

Chromite Zone
9663000
9663000

Metamorphyc Phyllite

PTI-Cow SK2005
9662500
9662500

Remark :
9662000
9662000

Name Sign Date

9661500
9661500

Drawin by Erwin

Revised by
9661000
9661000

Checked by
Approved by
9660500
9660500

9660000
9660000

282000 282500 283000 283500 284000 284500 285000 285500 286000 286500 287000 287500 288000 288500 289000 289500 290000

Figure 5. Latao geologic map.

to form brownish red color. This rock is me- phism process occurring at a relatively low
dium altered (retrogressive metamorphism). to medium grade and then they have done
The iron oxide altered or pseudomorphosed the retrograde metamorphism, where it is
the porphyroblasts whilst sericite altered the represented by the presence of iron oxide
muscovite. and sericite.
The presence of opaque mineral (hematite), Limestone
quartz, muscovite, and tourmaline as a major The limestones are present as isolated hills
mineralogy of rock suggests to a metamor- occurring at the boundary between ul-

93
 Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107
tramafic and metamorphic rocks. It is un-
clear whether it is part of Triassic Meluhu
or Tokala Formations or part of Mekongga
Complex. By visual description, the rock
can be described as dark to light grey colour,
coarse-grained, dominantly consisting of
calcite and some samples at Mosiku area
contain disseminated pyrites.
The limestone exhibits the clastic and mud-
supported texture, poorly sorted and open
packed. The rock is dominated by the matrix
of carbonate muds with the spotted/patches
of opaque (pyrite), and they are usually
recrystallized into microcrystalline calcite
(micrite). The grains include quartz and fos-
sil fragments are present in the some area
of thin section. Quartz grains are angular to
subrounded. Fossil fragments are dominated
by planktonic foraminifera, unbroken in
shape, their chamber usually filled by calcite
cement. The opaque minerals also present
as grain in some areas of thin section, sub-
hedral in shape, and up to 0.5 mm in size.
Stylolitic structure occures in the some area
of thin section.
This sample is fresh but the opaque grains
(pyrite) present in the some area of thin sec-
tion maybe a product of secondary process.
The rock fracture filled by calcite ± opaque
(pyrite) form vein in the some areas within
thin section.
Figure 6. Serpentine as alteration product from olivine with mesh structure cross by silica vein (a). Pentland-
ite and chromite as opaque minerals in serpentine (b) (ITB, 2009)
94
Ultramafic Rocks
The ultramafic rocks dominate the Latao
CoW and have been altered into various ser-
pentinization levels (dominantly medium to
highly serpentinized) The massive serpenti-
nite has N-S orientation, stretches over 6 km
in length and 5 km wide. It has a greenish-
black color and is composed by serpentine
minerals. Most of this ultramafic rocks is
completely altered and strongly weathered
at the surface. The serpentine and talc pres-
ent on the fractures or cleavage the olivine
and pyroxene form veinlets of serpentine ±
talc. The veins of silica (quartz) are present
to cut the rock in the some areas of thin
section (Figure 6a). Magnetite partially re-
places chromite on grain peripheries occurs
as fracture fillings. The sulfide minerals that
occur as fine grains usually are associated
with talc and carbonate minerals (Figure 6).
Hydrothermal Associated Rocks
In Latao, there are several rocks interpreted
to have association with hydrothermal pro-
cesses, alterations and mineralization (Fig-
ures 7, 8, 9). They are silica ribs, magnetite
bodies, and hydrothermal breccias (?). The
silica ribs contain chalcedonic silica found
in areas of Tanjung Berlian, Lawatuwatu,
and Temboe. They have been mistakenly
identified as low T lateritic product of silica
precipitation by previous explorers. The
 The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:
a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

Figure 7. Latao silica alteration.

Figure 8. Ni – Co bearing magnetite outcrop.

a b
Figure 9. Ni – Co bearing magnetite outcrop.

95
 Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107
magnetite bodies are found in Laburino,
Roka, and Lawatuwatu. These magnetite
bodies unusually containing nickel between
0.5% - 28% andmcobalt between 0.05% -
0.2% Co.
The hydrothermal breccias (?) in Latao are
related to magnetite bodies and chromite-
silica breccia found at Tanjung Berlian. The
major hydrothermal magnetite breccia (?) is
present at central area of Latao with linea-
tion to NE-SW direction. The breccias have
red-brownish colour due to the presence
of iron oxides of hematite and magnetite.
Millerite and pyrite occur occasionally as
coating of fragments and in the matrix of
breccia. This breccia has a close correlation
with magnetite body areas. The thin section
exhibits clastic texture, consisting of perido-
tite fragments which are embedded within
the mixture of clay matrix, serpentine,
silica, iron oxides, and chlorite aggregates.
The fragments of peridotite have angular
to sub-rounded in shape, grains size of 0.1
- 5.0 cm, locally up to 1.5 cm in size, they
exhibited the serpentinization and weather-
ing process, consist of olivine, pyroxene and
spinel/chromite
The rock sample is strongly altered and
weathered, in which the iron oxides + chlo-
rite pseudomorphosed the olivine to form
the brownish - blackish red colour. The ser-
pentine occurson the fractured or cleavage
of the olivine and pyroxene to form veinlets
of serpentine ± tremolite ± talc. Some
pyroxenes are pseudomorphosed by talc
± tremolite. The veins or veinlets of silica
(chalcedony) are present to cut the rock.
The sulfur content (S%) were assayed from
some samples relatively showing much
lower S content (<1000 ppm) compares
with traditional.
NiS deposits in Canada or Australia. This
case highly challenges for PTI to find a com-
parable deposit to explore in Latao further.
96
Finally, a listwaenite - birbirite allteration
concept is adopted.
DISCUSSION
Current Exploration Program
Designing exploration strategy for Latao is
challenged since there was no nickel sulfide
exploration in Indonesia. The first explora-
tion program of Latao Exploration was to
explore chromite deposits and irrelevant to
NiS exploration. Some adjustments have
to be made for sharpening the NiS targets.
It isa big challenge to find a similar deposit
model around the world since the Latao
is not a traditional nickel sulfide mineral-
izations such as komatiite related, flood
basalt or mafic- ultramafic intrusions. It
is interpreted that Latao mineralizations
are closely related with the combination
of serpentinization processes, silica altera-
tion (listwaenite-birbirite), and magnetite
- hematite (iron oxides) alterations. From
the world-wide occurrences, some deposit
models are considered to support the Latao
exploration model. They are:
• Outokumpu type (Findland); Ni-Co-
Cu-Zn deposits related to listwaenites-
birbirites alterations in ophiolite (Kon-
tinen et al., 2004).
• Bou Azzer (Morroco); CoAs-NiS-
deposits related to quartz-carbonate
(listwaenite) alterations in serpentinite
(Ahmed et al., 2009).
• Divrigi (Turkey); Fe (Ni-Cu) related to
IOCG - like for large iron ore (magne-
tite) deposits. Serpentinite contact with
limestone and granite (Unlu et al, 1995).
Reserves 133.8 Mt
• @ 56% Fe and 0.5% Cu. Considered as
Latao has magnetite bodies and hydro-
thermal breccia (?) containing signifi-
cant iron oxides.
 The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:
a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)
• Dumont serpentinite (Canada): NiS
deposits related to serpentinization and
talc - carbonate alteration. Measured +
Indicated resources 1.1 Bt @ 0.27% Ni
(Royal Nickel Corp. May, 2011).
• Ronnbacken (Sweden); NiS deposits
related to serpentinization. Alpine-Type
Serpentinite contact with metamorphic
phyllite. Measured + Indicated resources
277 Mt @
• 0.1% NiS and 0.003% Co (SRK consult-
ing, April 2011).
From above models, Ronnbacken and Du-
mont deposits are the most one considered
by PTI as they have large tonnages and
possibly occurred in Latao. Both deposits
have low average nickel grades but large
in tonnages. The geometallurgical model
is important to liberate NiS minerals such
as pentlandite, heazlewoodite, and millerite,
and making projects to be highly econom-
ics (discussed in preliminary economic
consideration).
Geological Mapping and Soil Sampling
Geological mapping with prospecting is
a critical part for Latao NiS exploration
program. The basic knowledge that we are
dealing with an unusual ophiolitic nickel
mineralization and unexplainable by tra-
ditional nickel laterite theory came from
the geological mapping results. Hundreds
of rock chip samples were collected and
anaylized by Niton portable analyzer and
selected samples were assayed for XRF, ICP
and FA. The results are shown in Figure 10
and many altered unweathered rock samples
are elevated in nikel, cobalt, and iron. The
anomalous areas were selected for next
geophysical survey prior drilling program.
Some selected surface rock samples were
submitted to SGS Canada for mineral-
ogical analyses. The nickel sulfide minerals
(pentlandite and millerite) are identified by
EPMA analysis (Figure 11). These min-
eralizations occur on a chlorite foliation in
a Fe-chlorite groundmass altering to Fe-
oxides with total Ni in individual mineral
more than 20% (Table 1).
Soil sampling program were conducted
in 2007 within the framework of a regional
sampling program across Latao area. The
nickel values from the soil samples could
be potentially bias from lateritic mineraliza-
tion, however the chemistry associations are
very useful to define chromite or anoma-
lous hydrothermal zones.
These altered zones are do not following
the normal nickel laterite profile pattern and
relatively easy to identified.
The soil sampling used hand auger with
maximum depth of 10 m and total aver-
age is 3.4 m. The soil sampling program
designed for ridge and spur sampling and
also for regular grid pattern. Since 2007,
around 7000 samples have been collected
and assayed for XRF analyses.
A special case for chromite prospecting, a
simple beneficiation method adopted from
Philippines chromite exploration (Kater
et al, 1984) with panned concentrate for
analyzing heavy mineral concentrate such
as chromium and magnetic separation
were applied for soil samples in 2007. The
chromium soil anomalies were detected but
limited in small areas. However, the results
were surprising and unexplainable for cobalt
values (Figure 12). The high grade cobalt
values from panned concentrate of soil
samples can reached > 1% up to 2.8% Co.
This is an example that high cobalt values
from certain areas are not following the
conventional laterite theory and interpreted
these areas are hydrothermally altered.
Geophysical Survey
The geophysical surveys of ground mag-
netic survey and IP/Resistivity survey
were conducted in Latao. Ground magnetic
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 Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

Figure 10. Anomalous nickel values from fresh rock samples.

Figure 11. Nickel sulfide minerals based on EPMA analysis (SGS, 2010).

survey was proposed to understand the mag-
netic response related to alteration products
and general structural geology whereas the
resistivity data can guide us to the alteration
and mineralization zones which marked
by the anomaly values of resistivity and
chargeability.
Ground Magnetic Survey
The ground magnetic survey has initi-
ated in mid November 2008 to April 2009
conducted by Fugro (2009). This survey is
quite considerable for explore the potential
mineral such us magnetite, chromite, and
pyrhotite a total of 120 km of total length
in 40 line km within 20 km area at 12.5 m
station spacing and 50 m line spacing, than
80 line km within 80 km area at 25 m station
spacing and 100 m line spacing has proposed
for this survey.
An interpretation was completed using
the magnetic and low resolution radar. A
number of high-magnetic zones possibly
represent more massive zones of magnetite
concentrations.

98
 The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:
a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

Table 1. EPMA Analysis of Latao Nickel sulfides and Alloys (EMD0009916)

Weight
Point Mineral
As Ni S Fe Zn Co Cu P Total
1 Millerite 0.012 59.50 35.510 2.510 0.008 1.760 0.958 0.000 100.257
2 Millerite 0.072 41.720 31.510 5.450 0.000 3.060 0.391 0.000 82.203
3 Millerite 0.090 32.940 10.090 5.250 0.000 11.120 0.836 0.000 60.326
4 Millerite 0.027 54.140 33.080 3.210 0.020 4.880 0.279 0.000 95.636
5 Millerite 0.107 41.150 40.250 7.360 0.046 9.570 0.302 0.000 97.785
6 Millerite 0.13 42.860 32.270 8.220 0.021 4.430 0.490 0.000 98.304
7 Millerite 0.00 42.690 26.730 5.980 0.000 5.810 0.421 0.000 81.631
8 Millerite 0.00 56.930 34.570 4.130 0.000 1.410 0.468 0.000 97.526
Average 0.40 46.491 30.501 5.264 0.012 5.130 0.520 0.000 87.959

1 Pentlandite 0.040 34.440 38.860 4.100 0.000 17.260 0.546 0.000 95.246
2 Pentlandite 0.565 43.710 38.570 5.010 0.033 9.550 0.515 0.000 97.444
3 Pentlandite 0.026 21.250 21.450 8.150 0.064 20.180 3.400 0.000 74.520
4 Pentlandite 0.000 36.330 17.220 4.260 0.027 10.470 1.050 0.000 69.357
5 Pentlandite 0.056 27.870 24.950 7.290 0.091 14.820 1.360 0.000 76.437
6 Pentlandite 0.033 22.070 27.820 8.010 0.000 22.020 1.980 0.000 81.933
7 Pentlandite 0.096 25.110 23.100 5.610 0.000 18.360 2.670 0.000 74.946
8 Pentlandite 0.058 23.280 29.410 5.470 0.104 23.810 1.170 0.000 83.301
9 Pentlandite 0.096 24.040 25.270 7.340 0.041 19.650 1.180 0.000 77.617
Average 0.051 28.648 27.406 6.1.39 0.040 17.347 1.541 0.000 91.200

1 Co-Pentlandite 0.016 18.840 26.240 9.670 0.042 21.980 2.840 0.000 79.629
Average 0.016 18.840 26.240 9.670 0.042 21.980 2.840 0.000 79.629

1 Pyrite 0.068 0.016 54.090 47.880 0.042 0.009 0.014 0.000 102.118
Average 0.068 0.016 54.090 47.880 0.042 0.009 0.014 0.000 102.118

1 Chalcopyrite 0.058 10.630 31.570 24.590 0.034 0.414 25.270 0.000 92.566
Average 0.058 10.630 31.570 24.590 0.034 0.414 25.270 0.000 92.566

1 CuZnNiFe 0.015 17.760 0.027 5.990 19.520 0.015 54.760 0.000 98.086
2 CuZnNiFe 0.000 17.100 0.043 4.540 18.040 0.000 58.300 0.000 98.024
Average 0.008 17.430 0.035 5.365 18.780 0.008 56.530 0.000 98.055

IP/Resistivity Survey The second IP/Resistivity was conducted

The first IP/Resistivity survey was con-
ducted in 2007 at Tanjung Berlian. The IP/
Resistivity survey used pole dipole method
with 50 m spacing. Total lines are 18 or
equal with 16,050 m (Elliot, 2008). The IP
survey was following the soil sampling grid
lines with east – west direction across the
silica ribs position.
in 2011 and covering larger areas defined
as potential anomaly zones by previous
geological mapping and soil sampling. The
total line of IP survey is 120 km across all
the ultramafics and its contact with meta-
morphic rocks include hydrothermal associ-
ated rocks. This survey proposes to confirm
the subsurface of nickel sulfide potential. It

99
 Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

Figure 12. Unusual very high cobalt values from soil samples (after panned concentrate).

is interpreted that the prospect area of program is carried out from October 2011
nickel sulfide mineralization is related to to December 2011.
high resistivity and high chargeability val-
To understand the occurrences of nickel sul-
ues. The 2011 IP survey shows encouraging
fide mineralization, PTI selects a special as-
result. Some large anomalies (coincident of
saying technique to selectively analyzed NiS
high resistivity and high chargeability) are
by Bromine Methanol Br(Me)OH provided
detected and open to depth (Figures 13a and
by SGS Canada and Outotec Findland. This
13b; Geoservices, 2011). This survey highly
method can discriminate the nickel sulfide
supports for next drilling program and po-
mineralization with other nickel silicates or
tential to achieved large tonnage.
oxides minerals (NiS vs Ni total). This is
Diamond Drilling Program very useful to design the next preliminary
The first core drilling program in the Latao flotation test from drill core samples.
was conducted in 2008. A total of 2000 m
Until this paper is written, PTI is still wait-
depth of diamond drilling was proposed.
ing the Br(Me)OH assay results from 2008
The objective of this program was to test the
and 2011 drilling programs with around
2007 IP and soil anomalies and to confirm
4000 samples. However, few random sam-
the potential Ni-Co sulfide and Cr mineral-
ples were back and preliminary results are
ization. During 2008 drill test program, four
confirmed the occurrences of nickel sulfide
holes intersects unusual Ni-Co mineralisa-
in the core samples. Table 2 is an example
tions at certain depths (>80 m) and related
from a preliminary results of Br(Me)OH of
to the silica alterations. These mineraliza-
nickel sulfide only (%) vs nickel total (%)
tions could not be explained by a traditional
that composed of nickel silicates, oxides,
nickel laterite theory as normally applied in
and sulfides.
Indonesian geological setting.
The grade of NiS from drill samples is rela-
Early 2011, PTI started to conduct the 2nd
tively similar with Ronnbacken (Sweden) or
phase diamond drilling program to confirm
Dumont (Canada) deposits those related to
IP and ground magnetic anomalies related
the serpentinization processes.
to NiS mineralizations. Total of 10 holes
or 1,973.70 m depth were drilled until mid The occurrences of NiS mineralizations
2011. The 3rd phase of diamond drilling in drill samples are closely related to high

100
 The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:
a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

Figure 13. Examples of 2011 IP survey anomalies. (a) Section of Latao IP anomalies; (b) 3D model intersec-
tions of high resistivity and high chargeability, open to depth.

resistivity and high chargeability from IP
survey. These IP anomalies are good guide
for current drilling program and PTI is
expecting can achieved potential large ton-
nages from current drilling program.
Interpretation of Mineralization
Latao deposit is a product of the obduction
of peridotitic oceanic crust, intensive hydro-
thermal alteration, and tectonic deformation.
It has numerous features in common with
other mineral deposits associated with al-
tered serpentinites.
From tectonic history, the westward move-
ment of the Banggai-Sula microcontinent
during the Miocene initiated a new subduc-
tion zone, forming Neogene Volcano clastics

101
 Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

Table 2. Example of Br(Me)OH assay for Nickel sulfide (%) occurrences.

BHID From To Samp ID NiS Ni Total NiS Average Ni Total Average

LTD0C31 38.00 39.00 CXL0004052 0.15 0.21
LTD0C31 39.00 39.72 CXL0004053 0.13 0.22
LTD0C31 39.72 40.00 CXL0004054 0.12 0.12
LTD0C31 40.00 41.00 CXL0004055 0.11 0.11
0.11 0.22
LTD0C31 41.00 41.72 CXL0004056 0.10 0.10

LTD0C31 41.72 42.00 CXL0004057 0.10 0.10

LTD0C31 42.00 43.00 CXL0004058 0.09 0.09
LTD0C31 43.00 43.72 CXL0004059 0.10 0.10

(NVC). Further obduction of the ESO and
Pompangeo Complex during the Pliocene
was caused by the buoyant subduction of
the Banggai-Sula microcontinent (Figure
14, Kadarusman, 2008). Like NVC, it is
interpreted that hydrothermal fluids are
possibly released through the channeling of
major structures during subduction process.
Combined with serpentinization processes
and depending sulfur availability, the nickel
sulfide mineralization in ophiolite such as
Latao possibly occured.
The NNE-SSW and NW-SE trends of hy-
drothermal associated occurrences in Latao
are the logic fault impacts (and as hydro-
thermal fluid channels) created by regional
WNW-ESE tectonic movements parallel
with Lawanopo Fault.
To compare with other normal ultramafic
rocks in Sulawesi, Kadarusman (2009)
made some geochemical plots. It is con-
cluded that Latao bedrocks have different
pattern with other peridotite in Sulawesi.
Latao ultramafic bed rocks seem to be
modified from the original composition
by hydrothermal alteration (?). The Latao
bedrock more rich in silica, high nickel and
low CaO (Figure 15).
The hydrothermal alteration corresponded
with the serpentinization processes while
the ophiolites were emplaced during a pe-
riod of crustal collision resulting in obduc-
tion. The hydrothermal mineral assemblage
is a product of temperature, the presence of
CO2, and oxygen and sulfur fugacity. The

Figure 14.1nterpreted regional tectonic and Latao mineralization (Kadarusman, 2008).

102
 The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:
a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

Figure 15. Silica rich Latao ultramafic bedrock plot vs normal ultramafic rocks in Sulawesi (Kadarusman,
2009).

silica was subsequently remobilized and
redeposited forming a stockwork of quartz
veins and veinlets. The silica (occasionally
with carbonate) alteration within this en-
vironment is called listwaenite to birbirite
alteration. Listwaenites are described as
silicified and carbonated rocks from ser-
pentinized ultramafic rocks in ophiolite
complexes (Buisson - Leblanc, 1985), while
birbirite alteration has more silica content
>85% (Esteban et al., 2011). The chromite
breccia occurrence in Latao is originated
from podiform chromite which is related to
upper mantle cumulate associations and
possibly affected by hydrothermal injection
fluid.
The genesis of Latao magnetite-hematite
bodies and in hydrothermal breccia (?) is
still unknown. However referring to the
Divrigi iron mineralization in Turkey, the
magnetite bodies were formed during a
hydrothermal alteration of serpentinites. In
Turkey, the iron is enriched by serpentini-
zation processes and further concentrated
by hydrothermal convective cells caused
by intrusion of granite pluton (Unlu et al.,
1995). Some parts of this concept perhaps
can be adopted but required further studies.
NiS mineralization in Latao is hosted by
serpentine and hydrothermal breccia (?).
Nickel was originally located mainly in the
olivine lattice within the ultramafic rocks,
such as dunites and peridotites. Due to ser-
pentinization of the olivine, nickel in the
olivine was released and nickel bearing sul-
phides were formed depending on sulphur
availability. Serpentinization of ultramafic
rocks and the olivine occurs through the sup-
ply of water, S, and CO2. The reaction can be
summarised as follows (SRK, April, 2011):
Olivine (Ni) + H2O + S2 + CO2 → Ser-
pentinite + Brucite + Carbonates + Fe3O4
+ NixSy* + H2
* Ni-rich sulphides
By experimental studies (Filippidis, 1982),
synthetic nickel bearing olivine has been
serpentinized at 350°C under a pressure of
2 kbar by adding sulphur and water. Olivine
was transformed to serpentinite, brucite, and
magnetite, and nickel rich sulphides were
formed such as millerite (NiS), pentlandite
((Fe, Ni)9 S8), heazlewoodite (Ni3S2), and
bravoite ((Fe, Ni, Co) S2). Low sulfur fugac-

103
 Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107
ity favours the formation of heazlewoodite
and nickel rich magnetite. At a higher
sulphur fugacity, lower nickel values are
found in magnetite, including iron sulphides
as pyrite. Dehydration experiments (at
500°C) have shown that, based on the pres-
ence of brucite and serpentine, it is possible
to get reformation of new olivine which is
more magnesium rich than the original ol-
ivine. This is interpreted as magnetite and
pentlandite being stable during the created
metamorphic conditions.
Preliminary Economic and Environmen-
tal Considerations
The large tonnage low grade nickel sulfide
deposits are the main target for the Latao
NiS exploration program. The rationale be-
hind this target is referring to Ronnbacken
(Sweden) or Dumont (Canada) projects.
Both deposist have large tonnage (>200 Mt)
but low nickel grade (<0.3% Ni) and NiS
mineralizations are related to serpentiniza-
tion processes. However, the Ronnbacken
has a closer geology to Latao since it is re-
lated to Alpine-type ultramafic (SRK, April
2011).
Economic Consideration
Within this unique serpentinized ultramafic
environment, the nickel sulfide minerals
formations are relatively uncommon com-
pare with the traditional NiS deposits. The
Figure 16. Fe-Ni-S phase diagram (Misra and Fleet, 1973).
104
factors of bulk composition, temperature,
and oxygen-sulfur fugacity are transformed
while serpentinization advances. The rich
nickel sulfide minerals such as heazlewood-
ite (70% Ni), millerite (60% Ni; 2 - 3% Co)
and pentlandite (33% Ni; 2 - 6% Co), and
occasionally with Fe-Ni alloy mineral such
as awaruite (72% Ni + Fe) are potentially
exists (Royal Nickel Corp, May 2011). The
Fe-Ni-S phase diagram (Misra and Fleet,
1973) can described the relations among
the NiS minerals (Figure 16). In this ser-
pentinized environment, the occurrences
of pyrite and pyrrhotite as gangue minerals
are lack and minimum. This is very good
to produce high grade nickel concentrate
after metallurgical process. Ronnbacken
and Dumont projects contain the highest
nickel concentrate grades (25 - 35% Ni)
compare with other traditional NiS projects
(5 - 15% Ni) around the world. Both projects
are potential to become world-class nickel
projects with NPV >$250 million (Royal
Nickel Corp, April 2011 and Nickel Moun-
tain, 2011). The summary of Ronnbacken
and Dumont projects can be summarized
in Table 3.
Nickel rich heazlewoodite and millerite + no
iron sulfides = high grade nickel concentrate
(IGE Nordic, November, 2010).
The 2011 IP survey across the Latao area
shows encouraging result. Some large areas
 The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:
a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)
Table3. Summary of Ronnbacken and Dumont Projects for Preliminary Economic Considerations
MRMR Produc-
tion
M+I INF tpa Ni
Ronnbacken 277 Mt 279 Mt 26.000
@0.1% Ni @0.1% Ni
Dumont 1.1 Bt 581 Mt 64.500
@0.27% @0.25% Ni
with combination of high resistivity and
chargeability are shown for next drilling tar-
gets. PTI has a great expectation to achieved
large tonnage of NiS deposits in Latao.
Environmental Consideration
For environmental issue, the serpentine-
related NiS deposits have a good position
since the mine environmental costs are in-
creasing. Very low sulfide content (Nickel
Mountain, 2011) gives very low Acid Mine
Drainage (<0.1%S vs 1 - 3%S for typical
mines).
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE EX-
PLORATION FRONTIER
The Latao project contains unusual nickel
mineralization and potentially becoming
the first nickel sulfide deposit discovered
in Indonesia. It is interpreted that the poten-
tial of nickel sulfide deposit Indonesia has
much different geological setting compare
to traditional Ni-Cu- PGM deposits such
as komatiite, mafic-ultramafic intrusions
or flood basalts environments in Australia,
Canada or Russia.
The regional tectonic and geological settings
of Southeast Sulawesi are supportive to the
nickel sulfide deposition theory in Latao.
The hydrothermal alteration corresponded
with the serpentinization processes, while
the ophiolites were emplaced during a pe-
riod of crustal collision resulted in obduc-
tion. The hydrothermal mineral assemblage
is a product of temperature, the presence of
CO2, and oxygen and sulfur fugacity.
LOM % Concen- CAPEX OPEX NVP
trate
years US$ millions US$/lb US$ millions
19 28% Ni
$1.548 5.55 $316
25 35% Ni
$2.304 3.87 $1.146
The Latao nickel sulfide mineralization is
interpreted having relationships with ser-
pentine and mainly epigenetic nickel-sulfide
type. Due to serpentinization of olivine,
the nickel in the olivine was released and
nickel bearing sulfides were formed depend-
ing on sulfur availability, beyond normal
serpentinization. It is interpreted that Latao
mineralization is more complex and closely
related with the combination of serpentiniza-
tion processes, silica alteration (listwaenite-
birbirite) and magnetite-hematite (iron
oxides) alterations due to hydrothermal
activities. The relations among them still
unknown and further studies are required.
Designing exploration strategy for the
Latao has been challenging since there was
no nickel sulfide exploration in Indonesia
and the geological setting is unconven-
tional. However, a combination of good
understanding on ultramafic mineralization,
careful geological mapping, soil sampling,
mineralogical analysis, good geophysi-
cal survey, careful selection of analytical
methods and drilling strategy have led PTI
to defining of the unknown nickel sulfide
potential in Indonesia.
In first half of 2011, several good geophysi-
cal anomalies were defined and the next
program is to define the potential mineral
resources by systematic drilling program.
The large tonnage – low grade nickel sul-
fide deposit is current PTI major target.
The selective Br(Me)OH assaying program
is in progress and continue with EPMA
mineralogical analysis. PTI is targeting for
105
 Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107
a preliminary metallurgical flotation test
from drill core samples sometimes in 2012.
Experiences learned from the Latao, there is
a new frontier of nickel exploration in Indo-
nesia. The geology and tectonic settings of
Indonesian ophiolite complexes in Sulawesi,
Papua, Kalimantan, and Halmahera are
needed to be re-assessed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The paper has been presented in Seminar MGEI-
IAGI of the Sulawesi Mineral Resources 2011 in
Manado, and compiled within the proceedings. The
committe is acknowledged. To publish the article in
the MGI-IAGI some improvements of the content
have been carried out.
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