ASCE 15-98

American Society of Civil Engineers

Standard Practice for Direct

Design of Buried Precast
Concrete Pipe Using Standard
Installations (SIDD)
This document uses both Système International (SI) units and customary units.

Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers

1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, Virginia 20191-4400
ABSTRACT
This publication, Standard Practice for Direct Design of Bur-
ied Precast Concrete Pipe Using Standard Installations
(SIDD), (ASCE 15-98), is applicable to buried concrete pre-
cast pipe intended for the conveyance of sewage, industrial
waste, storm water, and drainage. The standard practice
covers the direct design method, manufacturing specification,
and standard installations. It is based on research and testing
over the past twenty years to develop a more rational design
procedure for the direct design of buried concrete pipe based
on engineering principles followed for the direct design of
other reinforced concrete members. The direct design method
is an improvement on the indirect design method based on
the three-edge bearing test which does not represent the soil
pressure distribution around an installed pipe. The soil pres-
sure distribution on a buried pipe depends on soil-pipe inter-
action, which in turn depends on the soil material and instal-
lation procedure. The direct design method provides the
procedure for determining the pressure distribution coeffi-
cients for the standard installations. Four types of standard
embankment installations and four types of standard trench
installations are covered in the standard. The limits state de-
sign procedure specified for the design of pipe is consistent
with the procedures outlined in Section 17 of the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. The commen-
tary provides supporting background data.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Standard practice for direct design of buried precast concrete
pipe using standard installations (SIDD)
p. cm.— (ASCE standards)
ISBN 0-7844-0471-2
1. Pipe, Concrete—Design—Data processing.
2. Precast concrete. 3. Soil-structure interaction.
I. American Society of Civil Engineers. Direct Design of
Buried Concrete Pipe Standards Committee.
TA447 .S73 2000
621.8'672—dc21
00-038952

Photocopies. Authorization to photocopy material for internal

or personal use under circumstances not falling within the fair
use provisions of the Copyright Act is granted by ASCE to
libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clear-
ance Center (CCC) Transactional Reporting Service, pro-
vided that the base fee of $8.00 per article plus $.50 per page
is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923. The identification for ASCE Books is 0-7844-0471-2/
00/$8.00 + $.50 per page. Requests for special permission
or bulk copying should be addressed to Permissions & Copy-
right Dept., ASCE.

Copyright © 2000 by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

All Rights Reserved.
Library of Congress Catalog Card No: 00-038952
ISBN 0-7844-0471-2
Manufactured in the United States of America.
 STANDARDS
In April 1980, the Board of Direction approved
ASCE Rules for Standards Committees to govern the
writing and maintenance of standards developed by
the Society. All such standards are developed by a
consensus standards process managed by the Man-
agement Group F (MGF), Codes and Standards. The
consensus process includes balloting by the balanced
standards committee made up of Society members
and nonmembers, balloting by the membership of
ASCE as a whole, and balloting by the public. All
standards are updated or reaffirmed by the same pro-
cess at intervals not exceeding 5 years.
The following Standards have been issued.
ANSI/ASCE 1-82 N-725 Guideline for Design and
Analysis of Nuclear Safety Related Earth
Structures
ANSI/ASCE 2-91 Measurement of Oxygen Transfer
in Clean Water
ANSI/ASCE 3-91 Standard for the Structural Design
of Composite Slabs and ANSI/ASCE 9-91 Stan-
dard Practice for the Construction and Inspection
of Composite Slabs
ASCE 4-98 Seismic Analysis of Safety-Related Nu-
clear Structures
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures
(ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99) and
Specifications for Masonry Structures (ACI
530.1-99/ASCE 6-99/TMS 602-99)
ASCE 7-98 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
and Other Structures
ANSI/ASCE 8-90 Standard Specification for the
Design of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural
Members
ANSI/ASCE 9-91 listed with ASCE 3-91
ASCE 10-97 Design of Latticed Steel Transmission
Structures
SEI/ASCE 11-99 Guideline for Structural Condition
Assessment of Existing Buildings
ANSI/ASCE 12-91 Guideline for the Design of
Urban Subsurface Drainage
ASCE 13-93 Standard Guidelines for Installation of
Urban Subsurface Drainage
ASCE 14-93 Standard Guidelines for Operation and
Maintenance of Urban Subsurface Drainage
ASCE 15-98 Standard Practice for Direct Design of
Buried Precast Concrete Pipe Using Standard
Installations (SIDD)
ASCE 16-95 Standard for Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) of Engineered Wood
Construction
ASCE 17-96 Air-Supported Structures
ASCE 18-96 Standard Guidelines for In-Process
Oxygen Transfer Testing
ASCE 19-96 Structural Applications of Steel Cables
for Buildings
ASCE 20-96 Standard Guidelines for the Design and
Installation of Pile Foundations
ASCE 21-96 Automated People Mover Standards—
Part 1
ASCE 21-98 Automated People Mover Standards—
Part 2
SEI/ASCE 23-97 Specification for Structural Steel
Beams with Web Openings
SEI/ASCE 24-98 Flood Resistant Design and
Construction
ASCE 25-97 Earthquake-Actuated Automatic Gas
Shut-Off Devices
ASCE 26-97 Stapdard Practice for Design of Buried
Precast Concrete Box Sections
ASCE 27-00 Standard Practice for Direct Design of
Precast Concrete Pipe for Jacking in Trenchless
Construction
ASCE 28-00 Standard Practice for Direct Design of
Precast Concrete Box Sections for Jacking in
Trenchless Construction
iii
This page intentionally left blank
 FOREWORD
The material presented in this publication has
been prepared in accordance with recognized engi-
neering principles. This Standard and Commentary
should not be used without first securing competent
advice with respect to their suitability for any given
application. The publication of the material contained
herein is not intended as a representation or warranty
on the part of the American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, or of any other person named herein, that this
information is suitable for any general or particular
use or promises freedom from infringement of any
patent or patents. Anyone making use of this infor-
mation assumes all liability from such use.
v
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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) acknowledges the work of the Direct Design
of Buried Concrete Pipe Standards Committee of the
Management Group F, Codes and Standards. This
group comprises individuals from many backgrounds
including: consulting engineering, research, construc-
tion industry, education, government, design and
private practice.
The Standard was prepared through the consen-
sus standards process by balloting in compliance with
procedures of ASCE's Management Group F, Codes
and Standards. Those individuals who serve on the
Standards Committee are:

Richard P. B aide win Kenneth K. Kienow Mark W. Schumacher

Josiah W. Beakley Leonard L. Klein Ernest T. Selig
Mike Bealey John M. Kurdziel Daniel N. Short
Matthew J. Binder John O. Lane Balaram K. Singh
Joseph A. Bohinsky Kelley Lloyd Robert F. Spiekerman
Thomas K. Breitfuss J. Wayne MacLean Lee E. Stockton, Vice Chair
Leo Brooks Michael C. McVay Richard A. Swenson
Dennis L. Bunke Kenneth F. Miller Charles M. Taylor
Eric A. Carleton Wallace J. Munden Albert T. Tung
Oliver Delery, Jr. Michael Murphy Adrianus VanKampen, Secretary
Jeffrey I. Enyart Masanori Nagami, Chair Jack C. Williams
R. Hartley Field Charles R. Nelson James L. Withiam
Fouad H. Fouad John L. Niklaus Shig Yonaminea
Frank J. Heger David Nishimura Joseph P. Zicaro
James J. Hill James A. Nystrom
Iraj I. Kaspar Gerald R. Price

vii
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

PART I. GENERAL
1.0 Scope 1
2.0 Applicable Documents 1
2.1 ASTM I
2.2 AASHTO 1
3.0 Definitions 2
4.0 Notations 2
5.0 Summary of Practice 3

PART II. DIRECT DESIGN METHOD USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS

6.0 General 8
7.0 Design Requirements 8
8.0 Materials 9
8.1 Concrete 9
8.2 Reinforcement 9
9.0 Loads 9
9.1 Dead Loads 9
9.2 Live Loads 10
9.3 Intermittent Internal Hydrostatic Pressure 10
10.0 Standard Installations 10
11.0 Pressure Distribution and Stress Analysis 11
12.0 Reinforcement 11
12.2 Minimum Reinforcement 11
12.3 Maximum Flexural Reinforcement 11
12.4 Crack Control 12
12.5 Shear Strength 12
12.6 Stirrups 13
12.7 Welds, Splices, and Development of Reinforcement 14
13.0 Pipe Designation 14

PART III. CONSTRUCTION OF SOIL/PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE SYSTEMS

14.0 General 15
15.0 Safety 15
16.0 Excavation 15
17.0 Foundation 15
18.0 Bedding 15
19.0 Pipe Placement and Joining 16
20.0 Haunch 16
21.0 Lower Side 16
22.0 Overfill 16
23.0 Sheathing Removal and Trench Shield Advancement 17
24.0 Precast Concrete Appurtenances 17
25.0 Minimum Cover for Construction Loads 17

APPENDIX A: MANUFACTURING SPECIFICATION

APPENDIX B: SI UNITS FOR NOTATION AND EQUATIONS

Bl.O Scope 19
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS

B2.0 Standard Practice—SI Conversions 19

12.0 Reinforcement 20
12.1 20
12.2 Minimum Reinforcement 20
12.3 Maximum Flexural Reinforcement 20
12.3.1 Limited by radial tension 20
12.3.2 Limited by concrete compression 20
12.4 Crack Control 21
12.5 Shear Strength 21
12.6 Stirrups 22
12.6.2 Radial tension stirrups 22
12.6.3 Shear stirrups 22
12.6.4 Extent of stirrups '. 22

COMMENTARY
PART I. GENERAL
Cl.O Scope 23
C2.0 Applicable Documents 23
C2.1 ASTM Standards 23
C3.0 Definitions '. 23
C4.0 Notations 23
C5.0 Summary of Practice 23
PART II. DESIGN
C6.0 General 24
C7.0 Design Requirements 25
C9.0 Loads 26
C10.0 Standard Installations 29
C l l . O Pressure Distribution 30
C12.0 Reinforcement 31
C13.0 Pipe Designation 37
C18.0 Bedding 37

INDEX 39

LIST OF FIGURES
3.6-1 Pipe/installation terminology 2
5.2-1 Standard embankment installations 4
5.2-2 Standard trench installations 5
5.3-1 Arching coefficients and Heger earth pressure distribution 7
18.1-1 Uniform pipe support 15

LIST OF TABLES
5.2-1 Standard embankment installation soils and minimum compaction requirements 6
5.2-2 Standard trench installation soils and minimum compaction requirements 6
10.2-1 Equivalent USCS and AASHTO soil classifications for SIDD soil designations 10
12.4-1 Crack control coefficients 12
Standard Practice for Direct Design of Buried Precast
Concrete Pipe Using Standard Installations (SIDD)
PART I. GENERAL
1.0 SCOPE
1.1 This standard practice covers the direct design of
buried precast concrete pipe using Standard Installa-
tions manufactured in accordance with ASTM C
1417, and the design and construction of the soil/pipe
interaction system, intended for the conveyance of
sewage, industrial wastes, storm water, and drainage.
1.2 When buried, concrete pipe is part of a compos-
ite system comprised of the pipe and the surrounding
soil envelope, which interact and contribute to the
strength and structural behavior of the system.
1.3 Part II of this standard practice presents the
SIDD method for buried precast concrete pipe. SIDD
is a design and analysis method that accounts for the
interaction between the pipe and soil envelope in de-
termining loads, pressure distributions, moment,
thrust and shear in the pipe, and includes a procedure
for calculating the required reinforcement.
1.4 Part III of this standard practice presents con-
struction requirements for precast concrete pipe de-
signed by the SIDD method.
1.5 This standard practice may be used as a reference
by the owner and the owner's engineer in preparing
project specifications based on the SIDD method.
1.6 The design procedures given in this standard
practice are intended for use by engineers who are
familiar with the installation and pipe characteristics
that affect the structural behavior of buried concrete
pipe installations and the significance of the installa-
tion requirements associated with each Standard In-
stallation type. Before applying the design procedures
given in Part II, the engineer should review the guid-
ance and requirements given in other sections of this
standard practice and its accompanying commentary.
1.7 The values of dimensions and quantities are ex-
pressed in inch-pound (English) units, which are to
be regarded as standard. English unit values are con-
verted to SI unit values, which are presented in pa-
rentheses or a section following the English units.
For clarity, Appendix B repeats the notation and con-
tains the full translation of equations to SI units. The
use of SI units is in accord with ASTM Practice
E 380. SI units expressed in parentheses and in Ap-
pendix B are supplied for information only and are
not a part of this standard practice.
Note 1: Some of the applicable standards referenced
may have a double designation (Axxx/AxxxM) or
separate inch-pound (English) and SI (metric) unit
editions. Only the inch-pound unit edition of a stan-
dard is listed in this practice. If the practice is used
in an SI unit design, the user should investigate
whether separate SI unit editions of the referenced
standards are available.
2.0 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS
2.1 ASTM (AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR
TESTING AND MATERIALS)
2.1.1 C 822 Definitions of Concrete Pipe and Related
Products
2.1.2 C 1417 Specifications for Manufacture of Rein-
forced Concrete Sewer, Storm Drain, and Culvert
Pipe for Direct Design
2.1.3 D 2487 Classification of Soils for Engineering
Purposes
2.1.4 D 2488 Recommended Practice for Description
of Soils (Visual Manual and Procedure)
2.1.5 D 698 Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and
Soil-Aggregate Mixtures Using 5.5 Ib Rammer and
12 in. Drop
2.1.6 D 1557 Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and
Soil-Aggregate Mixtures Using 10 Ib Rammer and
18 in. Drop
2.1.7 E 380 Standard Practice for Use of the Interna-
tional System of Units (SI) the Modernized Metric
System
2.2 AASHTO (AMERICAN ASSOCIATION
OF STATE HIGHWAY AND
TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS)
2.2.1 Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
1
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
2.2.2 T 99 The Moisture-Density Relations of Soils
Using a 5.5-lb (2.5 kg) Rammer and a 12-in.
(305 mm) Drop
2.2.3 T 180 The Moisture-Density Relations of Soils
Using a 10-lb (4.54 kg) Rammer and an 18-in.
(457 mm) Drop
3.0 DEFINITIONS
3.1 For definitions of terms relating to concrete pipe,
see ASTM Definitions C 822.
3.2 For terminology related to soil classifications, see
ASTM Classification D 2487 and ASTM Practice
D 2488.
3.3 For terminology and definition of terms relating
to structural design, see AASHTO Standard Specifi-
cation for Highway Bridges.
FIGURE 3.6-1. Pipe/Installation Terminology
2
3.4 Orientation Angle: An angular tolerance as-
sumed for the position of the top of the pipe during
the design of a pipe requiring a specific installation
orientation because of the reinforcement cage config-
uration or the positioning of stirrups.
3.5 Prism Load: Weight of column of earth over the
outside diameter of pipe.
3.6 Fig. 3.6-1 illustrates the definitions and limits of
the terms foundation, subgrade, bedding, haunch,
lower side, sidefill, backfill or overfill, invert, crown,
springline, top of pipe, and bottom of pipe as used in
this standard practice.
4.0 NOTATIONS
A, = area of tension reinforcement required in length
b, in. 2 /ft (crrr/m)

Asi = area of total inner cage reinforcement required
in length b, in.2/ft (crrr/m)
AM, = area of total outer cage reinforcement required
in length b, in.2/ft (cm2/m)
A,,,. = area of stirrup reinforcement required to resist
radial tension forces, in.2/ft (crrr/m) in each
line of stirrups at circumferential spacing s,,
Am = area of stirrup reinforcement required to resist
shear, in.2/ft (cnr/m) in each line of stirrups at
circumferential spacing s,,
B, = crack control coefficient for effect of spacing
and number of layers of reinforcement
b = width of section that resists stress, in. (mm);
taken as 12 in. (English units); taken as 1,000
mm (SI units); and
b = unit length of pipe, ft (m); taken as 1 ft
(English units); taken as 1 m (SI units)
C, = crack control coefficient for type of
reinforcement
d = distance from compression face to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
Dj - inside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
D,,, = mean diameter of pipe, taken as 1
D,, = outside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
/'. = design compressive strength of concrete,
lbs/in.2 (MPa)
/. = maximum service load stress of reinforcing
steel for crack control, lbs/in.2 (MPa)
/„ = maximum developable strength of stirrup mate-
rial, lbs/in.2 (MPa)
f,. = design yield strength of reinforcement, lbs/in.2
(MPa)
F,. = factor for effect of curvature on diagonal ten-
sion (shear) strength in curved components
Fcr - crack width control factor for adjusting crack
control relative to average maximum crack
width of 0.01 in. (0.3 mm) at 1 in. (25 mm)
from the tension reinforcement when F,.,. = 1.0
F,t = factor for crack depth effect resulting in in-
crease in diagonal tension (shear) strength with
decreasing d
FN = coefficient for effect of thrust on shear
strength
Fr/, = factor for process and materials that affect the
radial tension strength of pipe
F,., = factor for pipe size effect on radial tension
strength
Fv = factor for crack depth effect resulting in in-
crease in diagonal tension (shear) strength with
decreasing d
F,,p = factor for process and materials that affect the
shear strength of pipe
ASCE 15-98
h = overall thickness of member (wall thickness),
in. (mm)
H = design height of earth above top of pipe, ft (m)
i - coefficient for effect of axial force at service
load stress,/,.
/0 = total additional arc length beyond calculated
arc lengths requiring stirrups, in. (mm)
Ms = service load bending moment acting on length
b, in.-lbs/ft (Nmm/m)
Mu = factored moment acting on length b, in.-lbs/ft
(Nmm/m)
M,,,, = factored moment acting on length b as modi-
fied for effects of compressive or tensile thrust,
in.-lbs/ft (Nmm/m)
n = number of layers of reinforcement in a cage,
1 or 2
Ns = axial thrust acting on length b, service load
condition (+ when compressive, — when ten-
sile), Ibs/ft (N/m)
N,, = factored axial thrust acting on length b ( +
when compressive, - when tensile), Ibs/ft
(N/m)
PL = the prism load (weight of the column of earth)
over the pipe's outside diameter and is calcu-
lated as: PL = [wD0/(l2)][H + (0.107D0)/(12)],
Ibs/ft (English units); PL = [vvD0/(l,000)][// +
(0.107 £>«)/( 1,000)], N/m (SI units)
r = radius to centerline of pipe wall, in. (mm)
;;. = radius of the inside reinforcement, in. (mm)
s,, - circumferential spacing of stirrups, in. (mm)
s, = spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in.
(mm)
t,, = clear cover over reinforcement, in. (mm)
V,, = basic shear strength of length b at critical sec-
tion where MJ(V,,d) = 3.0, Ibs/ft (N/m)
V,. = nominal shear strength provided by concrete in
length b, Ibs/ft (N/m)
Vu = factored shear force acting on length b, Ibs/ft
(N/m)
V,,,. = factored shear force acting on length b at criti-
cal section where MJ(V,,d) = 3.0, Ibs/ft (N/m)
w - unit weight of soil, Ibs/ft3 (N/m3)
p = ratio of reinforcement area to concrete area
(pf = strength reduction factor for flexure
(f>,, = strength reduction factor for shear
<j>, = strength reduction factor for radial tension
9 = orientation angle, deg
5.0 SUMMARY OF PRACTICE
5.1 The SIDD method accounts for the interaction
between the pipe and soil envelope in determining
3
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
loads and distribution of earth pressure on a buried
pipe. The loads and pressure distributions are used to
calculate moment, thrust and shear in the pipe wall,
and required pipe reinforcement for the Standard
Installations.
5.2 The Standard Installations that are a part of this
standard practice, Figs. 5.2-1 and 5.2-2 and Tables
5.2-1 and 5.2-2, are based on the results of research
on pipe/soil interaction, together with evaluation of
current construction practice, equipment, procedures,
and experience.
5.3 Earth load effects are determined from the pres-
sure distribution coefficients for the Standard Installa-
tions (see Fig. 5.3-1).
FIGURE 5.2-1. Standard Embankment Installations
4
5.4 The structural design of concrete pipe is based on
a limits state design procedure that accounts for
strength and serviceability criteria and is consistent
with the procedures outlined in Section 17 of the
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges. The design criteria include: structural as-
pects, such as flexure, thrust, shear and radial tension
strengths; handling and installation; and crack width
control.
5.5 The design of a concrete pipe for a particular
Standard Installation type is based on the assumption
that the specified design bedding and fill require-
ments will be achieved during construction of the
installation.
 ASCE 15-98

FIGURE 5.2-2. Standard Trench Installations

5
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS

TABLE 5.2-1. Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements

Installation Haunch and Outer

Type Bedding Thickness Bedding Lower Side

Type 1 D,,/24 minimum, not less than 3 in. (75 mm). If 95% SW 90% SW, 95% ML, or
rock foundation, use D,,/12 minimum, not less 100% CL
than 6 in. (150 mm).
Type 2 D,,/24 minimum, not less than 3 in. (75 mm). If 90% SW or 95% ML 85% SW, 90% ML, or
rock foundation, use D,,/\2 minimum, not less 95% CL
than 6 in. (150 mm).
Type3 £>,,/24 minimum, not less than 3 in. (75 mm). If 85% SW, 90% ML, 85% SW, 90% ML, or
rock foundation, use D,,/12 minimum, not less or 95% CL 95% CL
than 6 in. (150 mm).
Type 4 No bedding required, except if rock foundation, use No compaction No compaction required,
D,,/12 minimum, not less than 6 in. (150 mm). required, except if except if CL, use
CL, use 85% CL 85% CL
Notes:
1. Compaction and soil symbols, i.e., 95% SW, refer to SW soil material with a minimum Standard Proctor compaction of 95%. See Table
10.2.1 for equivalent Modified Proctor values.
2. Soil in the outer bedding, haunch, and lower side zones, except within £>,,/3 from the pipe springline, shall be compacted to at least the same
compaction as the majority of soil in the overfill zone.
3. Subtrenches
3.1 A subtrench is defined as a trench with its top below finished grade by more than 0.1 H or, for roadways, its top is at an elevation lower
than 1 ft (0.3 m) below the bottom of the pavement base material.
3.2 The minimum width of a subtrench shall be 1.33 D,,, or wider if required for adequate space to attain the specified compaction in the haunch
and bedding zones.
3.3 For subtrenches with walls of natural soil, any portion of the lower side zone in the subtrench wall shall be at least as firm as an equivalent
soil placed to the compaction requirements specified for the lower side zone and as firm as the majority of soil in the overfill zone or shall
be removed and replaced with soil compacted to the specified level.

TABLE 5.2-2. Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements

Installation Haunch and Outer

Type Bedding Thickness Bedding Lower Side

Type 1 A/24 minimum, not less than 3 in. (75 mm). If 95% SW 90% SW, 95% ML, 100%
rock foundation, use D,,/12 minimum, not less CL, or natural soils of
than 6 in. (150 mm). equal firmness
Type 2 A/24 minimum, not less than 3 in. (75 mm). If 90% SW or 95% ML 85% SW, 90% ML, 95% CL,
rock foundation, use A/12 minimum, not less or natural soils of equal
than 6 in. (150 mm). firmness
Type 3 A/2424 minimum, not less than 3 in. (75 mm). If 85% SW, 90% ML, 85% SW, 90% ML, 95% CL,
rock foundation, use D,,/\2 minimum, not less or 95% CL or natural soils of equal
than 6 in. (150 mm). firmness
Type 4 No bedding required, except if rock foundation, use No compaction 85% SW, 90% ML, 95% CL,
A/ 12 minimum, not less than 6 in. (150 mm). required, except if or natural soils of equal
CL, use 85% CL firmness
Notes:
1. Compaction and soil symbols, i.e., 95% SW, refer to SW soil material with minimum Standard Proctor compaction of 95%. See Table 10.2.1
for equivalent Modified Proctor values.
2. The trench top elevation shall be no lower than 0.1 H below finished grade or, for roadways, its top shall be no lower than an elevation of 1
ft (0.3 m) below the bottom of the pavement base material.
3. Earth loading shall be based on embankment conditions.
4. Soil in bedding and haunch zones shall be compacted to at least the same compaction as specified for the majority of soil in the backfill zone.
5. The trench width shall be wider than shown if required for adequate space to attain the specified compaction in the haunch and bedding zones.
6. For trench walls that are within 10° of vertical, the compaction or firmness of the soil in the trench walls and lower side zone need not be
considered.
7. For trench walls with greater than 10° slopes that consist of embankment, the lower side shall be compacted to at least the same compaction
as specified for the soil in the backfill zone.

6
 ASCE 15-98

Installation
Type VAF HAF A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 a b c e f U V

1 1.35 0.45 0.62 0.73 1.35 0.19 0.08 0.18 1.40 0.40 0.18 0.08 0.05 0.80 0.80
2 1.40 0.40 0.85 0.55 1.40 0.15 o.oa 0.17 1.45 0.40 0.19 0.10 0.05 0.82 0.70
3 1.40 0.37 1.05 0.35 1.40 0.10 0.10 0.17 1.45 0.36 0.20 0.12 0.05 0.85 0.60
4 1.45 0.30 1.45 0.00 1.45 0.00 0.11 0.19 1.45 0.30 0.25 0.00 0.90

NOTES:

1. VAF and HAF are vertical and horizontal arching factors. These coefficients represent nondimensional total vertical and horizontal loads on the pipe,
respectively. The actual vertical and horizontal earth loads are (VAF) x (PL) and (HAF) x (PL), respectively, where PL is the prism load.

2. PL, the prism load, is the weight of the column of earth cover over the pipe outside diameter and is calculated as:

3. Coefficients A1 through A6 represent the integration of nondimensional vertical and horizontal components of soil pressure under the indicated
portions of the component pressure diagrams (i.e., the area under the component pressure diagrams). The pressures are assumed to vary either
parabolically or linearly, as shown, with the nondimensional magnitudes at governing points represented by h,, h2, uh,, vh2, a, and b. Nondimensional
horizontal and vertical dimensions of component pressure regions are defined by c, d, e, uc, vd, and f coefficients.

4. d is calculated as (0.5-c-e).
h, is calculated as (1.5A1) / (c) (1+u).
h2 is calculated as (1.5A2) / [(d) (1+v)+(2e)].

FIGURE 5.3-1. Arching Coefficients and Heger Earth Pressure Distribution

7
PART II. DIRECT DESIGN METHOD USING 7.1.8 Design live and surcharge loadings, if any.
STANDARD INSTALLATIONS (SIDD)
7.1.9 Design intermittent internal hydrostatic pres-
sures, if required.
6.0 GENERAL
7.1.10 Crack width control criteria.
6.1 Design procedures and criteria shall conform to
7.1.11 Cement type, if different than ASTM C 1417.
applicable sections of this standard practice.
7.2 The following design criteria shall apply:

6.2 DESIGN SUBMITTALS 7.2.1 Load Factors

Dead and Earth Load Factor
6.2.1 The intent of this Practice is that the pipe be (Shear and Moment) 1.3
designed and detailed by the manufacturer in accor- Dead and Earth Load Factor (Thrust)
dance with criteria furnished by the owner. Shop Reinforcement design 1.0
drawings are to be submitted to the owner for review Concrete compression 1.3
and approval prior to manufacture (see Section C6.2).
Live Load Factor (Shear and Moment) 2.17
6.2.2 An alternative to Section 6.2.1 is that the owner Live Load Factor (Thrust) 1.3
provide the design to the pipe manufacturer for prep- Internal Pressure Load Factor (Thrust) 1.5
aration of shop drawings, which would be submitted
to the owner for approval. 7.2.2 Strength Reduction (Phi) Factors

6.2.3 If the owner prepares a design, the manufac- Flexure, 4>f 0.95
turer may submit an alternate design to the owner for Radial Tension, 4>,, 0.9
approval.
Diagonal Tension, </>,. 0.9

7.2.3 Crack Control Factor

7.0 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS (unless modified by the owner) 1.0

7.1 The owner shall establish the following design 7.2.4 Orientation Angle, 0 10°
criteria and requirements:
7.2.5 Process and Material Factors
7.1.1 Intended use of pipeline.
Radial Tension 1.0
7.1.2 Pipe inside diameter, D,. Diagonal Tension 1.0

7.1.3 Pipeline plan and profile drawings with installa-
tion cross sections as required.
7.1.4 Design earth cover height above the top of the
pipe, H (see Fig. 3.6-1).
7.1.5 Allowable Standard Installation types. Types 1,
2, 3, and 4 for either trench or embankment (Figs.
5.2-1 and 5.2-2, and Tables 5.2-1 and 5.2-2).
7.2.5.1 Process and material factors greater than 1.0
may be used if substantiated by test data and ap-
proved by the owner. In no case shall the Process or
Material Factor exceed a maximum value of 1.2.
7.3 The manufacturer shall submit the following
manufacturing design data to the owner for approval.
7.3.1 Pipe Wall Thickness

7.1.6 Soil data sufficient to determine in situ condi- 7.3.2 Concrete Strength
tions for allowable Standard Installations (including
in situ soil classification) and overfill weight per 7.3.3 Reinforcement
cubic foot (N/m3). • specification,
• reinforcement Type 1, 2, or 3 as shown in Table
7.1.7 Performance requirements for pipe joints. 12.4-1,

8

• design yield strength,
• placement and design concrete cover,
• cross-sectional diameters,
• spacing,
• cross-sectional area,
• description of longitudinal members, and
• if stirrups used, developable stirrup design stress,
stirrup shape, placement, and anchorage details.
7.3.3.1 The yield strength and ultimate (tensile)
strength of the tension reinforcement used for design
shall be as specified in Section 8.2.1, 8.2.2, or 8.2.3.
7.3.3.2 Crack Control Coefficient, C,, values greater
than those shown in Table 12.4-1 may be used if
substantiated by pipe test data and approved by the
owner.
7.3.3.3 The minimum design concrete cover over the
reinforcement shall be 1 in. (25 mm) in pipe having
a wall thickness of 2 1/2 in. (63 mm) or greater and
3/4 in. (19 mm) in pipe having a wall thickness of
less than 2 1/2 in. (63 mm).
7.3.4 Process and Material Factors for radial tension
and shear (diagonal tension).
7.3.5 Pipe-laying length and joint information.
8.0 MATERIALS
8.1 CONCRETE
8.1.1 Concrete shall conform to the requirements of
ASTM C 1417.
8.2 REINFORCEMENT
8.2.1 Reinforcement shall consist of cold-drawn steel
wire conforming to ASTM Specification A 82 or
ASTM Specification A 496, or of cold-drawn steel
welded wire fabric conforming to ASTM Specifica-
tion A 185 or ASTM Specification A 497, or of hot-
rolled steel bars conforming to ASTM Specification
A 615.
8.2.2 The use of cold-drawn steel or cold-drawn steel
welded wire fabric with strengths exceeding ASTM
specification values may be approved by the owner
when the reinforcing manufacturer's mill test report
certifies a higher minimum yield and ultimate
ASCE 15-9
strength steel is being provided. The other require-
ments of the appropriate ASTM specifications listed
in Section 8.2.1 (A 82, A 496, A 185, or A 497) shall
be met by the higher minimum strength steels. The
yield strength shall not be taken greater than 86% of
the ultimate strength, or 80 ksi (560 Mpa), whichever
is lower.
8.2.2.1 Sections 8.2.2 and 8.2.3 do not apply to wire
sizes having a nominal diameter of less than 0.080
in. (2 mm) or nominal cross-sectional area of less
than 0.005 in. 2 (3 mm 2 ).
8.2.3 The use of Grade 40 hot-rolled steel bars with
strengths exceeding ASTM specification values may
be approved by the owner when the reinforcement
manufacturer's mill test report certifies that higher
minimum yield and ultimate (tensile) strength steel is
being provided. The allowable combinations of in-
creased yield/ultimate strength, in ksi, shall be 45/75
(310/520), 50/80 (350/560), and 55/85 (380/590). The
other requirements of ASTM Specification A 615
shall be met by the higher minimum-strength steel.
9.0 LOADS
9.1 DEAD LOADS
9.1.1 The dead load of the pipe weight shall be con-
sidered in the design and based on a reinforced con-
crete density of 150 lbs/ft3 (24 kN/m3), unless other-
wise specified.
9.1.2 The earth load from the fill over the pipe shall
be based on the design soil unit weight (mass) speci-
fied by the owner in Section 7.1.6, but not less than
110 lbs/ft3 (17.6 kN/m 3 ), unless otherwise specified.
9.1.3 For unpaved and flexible pavement areas, the
minimum fill, including flexible pavement thickness,
over the top outside of the pipe shall be 1 ft (300
mm), or 1/8 of the inside diameter, whichever is
greater. Under rigid pavements, the distance between
the top of the pipe and the bottom of the pavement
slab shall be a minimum of 6 in. (150 mm) of com-
pacted granular fill.
9.1.4 The dead load of fluid in the pipe shall be
based on a unit weight of 62.4 lbs/ft3 (10 kN/m3), un-
less otherwise specified.
9
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS

9.2 LIVE LOADS
9.2.1 Truck loads shall be either the AASHTO HS-
series or the AASHTO Interstate Design load. An im-
pact factor need not be added to AASHTO live loads
on pipe installed in accordance with Section 9.1.3.
9.2.2 Railroad loads shall be the AREA designated
Cooper E-series.
tions are depicted in Figs. 5.2-1 to 5.2-2 and Tables
5.2-1 and 5.2-2. The Standard Installations are ranked
according to the bedding and embedment soil materi-
als, and the required construction effort and quality
control. The Type 1 installation requires the most ef-
fort and control, while the Type 4 installation re-
quires the least. Soil classifications are in accordance
with ASTM Classification D 2487 and Practice
D 2488.

9.2.3 Aircraft or other live loads shall be as specified
by the owner.
9.3 INTERMITTENT INTERNAL
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
9.3.1 Internal hydrostatic pressure caused by hydrau-
lic surcharges or other temporary hydraulic conditions
shall be as specified by the owner.
10.0 STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
10.1 The four types of Standard Embankment Instal-
lations and four types of Standard Trench Installa-
10.2 The soil type and compaction requirements for
the Standard Installations are presented in Figs. 5.2-1
and 5.2-2 and Tables 5.2-1 and 5.2-2. Table 10.2-1
relates the Standard Installations designated soils to
the AASHTO and Unified Soil System Classifications
categories.
10.3 The soil types and compaction requirements for
the Standard Installations are defined as follows:
10.3.1 Soil Materials
SW General category of well-graded sands, gravelly
sands, little or no fines. Includes the USCS soil
types SW, SP, GW. and GP (see Table 10.2-1).

TABLE 10.2-1. Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications for SIDD Soil Designations

Representative Soil Types Percent Compaction

SIDD Soil USCS AASHTO Standard Proctor Modified Proctor

Gravelly sand (SW) SW, SP A1,A3 100 95

GW, GP 95 90
90 85
85 80
80 75
61 59
Sandy silt (ML) GM, SM, ML; also A2, A4 100 95
GC, SC with 95 90
less than 20% 90 85
passing #200 85 80
sieve 80 75
49 46
Silty clay (CL) CL, MH, GC, SC A5, A6 100 90
95 85
90 80
85 75
80 70
45 40
Silty Clay (CL) but CH A7 100 90
not allowed for 95 85
haunch or bedding 90 80
45 40

10
 ASCE 15-98

ML General category of inorganic silts, fine sands, 12.2 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT

or clayey silts with slight plasticity. Includes the
USCS soil types GM, SM, ML, and GC, and 12.2.1 Equations (2) and (3) apply to circular pipe
SC with less than 20% passing the #200 sieve reinforced with double circular cages. The area of re-
(see Table 10.2-1). inforcement shall be not less than A,,-, where
CL General category of inorganic clays of low to
medium plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy clays,
silty clays. Includes the USCS soil types CL, (2)
MH, GC, and SC. Also includes CH but not for
use in haunch or bedding (see Table 10.2-1).
where b = 12 in.

10.3.2 Compaction Specifications 12.2.2 The area of reinforcement for the outside face
of pipe shall be not less than A,,,, where
Standard Proctor density—AASHTO T 99 or
ASTM D 698
(3)
Modified Proctor density—AASHTO T 180 or
ASTM D 1557
12.2.3 For circular pipe reinforced with a single cir-
cular or single elliptical cage, the area of reinforce-
ment shall be not less than A,, where
11.0 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AND
STRESS ANALYSIS (4)

11.1 The pressure distributions on the pipe from ap-

plied loads and bedding reaction as determined from
soil-structure analyses for the Standard Installations
are presented in Fig. 5.3-1. Also listed are the rela-
tive dimensions and coefficients, based on a unit
prism load on the pipe. The use of the computer pro-
gram SIDD simplifies the analysis of a pipe for the
moments, thrusts, and shears caused by these pres-
sure distributions. Alternatively, the moments, thrusts,
and shears at governing design locations for the loads
specified in Section 9.0 may be obtained using the
coefficients given in Table C-3 in the Commentary
Section Cll.O.
12.3 MAXIMUM FLEXURAL
REINFORCEMENT
12.3.1 Limited by Radial Tension
When stirrups are not used, the wall shall be de-
signed so that the flexural reinforcement required by
Section 12.1 for the inside cage and/or elliptical cage
at the top or bottom of the pipe does not exceed
A .,,,„„, where

12.0 REINFORCEMENT

12.1 Reinforcement for flexural strength shall be not Fn = 1 + 0.00833 (72 - D,) (6)
less than A, where

(7)

for 72 in. < D, < 144 in.

F,, = 0.8 for D, > 144 in. (8)

11
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
12.3.2 Limited by Concrete Compression
The wall shall be designed so that the flexural
tensile reinforcement required by Section 12.1 does
not exceed A sm . lx , where
12.4 CRACK CONTROL
12.4.1 Crack control is assumed to be at 1 in. (25
mm) from the tension reinforcement. The Crack Con-
trol Factor, Ft.r, shall not exceed that specified, where
(ID
where
C, = see Table 12.4-1
b=\2 in.
TABLE 12.4-1. Crack Control Coefficients
Type of Reinforcement
1. Smooth wire
Plain bars
2. Welded smooth wire fabric, 8 in. (200 mm) 1.5
maximum spacing of longitudinals
Welded deformed wire fabric
Deformed wire
Note: 8 in. (200 mm) maximum spacing
applies to welded smooth wire fabric only
3. Deformed bars
Any reinforcement with stirrups anchored
thereto
12
(12)
(13)
(14)
if eld < 1.15 crack control will not govern
(15)
where
st = spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in.
n = 1, when tension reinforcement is a single layer
n = 2, when tension reinforcement is made of multi-
ple layers
12.4.2 If the service load thrust, Ns, is tensile rather
than compressive (this may occur in pipes subject
to intermittent hydrostatic pressure), the quantity
(1.1M., - 0.6Nsd) shall be used (with tensile Ns
taken negative) in place of the quantity
([M.v + Ns (d - h/2)]/ij) in Equation (11).
12.5 SHEAR STRENGTH
12.5.1 The area of reinforcement, A,, determined in
Sections 12.1 and 12.4 shall be checked for shear
strength adequacy so that the basic shear strength, V,,,
is greater than the factored shear force, Vm., at the
critical section located where Mm,IV,,d = 3.0 [see
Equation (22) for A/,,,,].
C,
1.0
(16)
where
b=\2 in.
1.9
(17)
 ASCE 15-5

where 12.6.2 Radial Tension Stirrups

b=l2 in.

(18)

12.6.3 Shear Stirrims

where

max F,,= 1.3, for pipe with two cages or a single

elliptical cage
max Fd= 1.4, for pipe through 36-in. diameter with a
single circular cage or anchorage strength, whichever is less

(19)

where (27)

( + ) = tension on the inside of the pipe

( —) = tension on the outside of the pipe
(28)
For compression thrust (+/V,,):
where b = 12 in.
(20)
12.6.4 Extent of Stirrups

12.6.4.1 When stirrups are required at the invert or

crown regions for shear strength or for shear and ra-
dial tension, they shall be spaced at sv along the in-
ner reinforcing and extend over a basic length on
each side of the invert or crown where V,, is greater
(21)
than Vc, plus an additional minimum arc length 0.5 /„
from each end of the basic arc length to allow for in-
stallation variations up to the orientation angle, 0,
where

(22)
(29)

12.5.2 If V,, is less than VIIC stirrups shall be provided

(see Section 12.6).
12.6 STIRRUPS
12.6.1 If stirrups are required for radial tension by
Section 12.3.1 or for shear by Section 12.5, they
shall meet the following requirements:
If stirrups are also required at the springline re-
gion (may occur in very high loading conditions),
they shall be spaced at sv and shall extend around the
entire pipe circumference.
12.6.4.2 When stirrups are required for radial tension
only they shall be spaced at s,, along the inner rein-
forcing and extend over a basic length on each side
of the invert or crown where the required As is

13
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS

greater than the limiting value given by Equation (5), 12.7 WELDS, SPLICES, AND
plus an additional minimum arc length 0.5 le from DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT
each end of the basic arc length to allow for installa-
tion variations up to the orientation angle 0. Welds, splices, and development of reinforcement
shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C 1417.
12.6.5 Stirrup Anchorage
Anchorage of both ends of the stirrup shall be
sufficient to develop the factored stress in the stirrup. 13.0 PIPE DESIGNATION
The maximum factored tensile stress in the stirrup
shall be the yield stress or the stress that can be de- 13.1 The pipe designation shall be in accordance
veloped by anchorage, whichever is less. with ASTM C 1417.

14

PART III. CONSTRUCTION OF SOIL/
PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE SYSTEMS
14.0 GENERAL
The precast concrete pipe/soil system shall be
constructed to conform to the requirements of Figs.
5.2-1 and 5.2-2 and Tables 5.2-1 and 5.2-2, the crite-
ria and design developed in Parts I and II, and to line
and grade as designated on the plans. The owner is
advised to provide for or require adequate inspection
of the pipe installation at the construction site.
15.0 SAFETY
15.1 Safety requirements for construction shall be in
accordance with the applicable federal, state, and lo-
cal regulations.
15.2 Open ends of installed pipe shall be covered
during overnight or longer periods of suspended
work to prevent access by animals, personnel, and
accumulation of soil and debris. Covers shall be
braced or fastened to prevent movement. These
covers need not be watertight.
Note 2: If the pipe is plugged watertight when
empty, the possibility of pipe flotation should be in-
vestigated, and, if necessary, appropriate measures
shall be taken to prevent flotation.
16.0 EXCAVATION
16.1 When ledge rock, compacted rocky, or other un-
yielding foundation material is encountered, it shall
be removed at least to the requirements shown in
Figs. 5.2-1 and 5.2-2 and Tables 5.2-1 and 5.2-2. Over-
excavated areas shall be backfilled with approved
materials and compacted to at least the Standard
Proctor density specified for the bedding.
16.2 Where surface water or groundwater conditions
exist, the site and trench shall be dewatered.
17.0 FOUNDATION
17.1 The foundation shall be moderately firm to hard
in situ soil, stabilized soil, or compacted fill material.
ASCE 15-98
17.2 When unsuitable or unstable material is encoun-
tered, the foundation shall be stabilized.
17.3 Where groundwater and soil characteristics may
contribute to the migration of soil fines into or out of
foundation, bedding, sidefill, and backfill materials,
methods to prevent migration shall be provided.
17.4 Pipe installed over an unyielding foundation
shall be cushioned so as to prevent blasting shock
when future blasting is anticipated in the area.
18.0 BEDDING
18.1 The bedding shall be constructed as required for
the designated Standard Installation uniformly over
the full length of the pipe barrel, to distribute the
load-bearing reaction uniformly on the pipe barrel
over its full length, and to maintain the required pipe
grade. If placed in layers, the thickness of the layers
shall be as required by the project plans and specifi-
cations (see Fig. 18.1-1).
18.2 The bedding layers for Standard Installation
Types 1, 2, and 3 shall be placed to be as uniform as
possible, but shall be loosely placed uncompacted
material under the middle third of the pipe prior to
placement of the pipe.
18.3 Except as provided in Section 18.4, the maxi-
mum aggregate size for beddings shall not be greater
than 1 in. (25 mm) except if the bedding has a thick-
ness of 6 in. (150 mm) or greater, the maximum ag-
gregate size shall not be greater than 1 1/2 in.
(38 mm).
18.4 When in situ soils conforming to project specifi-
cations are used in constructing the bedding for Type
3 and 4 installations, the maximum aggregate size
shall not be greater than 3 in. (75 mm), or half the
bedding thickness, whichever is less.
FIGURE 18.1-1. Uniform Pipe Support
15
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
18.5 Bell holes shall be excavated in the bedding
and/or foundation when installing pipe with expanded
bells so that the pipe is supported by the barrel (Fig.
18.1-1) and not by the bells.
18.6 Any outer bedding under the lower side areas
shall be compacted to at least the same requirements
as for the lower side areas.
19.0 PIPE PLACEMENT AND JOINING
19.1 Pipe shall be installed to the line and grade
shown on the project plans and specifications. Joining
shall be in accordance with the pipe manufacturer's
recommendations.
Note 4: Where practical, work should be started at
the lowest end of the pipeline and the pipe laid with
the bell end upgrade.
19.2 The top of the pipe section being laid shall be
positioned to the correct orientation (if required) and
then joined.
19.3 Adjustments in grade by exerting force on the
barrel of the pipe with excavating equipment or by
lifting and dropping the pipe shall be prohibited. If
the installed pipe section is not on grade, the pipe
section shall be completely unjoined, the grade cor-
rected, and the pipe then rejoined.
20.0 HAUNCH
20.1 The haunch shall be constructed using the speci-
fied soil type and the minimum compaction level re-
quired for the designated Standard Installation. It
shall be placed and compacted uniformly for the full
length of the pipe barrel so as to distribute the load-
bearing reaction uniformly to the bedding over the
full length of the pipe barrel. If placed in layers, the
thickness of the layers shall be as required by the
project plans and specifications.
20.2 Except as provided in Section 20.3, the maxi-
mum aggregate size for the haunch shall not be
greater than 1 in. (25 mm) except if the bedding has
a thickness of 6 in. (150 mm) or greater, the maxi-
mum aggregate size shall not be greater than 1 1/2
in. (38 mm).
16
20.3 When in situ soils conforming to project specifi-
cations are used in constructing the pipe haunches for
Type 3 and 4 installations, the maximum aggregate
size shall not be greater than 3 in. (75 mm).
20.4 Placed soil shall be deposited and compacted to
the specified density uniformly on each side of the
pipe to prevent lateral displacement of the pipe.
21.0 LOWER SIDE
21.1 The lower side shall be constructed using the
specified soil type and the minimum compaction
level required for the designated Standard Installa-
tion. If placed in layers, the thickness of the layers
shall be as required by the project plans and specifi-
cations.
21.2 The soil, if not in situ, shall be material con-
forming to the project specifications, and containing
no debris, organic matter, frozen material, or large
stones with a diameter greater than one half the
thickness of the compacted layers being placed.
21.3 Placed soil shall be deposited and compacted to
the specified density uniformly on each side of the
pipe to prevent lateral displacement of the pipe.
22.0 OVERFILL
22.1 Overfill shall be constructed as specified. If
placed in layers, the thickness of the layers shall be
as required by the project plans and specifications.
22.2 The soil shall be material conforming to the
project specifications, and containing no debris, or-
ganic matter, frozen material, or large stones with a
diameter greater than one half the thickness of the
compacted layers being placed.
22.3 Placed soil shall be deposited and compacted to
the specified density uniformly on each side of the
pipe to prevent lateral displacement of the pipe.
22.4 When impact or vibratory equipment is used for
compaction, care shall be taken to avoid damaging
the pipe.

23.0 SHEATHING REMOVAL AND TRENCH
SHIELD ADVANCEMENT
23.1 Unless sheathing is to be left in place, it shall
be pulled out in vertical increments to permit place-
ment and compaction of fill material for the full
width of the trench.
23.2 When trench shields or boxes are moved, the
previously placed pipe shall not be disturbed. It may
be necessary to restrain the installed pipe by use of
deadman anchors or other means. Voids in the sidefill
that are created by movement of a shield or box shall
be filled and compacted.
24.0 PRECAST CONCRETE
APPURTENANCES
24.1 Manholes shall be installed in a manner that
will minimize differential settlement between the pipe
and manhole.
24.2 Precast concrete fittings, such as tees and wyes,
shall be bedded, installed, and overfilled with the
ASCE 15-98
same material and in the same manner as the precast
concrete pipeline to prevent differential settlement be-
tween pipe and fittings.
25.0 MINIMUM COVER FOR
CONSTRUCTION LOADS
25.1 If the passage of construction equipment over an
installed pipeline is necessary during project con-
struction, compacted protective overfill in the form of
a ramp shall be constructed to a minimum elevation
of 3 ft (0.9 m) over the top of the pipe or to a height
such that the equipment loads on the pipe do not ex-
ceed the pipe design strength. In an embankment in-
stallation, the protective overfill shall extend a mini-
mum of one pipe diameter width or 3 ft (0.9 m),
whichever is greater, beyond each side of the pipe to
prevent possible lateral displacement of the pipe. To
minimize impact, ramps with gradual slopes shall be
constructed to meet the existing grade of the equip-
ment route on either side of the protective overfill. If
a large volume of construction traffic must cross an
installed pipe, the point of crossing shall be changed
occasionally to minimize the possibility of lateral
displacement.
17
 APPENDICES

Appendix A has been deleted. For information on materials and manufacturer and plant testing, refer to
ASTM Standard Specifications C 1417 for Manufacture of Reinforced Concrete Sewer, Storm Drain,
and Culvert Pipe for Direct Design.

18

APPENDIX B: SI UNITS FOR NOTATION
AND EQUATIONS
Bl.O SCOPE
Bl.l This appendix repeats the notation and contains
the full translation of equations contained in the stan-
dard practice and Appendix A from English unit val-
ues to SI unit values. In addition, English unit values
in the text are converted to SI unit values, which are
presented in parentheses. The values of dimensions
and quantities expressed in English (inch-pound)
units shall be regarded as standard. The SI unit val-
ues are supplied for information only and are not a
part of this standard practice.
Note 1: Some of the applicable standards referenced
may have a double designation (Axxx/AxxxM) or
separate inch-pound (English) and SI (metric) unit
editions. Only the inch-pound unit edition of a stan-
dard is listed in this practice. If the practice is used
in an SI unit design, the user should investigate
whether separate SI unit editions of the referenced
standards are available.
B1.2 The section and equation numbering systems
used in the standard practice and Appendix A are
maintained in this appendix to facilitate comparisons.
B2.0 STANDARD PRACTICE-
SI CONVERSIONS
4.0 NOTATIONS
A, = area of tension reinforcement required in length
b, in.Vft (mm2/m)
A.,,- = area of total inner cage reinforcement required
in length b, in.Vft (mmVm)
Asa = area of total outer cage reinforcement required
in length b, in.Vft (mnr/m)
A,,r = area of stirrup reinforcement required to resist
radial tension forces, in.Vft (mmVm) in each
line of stirrups at circumferential spacing sv
Aia = area of stirrup reinforcement required to resist
shear, in.Vft (mmVm) in each line of stirrups at
circumferential spacing s,,
B, = crack control coefficient for effect of spacing
and number of layers of reinforcement
b = width of section that resists stress, in. (mm),
taken as 12 in. (English units), and taken as
1,000 mm (SI units)
APPENDIX
b = unit length of pipe, ft (m) taken as 1 ft (En-
glish units), and taken as 1 m (SI units)
C, = crack control coefficient for type of
reinforcement
d - distance from compression face to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
D, = inside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
D,, - outside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
f'c = design compressive strength of concrete, Ibs/
in.2 (MPa)
/, = maximum service load stress of reinforcing
steel for crack control, lbs/in.2 (MPa)
/„ = maximum developable strength of stirrup mate-
rial, lbs/in.2 (MPa)
fy = design yield strength of reinforcement, lbs/in.2
(MPa)
Fc = factor for effect of curvature on diagonal ten-
sion (shear) strength in curved components
F,.,. = crack width control factor for adjusting crack
control relative to average maximum crack
width of 0.01 in. (0.3 mm), 1 in. (25 mm)
from the tension reinforcement when Fcr =1.0
Fd = factor for crack depth effect resulting in in-
crease in diagonal tension (shear) strength with
decreasing d
FN = coefficient for effect of thrust on shear
strength
Frp = factor for process and materials that affect the
radial tension strength of pipe
Fr, = factor for pipe size effect on radial tension
strength
Fv = factor for crack depth effect resulting in in-
crease in diagonal tension (shear) strength with
decreasing d
F,p - factor for process and materials that affect the
shear strength of pipe
h = overall thickness of member (wall thickness),
in. (mm)
H = design height of earth above top of pipe, ft (m)
/ = coefficient for effect of axial force at service
load stress,/,
/a = total additional arc length beyond calculated
arc lengths requiring stirrups, in. (mm)
M, = service load bending moment acting on length
b, in-lbs/ft (Nmm/m)
Mu - factored moment acting on length b, in-lbs/ft
(Nmm/m)
Mm, = factored moment acting on length b as modi-
fied for effects of compressive or tensile thrust,
in-lbs/ft (Nmm/m)
n - number of layers of reinforcement in a cage, 1
or 2
19
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS

A/, = axial thrust acting on length b, service load

condition (+ when compressive, — when ten- (2)
sile), Ibs/ft (N/m)
Na - factored axial thrust acting on length b (+
where b = 1,000 mm.
when compressive, - when tensile), Ibs/ft (N/
m)
12.2.2 The area of reinforcement for the outside face
PL = PL denotes the prism load (weight of the col-
of pipe shall be not less than A.,,,, where
umn of earth) over the pipe's outside diameter
and is calculated as: PL - [wD</(12)][// +
(0.107A>)/(12)], Ibs/ft (English units); PL = (3)
[wDo/(l,000)][// + (0.107£><>)/( 1,000)], N/m (SI
units) 12.2.3 For circular pipe reinforced with a single cir-
r = radius to centerline of pipe wall, in. (mm) cular or single elliptical cage, the area of reinforce-
r, = radius of the inside reinforcement, in. (mm) ment shall be not less than A.., where
s,, = circumferential spacing of stirrups, in. (mm)
s, = spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in.
(mm) (4)
tb = clear cover over reinforcement, in. (mm)
V,, - basic shear strength of length b at critical sec-
tion where MJ(Vad) = 3.0, Ibs/ft (N/m) 12.3 MAXIMUM FLEXURAL
Vt. = nominal shear strength provided by concrete in REINFORCEMENT
length b, Ibs/ft (N/m)
V,, - factored shear force acting on length b, Ibs/ft 12.3.1 Limited by Radial Tension
(N/m) When stirrups are not used, the wall shall be de-
VM. = factored shear force acting on length b at criti- signed so that the flexural reinforcement required by
cal section where MJ(V,,d) = 3.0, Ibs/ft (N/m) Section 12.1 for the inside cage and/or elliptical cage
w = unit weight of soil, Ibs/ft3 (N/m3) at the top or bottom of the pipe does not exceed
p - ratio of reinforcement area to concrete area A.,.,-max. where
4>f = strength reduction factor for flexure
(/>„ = strength reduction factor for shear
4>r = strength reduction factor for radial tension
6 = orientation angle, deg

where b = 1,000 mm
12.0 REINFORCEMENT

12.1 Reinforcement for flexural strength shall be not Fn = 1 + 0.000328(1,800 - D,) (6)
less than As where
for 300 mm < D, < 1,800 mm

for 1,800 mm < D, < 3,600 mm

Fn = 0.8 for D, > 3,600 mm (8)

12.2 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT
12.2.1 Equations (2) and (3) apply to circular pipe
reinforced with double circular cages. The area of re-
inforcement shall be not less than Ash where
12.3.2 Limited by Concrete Compression
The wall shall be designed so that the flexural
tensile reinforcement required by Section 12.1 does
not exceed A.tmax, where

20
 APPENDIX

n = 2, when tension reinforcement is made of multi-

(9) ple layers

12.4.2 If the service load thrust, Ns, is tensile rather

(10) than compressive (this may occur in pipes subject to
intermittent hydrostatic pressure), the quantity (0.25
where M, - 0.00016 Nsd) shall be used (with tensile Ns
taken negative) in place of the quantity
([0.225 M, + 0.0027 Ns(d - hl2)]lij)
in Equation (11).

12.5 SHEAR STRENGTH

12.4 CRACK CONTROL
12.5.1 The area of reinforcement, A,, determined in
12.4.1 Crack control is assumed to be 1 in. (25 mm)
Sections 12.1 and 12.4, shall be checked for shear
from the tension reinforcement. The Crack Control
strength adequacy so that the basic shear strength, Vh,
Factor, /<*„., shall not exceed that specified, where
is greater than the factored shear force, V,,c, at the
critical section located where M,,,,/Vud = 3.0. See
Equation (22) for M,,,,.

(16)

where
C, = see Table 12.4-1
b- 1,000 mm

j = 0.74 + 2.54 eld (12)

(17)

(13) where
h - 1 nfin mm

(14)
(18)
if eld < 1.15 crack control will not govern
where
(15) max Fd = 1.3, for pipe with two cages or a single el-
liptical cage
max Ft, - 1.4, for pipe through 1,800-mm diameter
where with a single circular cage
s, = spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in.
(mm) (19)
n = 1, when tension reinforcement is a single layer

21
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS

where
(27)
(+) = tension on the inside of the pipe
(—) = tension on the outside of the pipe
For compressive thrust (+NU): (28)

where b - 1,000 mm.

(20)
12.6.4 Extent of Stirrups
where b = 1,000 mm
12.6.4.1 When stirrups are required at the invert or
For tensile thrust (—Nu): crown regions for shear strength or for shear and ra-
dial tension, they shall be spaced at s,, along the in-
ner reinforcing and extend over a basic length on
(21)
each side of the invert or crown where Vu is greater
than Vc, plus an additional minimum arc length 0.5 le
where b = 1,000 mm from each end of the basic arc length to allow for in-
stallation variations up to the orientation angle, 9,
where
(22)
(29)
12.5.2 If V,, is less than V,,,. stirrups shall be provided
(see Section 12.6).
If stirrups are also required at the springline region
(they may be required in very high loading condi-
tions), they shall be spaced at s,, and shall extend
12.6 STIRRUPS around the entire pipe circumference.
12.6.1 If stirrups are required for radial tension by B12.6.4.2 When stirrups are required for radial ten-
Section 12.3.1 or for shear by Section 12.5, they sion only they shall be spaced at sv along the inner
shall meet the following requirements. reinforcing and extend over a basic length on each
side of the invert or crown where the required As is
12.6.2 Radial Tension Stirrups greater than the limiting value given by Equation (5),
plus an additional minimum arc length 0.5 /„ from
each end of the basic arc length to allow for installa-
(23)
tion variations up to the orientation angle 0.

or anchorage strength, whichever is less 12.6.5 Stirrup Anchorage

Anchorage of both ends of the stirrup shall be
(24) sufficient to develop the factored stress in the stirrup.
The maximum factored tensile stress in the stirrup
12.6.3 Shear Stirrups shall be the yield stress or the stress that can be de-
veloped by anchorage, whichever is less.

(25)
12.7 WELDS, SPLICES, AND
DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT
or anchorage strength, whichever is less
Welds, splices, and development of reinforcement
(26) shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C 1417.

22
 COMMENTARY
(This Commentary is not a part of the Standard.
It is included for information purposes.)
PART I. GENERAL
Cl.O SCOPE
The ASCE Standard Practice for Direct Design
of Buried Precast Concrete Pipe Using Standard In-
stallations (SIDD), hereinafter referred to as the stan-
dard practice, provides for the direct design of buried
precast concrete pipe of circular shape using Standard
Installations.
Direct design requires determining the earth
loads and pressure distributions on the pipe, based on
soil properties and installation type, analysis to deter-
mine moments, thrusts and shears, and design to de-
termine circumferential reinforcement. Analysis and
design procedures are similar to those used for other
reinforced concrete structures.
Indirect design procedures, where the effects of
earth load and pressure distributions for installation
types are indirectly related to the three-edge bearing
test strength, are not covered in this standard
practice.
C2.0 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS
C2.1 ASTM STANDARDS
ASTM C 1417 has been developed as the manu-
facturing standard for pipe designed and installed in
accordance with this standard practice. The pipe de-
signs and specifying of pipe in accordance with this
standard practice are in terms of the required pipe re-
inforcement for a specific Standard Installation. Con-
sequently, the three-edge bearing test and Z)-load
strength are not applicable.
C3.0 DEFINITIONS
For consistent application, it is necessary that
terms be defined where they have particular meanings
in the standard practice. The definitions given or re-
ferenced are for use in application of this standard
practice only and may not always correspond to ordi-
nary usage.
C4.0 NOTATIONS
For consistent application, it is necessary that no-
tations be defined where they have particular mean-
ings in the standard practice. The notations given are
for use in application of this standard practice only
and may not always correspond to ordinary usage.
C5.0 SUMMARY OF PRACTICE
The SIDD Practice provides the engineer with
guidance for the design of pipe-soil installations. The
essential features of the method are:
1. Defines standard installations that permit practical
options for selecting installation designs based on
the engineer's perception of the needs of a partic-
ular project. Within these options, the defined
standard installations are based on the results of
soil-structure interaction investigations that have
helped to define how the various soil zones con-
tribute to support of the pipe and where optimum
benefits can be obtained from soils with specified
quantitative characteristics.
2. Defines loads and pressure distributions that have
been idealized from the results of soil-structure in-
teraction analyses of the standard installations.
3. Defines strength and serviceability limits and pipe
design procedures that reflect the actual behavior
of reinforced concrete pipe subject to the design
loads and their distributions on the pipe. These
procedures are based on current reinforced con-
crete strength and serviceability design concepts
and evaluations of many tests on pipe and similar
flexural components.
Fig. C-l shows how the amount of inside rein-
forcement required at the pipe invert typically varies
with the height of earth cover above the top of the
pipe (fill height) for pipe without stirrups. The results
are shown in a general form for pipe with unspeci-
fied dimensions and concrete and steel materials in a
particular, but unspecified, standard installation type.
The figure shows that flexural strength is the govern-
ing design criteria for the initial and largest portion
of the range of fill heights that can be supported us-
23
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
FIGURE C-l. Plot of Required Inside Reinforcing Area vs. Design Height of Earth Cover for Typical Design
with Surface Wheel Loads
ing concrete pipe without stirrups. Depending on the
magnitude of the Crack Control Factor, Fcr, specified
in the design criteria, as the fill height increases,
there may be a range of fill heights where crack con-
trol requirements govern the amount of reinforce-
ment. Beyond this range, there is an additional small
range of fill heights that can be supported by pipe
without stirrups by increasing the inner circumferen-
tial reinforcement substantially beyond the increases
that would be required for flexural strength or for
crack control in order to meet the requirements for
shear strength without the use of stirrups.
PART H. DESIGN
C6.0 GENERAL
It is not possible to predict all possible field situ-
ations or to cover them in this standard practice and
commentary, therefore, it is imperative that the soil/
24
precast concrete pipe system design be reviewed by a
qualified engineer.
C6.1 Although designs may be hand-calculated, the
microcomputer program SIDD (Reference Document
C2) will greatly facilitate designs and analyses. SIDD
is an extension of the Federal Highway Administra-
tion (FHWA) microcomputer program PIPECAR,
which is available from the Center for Microcomput-
ers in Transportation (McTrans), University of
Florida.
PIPECAR was developed by Simpson Gumpertz
and Heger Inc. (SGH) for FHWA and uses Paris or
modified Olander coefficients to determine pressure
distribution on the buried precast concrete pipe.
PIPECAR designs the pipe-reinforcement require-
ments to conform to the AASHTO direct design
method (document 2.2.1). SIDD was also developed
by SGH, but uses coefficients developed for four
Standard Installations from an extensive series of de-
signs produced by the comprehensive finite element
computer program SPIDA to determine pressure dis-
 COMMENTARY

tribution on the buried precast concrete pipe and de- diameters larger than 144 in. (3,600 mm) may be
signs the reinforcement requirements. available. When such sizes are required, the owner
should contact the manufacturers in the project area.
C6.2 The various manufacturers of concrete pipe use
individual methods and materials for manufacture.
Common variations are wall thickness, steel type, C7.2.3 Crack Control Factor
cage shape and fabrication method, concrete strength, Cracks are expected to occur in pipelines de-
laying length, and joint details. There are many dif- signed using this standard practice, just as cracks are
ferent combinations that will meet the requirements expected in most reinforced-concrete structures. The
of the Practice. 0.01-in. (0.3-mm) crack was originally selected arbi-
This section clarifies that the pipe may be de- trarily as a test criterion and was then, and is now,
signed and detailed by either the owner or the manu- not intended as an indication of structurally distressed
facturer, in accordance with design requirements fur- or failed pipe in the installed condition. When maxi-
nished by the owner. When owners provide the pipe mum crack width exceeds 0.01 in. (0.3 mm), the
designs, it is suggested that they confer with local pipeline should be appraised, considering structural
pipe manufacturers regarding availability of pipe integrity, environmental conditions, and service life.
products. This type of cooperation will promote the Section 27.4.1 of the AASHTO bridge specification
most economical project design. provides guidance for acceptance and repair of cracks
in precast concrete culvert and storm drain pipe.
Most pipe designs are controlled by ultimate
C7.0 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS flexure or ultimate shear. Fewer designs are con-
trolled by service load cracking (see Fig. C-l). De-
The SIDD method uses the single load factors pending on design criteria, crack control may govern
contained in the AASHTO specifications. The use of a greater or lesser range of heights of earth cover.
smaller load factors for compressive thrust is conser- Fcr, the Crack Control Factor, defines the service
vative because compressive thrust reduces the re- load average maximum crack width limit at 1 in. (25
quired reinforcement. Overcompaction of bedding mm) from the tension reinforcement. If crack control
and/or undercompaction of haunches or lower side governs the design, a Crack Control Factor of 1.0 in-
can increase moments and shear without increasing dicates that there is a 50% probability that cracks in
compressive thrust. excess of, but close to, 0.01 in. (0.3 mm) in width
Strength reduction (phi) factors are used to ac- will occur at the design service load.
count for possible variation in pipe strength due to If Equation (11) is rearranged to solve for the
manufacturing variables. area of steel required (A.,), it can be seen that Fcr is a
divisor of the stress required for the desired crack
C7.1.2 Reinforced concrete pipe manufactured with width control. Fcr of 1.1 will allow more 0.01-in. (0.3
the standard inside diameters listed in Table C-l. mm) cracks and some slightly larger cracks. Fcr of
Diameters other than those shown in Table C-1 and 0.9 will restrict crack width and allow very few
0.01-in. (0.3 mm) cracks.
The crack control equations were developed from
TABLE C-l. Standard Designated tests on pipe with approximately 1 in. (25 mm) of
Inside Diameter cover on the tension reinforcement. Therefore, pipe
designed with more than 1 in. (25 mm) cover and a
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) Fcr of 1.0 are predicted to reach a 0.01-in. (0.3 mm)
12 300 42 1,050 96 2,400 crack approximately 1 in. (25 mm) from the tension
15 375 48 1,200 102 2,550 steel and a wider crack at the surface of the concrete.
18 450 54 1,350 108 2,700 For pipe with more than 1 in. (25 mm) of cover
21 525 60 1,500 114 2,850 over the tension reinforcement, the crack width limit
24 600 66 1,650 120 3,000 at the surface of the concrete may be estimated rela-
27 675 72 1,800 126 3,150 tive to the calculated crack width limit at 1 in. (25
30 750 78 1,950 132 3,300
mm) from the tension reinforcement. The two crack
33 825 84 2,100 138 3,450
width limits may be assumed to be proportional to
36 900 90 2,250 144 3,600
their distance from the neutral axis. For this purpose

25
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
the neutral axis may be assumed to be at 3d/8 from
the compression face of the pipe wall.
When two or more layers of reinforcing are used
to make a single line of tension reinforcement
(n = 2), crack control is improved. However, because
there is insufficient information about cracking be-
havior with more than two layers, it is recommended
that no more than two layers be assumed for design,
even if more layers are used in the pipe.
C7.2.4 Orientation Angle
When quadrant mats, stirrups, and/or elliptical
cages are used, the pipe requires orientation in the
ground with respect to its crown and invert. It is rec-
ommended that SIDD designs be based on the possi-
bility that the pipe may be misoriented (rotated) dur-
ing installation by 10° in either direction. This
assumed rotation tolerance is called the Orientation
Angle.
In some conditions, such as where the pipe is in-
stalled close to and parallel to the edge of a fill or in
a wide trench that runs perpendicular to a steep side
slope, or other cases where the loads may be applied
at an angle to the vertical, a circular cage design may
be required. If stirrups are required in these special
conditions, the pipe regions with stirrups may be
extended.
C7.2.5 Process and material factors are included in
the equations and may be conservatively used with
values of 1.0. The processes and materials used by
some manufacturers may produce higher factors. If a
plant can demonstrate with appropriate test data that
an increased factor for a series of sizes and designs is
valid, the owner may allow higher values.
C7.3.3 Section A6.5.2, Welds, Splices, and Develop-
ment of Circumferential Reinforcement, Appendix A
may control when determining the yield strength to
be used in design.
C7.3.3.2 When using a single circular cage, a reason-
able design inside clear cover over the circumferen-
tial reinforcement is 0.4 times the wall thickness.
This provides adequate strength at the springline. For
very thin walls, minimum concrete cover may con-
trol. Any design inside cover may be used providing
minimum cover and strength requirements are satis-
fied. In pipe having two lines of circular reinforce-
ment, each line may be so placed that the design
cover over the circumferential reinforcement is 1 in.
(25 mm). In pipe having elliptical reinforcement with
26
wall thicknesses 2 1/2 in. (63 mm) or greater, the re-
inforcement may be so placed that the design cover
over the circumferential reinforcement is 1 in. (25
mm) from the inner surface of the pipe at the vertical
diameter and 1 in. (25 mm) from the outer surface of
the pipe at the horizontal diameter. In pipe having
elliptical reinforcement with wall thickness less than
2 1/2 in. (63 mm), the design cover over the circum-
ferential reinforcement may be 3/4 in. (19 mm) at the
vertical and horizontal diameters. For allowable toler-
ances on minimum cover over reinforcement see Ap-
pendix A.
C9.0 LOADS
Soil/precast concrete pipe interaction systems are
designed to have design strengths of all sections at
least equal to the required strengths calculated for the
factored loads.
C9.2.1 Truck Loads
AASHTO truck loads (see Fig. C-2) are consid-
ered as applied by a tire print rather than a point
load. Each tire print is assumed to be a 10-in. (250
mm) square, such that the print of a dual-tire assem-
bly is 10 by 20 in. (250 by 500 mm). In some cases,
the Interstate Truck load may produce greater pipe
stresses than the HS-series.
AASHTO specifications suggest that truck loads
may be ignored for burial depths greater than 8 ft
(2.4 m). For SIDD designs, truck loads should be
considered at all depths and not arbitrarily eliminated.
Because of the cushioning effects of the fill and/or
pavement on pipe installed in accordance with Stan-
dard Practice Section 9.1.3, an impact factor is not
required.
SIDD Live Load Factors for Truck Loads—In the
computer program SIDD, the live load factors are ap-
plied with a single truck located anywhere on a road-
way, irrespective of the number of lanes in the road.
In multiple-lane roadways, the maximum wheel
loads on the trucks passing in adjacent lanes are as-
sumed to be aligned at the same location in the cen-
ter of four adjacent 12-ft (3.6 m) lanes. For this load
case, the live load factor is reduced to the load factor
used for dead and earth loads, effectively eliminating
a live load overload factor for this extremely unlikely
case of up to four fully loaded trucks passing with
maximum wheel loads at the same locations.

SIDD Distribution of Truck Live Loads through
Earth Fills—In the program SIDD, wheel loads are
uniformly distributed over a tire footprint at the sur-
face of the pavement having dimensions as shown in
Fig. C-3. The effects at the level of the top of a bur-
ied pipe are uniformly distributed over a rectangular
area with sides equal to 1 3/4 times the depth of fill
plus the footprint dimensions as shown in Fig. C-4,
defined as the effective uniform pressure area at the
top of the pipe.
Overlapping pressures at the top of the buried
pipe from adjacent surface wheels are uniformly dis-
tributed over the combined effective uniform pressure
area for each individual load as shown in Figs. C-5
and C-6.
COMMENTARY
FIGURE C-3. Wheel Load Surface Contact Area
The load and pressure distribution at the top of
the pipe produced by the surface live load and the
pressure distribution applied to a buried pipe are de-
termined from that portion of the effective combined
uniform pressure area that extends over the outside
diameter of the pipe.
The effective length, L,, of the buried pipe that
resists the applied live load calculated above is the
length that is subject to the effective combined uni-
form pressure area plus an additional length equal to
1.75 times 3/4 of the pipe outside diameter, split
equally between each side of the pressure area as
shown in Fig. C-7.
The maximum pressure at the top of the pipe
caused by the rear axle of a single truck may be cal-
culated by dividing the critical wheel or axle load
given in Tables C-2A or C-2B by the appropriate
spread area. The spread area also gives the extent of
the assumed pressure that acts on the top of the pipe.
Because the longitudinal stiffness of the pipe distrib-
utes the load effects on the pipe over an assumed
length, Le, the effective pressure acting on a unit
length of pipe is the pressure on the top of the pipe
times the ratio LILe (see Fig. C-7). The total load on
a unit length of the pipe is the effective pressure
times the outside diameter.
The effective pressure and live load acting on a
unit length of pipe for cases involving two or more
trucks in adjacent lanes are obtained using a similar
procedure, considering the overlapping spread areas.
27
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS

FIGURE C-4. Distributed Load Areas Single Dual Wheel

FIGURE C-5. Distributed Load Area Two HS 20 Trucks Passing

28

FIGURE C-6. Distributed Load Area Alternate Loads in Passing Mode
This pressure is given in detail in Referenced Docu-
ment C2 (SIDD Users Manual).
The supporting pressures under the pipe are as-
sumed to have the same distribution as those for
earth load for each Standard Installation type.
C9.3 Designs covered by this standard practice are
not intended to be used for pipe that will be subject
to continuous internal pressure. Designs for intermit-
FIGURE C-7. Effective Supporting Length of Pipe
COMMENTARY
tent hydraulic pressure loads of up to 50 ft (150 kPa)
of water, including surge, are appropriate. Intermittent
internal pressure is often not considered in the design
calculations unless the pipeline system is specifically
designed to surcharge as a working condition.
C10.0 STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
The four Standard Installations were developed
from evaluations of present bedding specifications
and construction practices and discussions with expe-
rienced engineers, producers, and contractors. The in-
stallations and coefficients were developed for em-
TABLE C-2A. Critical Live Loads and Spread
Dimensions at the Top of the Pipe, English Units
H (ft) P (Ibs) A,j. (tf)
H < 2.48 16,000 (0.83 + 1.75/^(1.67 + 1.75W)
2.48 < tf <4.10 32,000 (0.83 + 1.75/f)(7.67 + 1.75ft)
4.10 < H 48,000 (4.83 + 1.75H)(7.67 + 1.75/f)
29
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
TABLE C-2B. Critical Live Loads and Spread
Dimensions at the Top of the Pipe, SI Units
H(m) f (kg) ALL (ms2)
H < 0.76 7,250
(0.25 + 1.75/0(0.50 + 1.75/0
0.76 <H< 1.25 14,500 (0.25 + 1.75/0(2.34 + 1.75/0
1.25 <H 21,800 (1.48 + 1.75/0(2.34 + 1.75/0
bankment conditions and when used for trench
conditions will provide conservative designs. A con-
sequence of using the Standard Installations is that
restrictions on trench width no longer apply.
The Standard Installations are defined in terms of
installation configuration and minimum compaction
level of placed soils that must be provided in various
locations around the pipe relative to the types of
placed soils. Specific levels of minimum compaction
are required. These are specified in terms of percent
of Standard Proctor density (AASHTO Specification
T 99) (ASTM Method D 698). See Table 3 for
equivalent Modified Proctor densities (AASHTO
Specification T 180) (ASTM Method D 1557). Ra-
tional design of concrete pipe for the installed condi-
tion requires that soils are actually placed with the
minimum specified compaction. This sometimes re-
quires control by field compaction testing.
Cll.O PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
Cll.l The soil loads and pressure distributions for
each installation type are determined from the arch-
ing and pressure distribution factors for vertical and
horizontal components of the loads and earth pressure
distributions around the pipe circumference. These
nondimensional coefficients were obtained from pa-
rameter studies of the finite element soil/pipe installa-
tion models using the soil-structure interaction com-
puter program SPIDA.
C11.2 Earth load coefficients are based on an exten-
sive series of designs produced by the comprehensive
finite element computer program Soil Pipe Interaction
Design and Analysis (SPIDA) (see Referenced Docu-
ment Cl and Reference C12).
C11.3 Fig. 3 was developed for B wall thicknesses as
listed in ASTM Specification C76, but it is reasona-
ble to use these values for walls ranging from D,/12
as a minimum to the greater of A/6 or DJ12 +
30
2 3/4 in. (70 mm) as a maximum.
C11.4 Since the pressure distribution given in Table
3 is too complex to obtain closed form equations for
the desired moments, thrusts, and shears, structural
analysis for each installation type is performed using
the computer program SIDD. The analysis is per-
formed using the stiffness method to obtain moments,
thrusts, and shears at 37 points in the pipe half
circumference.
In order to facilitate application of the SIDD
Practice without using the SIDD computer program,
the moments, thrusts, and shears at points that govern
the design of the pipe wall may be reduced from the
results obtained in the SIDD computer analyses for
each of the four Standard Installation types to the
form of nondimensional coefficients that are indepen-
dent of pipe diameter and actual applied load. The
nondimensional coefficients Cmi, C,,h and Cvi for de-
termining the stress resultants Mh Nh and Vh respec-
tively, at governing locations at the crown, invert,
springline and at the critical locations for shear in the
invert and crown regions are given in Table C-3 for
the above types of applied load. Two coefficients are
given for live load. The coefficients with an LI sub-
script are for a pipe with overfills greater than 1.75
D,, and with uniformly distributed live load. The co-
efficients with an L2 subscript are for a pipe with 1-
ft burial with relatively narrow load distribution over
the crown of the pipe. Coefficients for pipe having an
intermediate burial depth between 1 ft and 1.75 D0
may be estimated between these two extremes. The
following equations define the relationship between
the nondimensional coefficients and the actual mo-
ments, thrusts, and shears caused by each of the
types of total load described in Section 9. The term
W, in each of these equations represents the following
loads on the pipe: pipe weight, Wp; vertical earth
load, Wc; fluid load, W/, and live load, WL.
(C-l)
(C-2)
(C-3)
The vertical earth load, We, for each of the four Stan-
dard Installations is obtained from the prism earth
load, PL, as follows:
(C-4)
The prism earth load, PL, is:
 COMMENTARY

TABLE C-3.1. Installation Type 1 Coefficients

Coefficients
Location Load Type COT, Cn, Cv,

Invert w. .225 .077

Wc. .091 .188
wf .088 -.445
wu .075 .250
WL2 .165 -.046
Crown w,, .079 -.077
we .083 .157
Wf .057 -.187
wu .068 .200
wa .236 .046
Springline 90° w,, -.091 .249
wf -.077 .500
wf -.064 -.068
WL[ -.065 .500
WL2 -.154 .500
Critical Shear Invert 0,, = 12° w,, .174 .437
wc .219 .143
wf -.408 .141
WLl .270 .150
Critical Shear Crown 6,, = 159° w,, -.055 .083
w. .205 .117
Wf -.176 .062
WL, .250 .100

states design practice and evaluations of many tests

(C-5)
The critical location for shear is the location
where the ratio Mm,IV,,d = 3.0, as provided in Section
12. Measured from the invert, the angular location of
the critical section for shear, &,„ varies slightly for
different combinations of the four basic load types.
The locations given in Table C-3 are locations where
earth load predominates. The location for this case is
given because shear is much more likely to govern
the design for high fill heights where earth load is
the predominant load, than for low fill heights where
the effects of surface applied concentrated loads may
govern the design. No shear location is given for the
shallow burial live load case because normally shear
strength is not a governing design criteria in such
cases.
on pipe and slabs as a part of the American Concrete
Pipe Association's long-range research program. The
basis of these equations is explained in References 1,
3, 4, 5, and 6. The reinforcement design equations
are essentially the same as those given in Section 17
of the AASHTO bridge specification, except for the
shear modification factor for compressive or tensile
thrust, FN. FN was obtained from ACI 318, Building
Code Requirement for Reinforced Concrete Design.
The equations in this section contain quantities such
as As, M, N, and V whose dimensions are taken for a
12-in. (1,000 mm) length of wall section. Thus, b
should be taken equal to 12 in. (1,000 mm) in all the
equations containing b in this section, and all rein-
forcement areas are calculated per foot (meter) of
pipe length.

C12.0 REINFORCEMENT C12.1 FLEXURAL TENSION

The reinforcement design equations were devel- Equation (1) gives the minimum reinforcement to
oped based on accepted structural engineering limit limit the factored maximum tensile stress to the yield

31
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS

TABLE C-3.2. Installation Type 2 Coefficients

Coefficients

Location Load Type Cm, Cn, Cv,

Invert w. .227 .077

w. .122 .169
W, .111 -.1377
wu .107 .205
WL2 .189 -.0355
Crown w, .079 -.077 7
wt. .094 .126
w, .062 -.2044
W/.i .080 .171
WL, .241 .035
Springline 90° wf -.091 .249
we -.090 0 .500
wf -.070 0 -.068 8
wu -.0788 .513
w,,_ -.1600 .500
Critical Shear Invert 6,, = 12.3° w,, .177 .437
w. .218 .198
w, -.386 6 .193
WLI .256 .188
Critical Shear Crown 0,, = 157.3° w, -.0500 .088
we .185 .136
wf -.1811 .074
WLI .205 .137

strength. An alternative and more familiar form of breaking (ultimate tensile) strength of the wire. These
this equation is: tests demonstrate that welded wire fabric has enough
ductility to develop redistribution of moments up to
the "plastic hinge" capacity strain so that the wire
stress and strain at flexural failure reach the breaking
(la) stress and strain. This provides an additional reserve
strength factor against flexural failure of at least 1.16
based on the provisions of Section 8.2.2 for welded
wire fabric. This may be considered to be an addi-
tional factor of 0.86 against tensile rupture of the
(lb) reinforcing.

These equations are the same as the equations

for flexural capacity given in other standards such as
ACI 318, except that the coefficient 0.85 in Equation
(lb) is not reduced for concrete compress!ve strength
in excess of/. = 4,000 psi for precast concrete pipe.
Three-edge bearing tests on pipe with inner and
outer reinforcing cages that failed in flexural tension,
as reported in Referenced Document C1, show that
pipe reinforced with welded wire fabric develop the
full ultimate moment capacity of the pipe wall at
crown, invert, and springlines, as determined by the
C12.2 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT
Equations (2), (3), and (4) give the minimum re-
inforcement permitted regardless of other structural
requirements. Minimum reinforcement is specified to
reduce the risk of ultimate structural failure of the
pipe during handling or storage prior to and during
final placement. Equations (2), (3), and (4) are based
on yielding of the reinforcing steel. Equations (2) and
(3) approximate the condition of a pipe supported on

32
 COMMENTARY

TABLE C-3.3. Installation Type 3 Coefficients

Coefficients

Location Load Type Cnij Cn, Cw;

Invert w. .230 .077

w. .150 .163
Wf .133 -.425
WLI .136 .199
WL2 .211 -.023
Crown WP .079 -.077
w,. .103 .107
wf .068 -.215
wu .091 .149
w,2 .247 .023
Springline 90° w,, -.097 .271
wc -.103 .500
wf -.081 -.063
WLI -.126 .497
WL2 -.155 .496
Critical Shear Invert 9 = 12.7° w,, .177 .437
we .224 .249
wf -.363 .238
WL, .273 .224
Critical Shear Crown 6 = 156° w,, -.044 .094
we .173 .150
Wf -.193 .085
w,, .224 .124

a line bearing subject to its own weight increased by
a factor of 2 after cracking at the invert, crown and
sides. The effective depth of the reinforcing is as-
sumed to be 0.8 h. Equation (4) approximates the
same condition except that the pipe is subject to its
own weight increased by a factor of 2 1/2 and with
an effective depth of 0.5 h.
C12.3 MAXIMUM FLEXURAL
REINFORCEMENT WITHOUT STIRRUPS
OR TIES
C12.3.2 Radial Tension Limit
Equation (5) gives the maximum flexural rein-
forcement area whose yield strength can be devel-
oped by the radial tension strength of the concrete
surrounding the inner cage reinforcing at sections of
maximum factored inside flexural tension (crown and
invert). This is determined from the radial tension
stress produced by the tensile force in the convexly
curved circumferential reinforcement with a radius ;•,.:
(C-5a)

C12.3.1 General
The maximum tensile reinforcement that can be
developed for resisting flexural tension in pipe with-
out stirrups or ties is limited by the radial tension
strength of the concrete surrounding the curved inner
cage reinforcement and by the compressive strength
at sections of maximum compression due to com-
bined flexure and thrust. These limits to area of rein-
forcement for flexural reinforcement obtained from
Equation (1) are explained in this section.
and the limiting radial tension strength tn., as deter-
mined by tests of curved slabs and evaluations of
three-edge bearing test strengths and long standing
design practice for pipe:
(C-5b)
Fr, is a size factor that increases the radial tension
strength to account for the decreased stress concen-
tration effects from the decreasing flexural tension

33
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS

TABLE C-3.4. Installation Type 4 Coefficients

Coefficients

Location Load Type Cm, C/z, Cv,

Invert WP .235 .077
we .191 .128
wf .160 -.403
WLI .185 .152
WL2 .237 -.004
Crown w. .079 -.077
w. .118 .079
wf .076 -.232
wu .110 .114
wa .255 .004
Springline 90° w, -.101 .287
w,. 130 .504
wr -.095 -.057
WLI -.121 .495
w,2 -.168 .492
Critical Shear Invert 6 = 14.4° wp .188 .431
w,. .211 .309
w, -.323 .284
WLI .229 .305
Critical Shear Crown 9 = 154.2° w,, -.044 .100
we .151 .169
wf -.210 .096
WLI .171 .152

forces in the curved circumferential reinforcing as
pipe size and reinforcement area decreases below 72
in. diameter, and also because of fewer flexural
cracks, and the larger proportion of cover thickness
relative to wall thickness in smaller pipe. Similarly,
radial tension strength is reduced by F,., for pipe sizes
larger than 72 in. Fn is given by Equations (6) and
(8). These are based on evaluations of three-edge
bearing strengths of pipe over the range of standard
pipe diameter.
Frp is a factor that accounts for the process and
materials used in a specific manufacturing plant that
affect radial tension strength of pipe (see Section
7.2.5.1). (M,, - 0.45yV,,c/) is approximately equal to
Q9$fAsif,d. Thus,
further details. In this case, the resulting reinforce-
ment is the maxmum reinforcement area, A ( m a x , that
can be stressed to the yield strength, fr without pro-
ducing radial tension stresses that exceed the ultimate
radial tension strength, tK.
C12.3.3 Compression Limit
Equation (9), the compression limit equation for
Ai-max> gives the flexural tensile reinforcement area
that develops its yield strength when the flexural
compression force in the concrete is 0.75 times the
ultimate compressive strength, based on a rectangular
stress block. The limit is typically used in reinforced
concrete design practice to ensure ductile behavior of
flexural components.

(C-5c)
C12.4 CRACK CONTROL

Equation (5) is obtained by equating /,. in Equation The Crack Control Factor, F0, given by Equation
(C-5c) to ?„. in Equation (C-5b) and solving for Aslfr (11) is the calculated maximum crack width, in hun-
See Referenced Document Cl and Reference C5 for dredths of an inch (i.e., F6T = 1.0 indicates 0.01 in.)

34

determined using the mean of the 0.01-in. crack
width measurements on many three-edge bearing test
pipe (see Referenced Document Cl and Reference
C6). The coefficient B, given by Equation (15) is
modified from the coefficient 6()1 in Referenced Doc-
ument Cl by dropping the square on th in the origi-
nal equation because SIDD defines the limiting crack
width to be at a location 1 in. beyond the reinforcing,
rather than at the surface. For the standard 1-in.
cover long used in pipe design standards, there is no
modification in B, or in the calculated Fcr. However,
when larger covers are required, such as when sacrifi-
cial concrete is provided on the inside of the pipe,
Equation (15) reflects the crack control limit at 1 in.
from the reinforcing cage.
The service load stress in Equation (11) may be
calculated based on reinforced concrete working
stress design procedures (see Reference C15). An ac-
ceptable approximation for calculating fs for pipe sec-
tions subject to bedding moment and compressive
thrust is:
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
if eld < 1.15, crack control will not govern.
The increased tensile effect of tensile axial thrust
combined with bedding requires the use of a different
approximation for determining the combined effects
of flexural and axial tension on crack control than is
used when bedding is combined with compressive
axial thrust. An acceptable approximation for calcu-
lating /, for pipe sections subject to bending moment
and tensile thrust is:
(C-6)
The procedures for crack control limits used in
COMMENTARY
other standards, such as ACI 318 (see Reference
CIS), generally give smaller crack width predictions
(i.e., less conservative) than Equation (11) for pipe
with the typical 2 in. spacing of welded wire fabric
reinforcing when flexural reinforcement ratios, p, ap-
proach higher flexural strengths where crack width
control criteria often govern the required reinforce-
ment area. Furthermore, when Equation (11) is put in
the following form for calculating the steel stress at a
crack width of 0.01 in., Fcr decreases with increasing
ratio, p, while the ACI 318 crack control criteria do
not account for the very significant influence of p.
The steel stress at a crack width equal to 0.01 Fcr is
calculated as follows:
(C-7)
C12.5 SHEAR STRENGTH
Equation (16) gives the basic shear (diagonal
tension) strength of pipe without stirrups for flexural
cracked regions of the pipe.
A large number of tests on box sections, slabs,
beams (without stirrups), and frames show that under
uniformly distributed loads, failure by diagonal ten-
sion does not necessarily occur at the section of max-
imum shear, but typically at a section of high shear
where flexural cracks already exist. Evaluation of test
data on slab and frame type components with load
distributions that simulate the distributions on buried
conduits led to the finding that the section where
M/Vd =3.0 approximates the location of the critical
section for failure by diagonal tension. Evaluations of
shear strengths achieved in these tests and in many
three-edge bearing test (whose MlVd ratio approxi-
mates 3.0), provide the basis for the equation for Vh
(see Referenced Document Cl and Reference C3).
The tests show that increasing the reinforcement ra-
tio, p, significantly increases the shear strength.
Equation (18) for Fd gives a size factor based on
tests showing that greater relative shear strength is
developed as wall thickness decreases, reflecting less
stress concentration from flexural cracking, and a
greater proportion of concrete cover to wall thick-
ness. This size factor is derived from three-edge bear-
ing test results and previous design practice for three-
edge bearing strength (see Referenced Document C1
and Reference C3). The following limits to increases
in Fd apply for very small diameter pipes:
35
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
max F,, = 1.3 for pipe with two cages or a single
elliptical cage
max Fj = 1.4 for pipe through 36 in. diameter with
a single circular cage
Equation (19) for Fc gives a curvature factor in-
dicating a small reduction in the shear strength of
members with convexly curved tensile reinforcement
that results from the combined effects of shear and
radial tension in curved members (see Referenced
Document Cl and Reference C3).
Equations (20) and (21) for FN give thrust factors
that reflect the increase in shear strength produced by
compressive thrust and the decrease that results from
tensile thrust. These equations are the same as the
thrust factor equation used in prior practice for rein-
forced concrete flexural members (see Reference
C15).
Fvp is a factor that accounts for the process and
materials used in a specific pipe manufacturing plant
that affect the shear strength of pipe (see Section
7.2.5.1).
C12.6 STIRRUPS
When strength requirements exceed radial or di-
agonal tension limits, stirrups may be provided for
increased resistance to radial tension produced by
flexural tension in the curved inner cage reinforce-
ment and to diagonal tension caused by shear. The
maximum spacing for both radial tension and shear is
limited by Equations (24) and (26) to s,,ma!f to pre-
clude formation of diagonal cracks between adjacent
stirrups.
C12.6.2 Radial Tension Stirrups
Stirrups a are required for radial tension whenever
the reinforcement required for flexure [Equation (1)]
exceeds the maximum reinforcement for radial ten-
sion without stirrups given by Equation (5). The
maximum longitudinal spacing of stirrups in mem-
bers with curvature that are subject to radial tension
is the spacing between adjacent wires or bars. When
the concrete radial tension strength is exceeded, each
curved tension element requires a tie for the full ra-
dial component of tensile force in the wire or bar.
C12.6.3 Shear Stirrups
Stirrups required for shear (diagonal tension) are
conservatively designed for both the excess shear and
the full radial tension forces as provided by Equation
36
(25). The maximum shear strength of the concrete
that can be used in combination with stirrup rein-
forcement strength is the concrete shear strength
given by Equation (26) or (27), whichever is less.
The latter strength is the strength given in ACI 318
(see Reference CIS).
C12.6.4 Extent of Stirrups
Stirrups should extend over all regions where
concrete radial tension and/or shear stresses exceed
the design limits and at least to a point where V,,
equals Vc, plus half the thickness of the pipe wall, h.
They should extend over an additional arc length, /0,
that accounts for a misorientation of the pipe by as
much as the orientation angle, 0. The angle 0 should
not be taken less than a practical minimum of 10°. A
positive means for locating the invert and crown in
the field should be provided when circular pipe con-
tain stirrups, non-circular reinforcement, or cut-off re-
inforcement (i.e., mats).
Equation (28) provides that stirrups must extend
beyond the theoretical point where they are no longer
needed for radial or diagonal tension strength by an
amount equal to 0.5 /0, or half the wall thickness plus
the arc length associated with the orientation angle,
to allow tolerance equal to the orientation angle for
placing a pipe invert in the correct position in a field
installation.
The shear strength at the theoretical cut-off
points where stirrups are no longer required is given
by Equation (26). This shear strength may be larger
than Vh if M,JVud < 3.0.
C12.6.5 Stirrups Anchorage
When stirrups are used in the relatively thin
slabs or walls of the structural types covered in this
section, special arrangements may be employed to
achieve sufficient anchorage to develop the design
strength of the stirrup, while also facilitating efficient
fabrication procedures in a precast concrete pipe
manufacturing plant. Tests have demonstrated that
some stirrups can develop their design strength if
they are anchored around tension reinforcing at one
end with their other end anchored in the compression
side. These stirrup types do not have to be anchored
around reinforcement on the compression side. Be-
cause the details used with these stirrup types are not
covered by the anchorage provisions in typical rein-
forced concrete design standards, their developable
anchorage strength should be determined from proper
full-scale tests, preferably on components similar to
the component being designed to use them.

C12.7 WELDS, SPLICES, AND
DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT
The minimum overlap lengths for lapped splices
which are not welded, as required by ASTM C 1417,
is based on ACI 318-95 with modifications appropri-
ate for reinforced concrete pipe.
C13.0 PIPE DESIGNATION
C13.1 A typical marking for a 24-in. (600 mm) di-
ameter reinforced concrete pipe for a Type 2 Stan-
dard Installation and an earth cover of 2 ft (0.6 m)
through 12 ft (3.6 m) would be as follows:
English units D24T2 H2-12
SI units D 600 T 2 H 0.6-3.6
To further identify the pipe, ASTM C 1417 also re-
quires the date of manufacture, name or trademark of
manufacturer, plant identification, and, if applicable,
the top of the pipe marked.
C18.0 BEDDING
C18.2 A loosely placed uncompacted bedding layer
under the middle third of the pipe reduces the reac-
tion forces near the invert of the pipe. A compacted
haunch and compacted bedding directly under the
haunch increase the reaction forces on the pipe
haunches. This combination reduces the magnitude of
the maximum moment, which is at the pipe invert. It
also tends to reduce the effects of shear. Conversely,
compacted bedding directly under the invert increases
the moment at the invert and increases the effects of
shear.
The bedding layer under the middle third of the
pipe should be only firm enough to support the pipe
on grade until the haunch material is compacted.
When the backfill load is applied to the pipe, the
pipe should settle slightly into the bedding and com-
pacted haunch material increasing support at the
haunches rather than the invert. The intent is to let
the compacted haunch material support the pipe and
maintain grade and alignment.
C22.1 In order to reduce the load on the pipe, it is
recommended that the soil immediately over the top
of the pipe not be compacted for a depth of about
COMMENTARY
1/3 the outside pipe diameter above the top of the
pipe unless the project specifications require compac-
tion in this area.
C25.0 MINIMUM COVER FOR
CONSTRUCTION LOADS
C25.1 A gradual slope for ramps for equipment
crossings may be taken as 6 horizontal to 1 vertical.
REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
[Cl] SP1DA: An Analysis and Design System for
Buried Concrete Pipe, F. J. Heger, A. A. Lie-
pins, and E. T. Selig, Transportation Research
Record 1008, 1985.
[C2] User Instructions for SIDD, American Con-
crete Pipe Association, Vienna, Va.
REFERENCES
[C3] Design Method for Reinforced Concrete Pipe
and Box Sections, F. J. Heger and T. J. Mc-
Grath, Simpson Gumpertz and Heger, 1982.
[C4] Finite-Element Modeling of Buried Concrete
Pipe Installation, E. T. Selig, M. C. McVay,
and C. S. Chang, Transportation Research
Record 878, 1982.
[C5] Shear Strength of Pipe, Box Sections and
Other One-Way Flexural Members, F. J. Heger
and T. J. McGrath, ACI Journal, Technical Pa-
per No. 79-45, November-December 1982.
[C6] Structural Design Method for Precast Rein-
forced Concrete Pipe, F. J. Heger, Transporta-
tion Research Record 878, 1982.
[C7] Radial Tension Strength of Pipe and Other
Curved Flexural Members, F. J. Heger and
T. J. McGrath, ACI Journal, Technical Paper
No. 80-5, January-February 1983.
[C8] Crack Width Control in Design of Reinforced
Concrete Pipe and Box Sections, F. J. Heger
and T. J. McGrath, ACI Journal, Technical Pa-
per No. 81-16, March-April 1984.
[C9] Stiffness of Flexurally Cracked Reinforced
Concrete Pipe, F. J. Heger and A. A. Liepins,
ACI Journal, Technical Paper No. 82-29,
May-June 1985.
37
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
[CIO] SPIDA: An Analysis and Design System for
Buried Concrete Pipe, F. J. Heger, A. A. Lie-
pins, and E. T. Selig, ASCE Advances in Un-
derground Pipeline Engineering Proceedings,
1985.
[Cll] Proportioning Reinforcement for Buried Con-
crete Pipe, F. J. Heger, ASCE Advances in
Underground Pipeline Engineering, 1985.
[C12] Buried Concrete Pipe Trench Installation
Analysis, E. T. Selig and D. L. Packard, ASCE
Journal of Transportation Engineering, Volume
113, No. 5, September, 1987.
[C13] Buried Concrete Pipe Embankment Installation
Analysis, E. T. Selig and D. L. Packard, ASCE
Journal of Transportation Engineering, Volume
113, No. 5, September, 1987.
38
[C14] New Installation Designs for Buried Concrete
Pipe, F. J. Heger, ASCE Pipeline Infrastructure
Proceedings, 1988.
[CIS] Soil Parameters for Design of Buried Pipe-
lines, E. T. Selig, ASCE Pipeline Infrastructure
Proceedings, 1988.
[C16] Hyperbolic Parameters for Compacted Soil,
E. T. Selig, Report to American Concrete Pipe
Association, June 2, 1989.
[C17] Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Con-
crete, ACI 318, American Concrete Institute.
[CIS] Concrete Pipe Technology Handbook, Ameri-
can Concrete Pipe Association, 1993.
[C19] Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook, Work-
ing Stress Method, SP-3, 3rd Edition, Ameri-
can Concrete Institute, 1965.
 INDEX
Aggregates, 15, 16
Aircraft loads, 10
Appurtenances, precast concrete, 17
Arching coefficients (figure 5.3.1), 7
Average, running, defined 18
Backfill, defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2
Bedding, 15; defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2;
embankment installation (figure 5.2-1), 4;
embankment installation (table 5.2-1), 6;
material, embankment installation (figure 5.2-1),
4; requirements, 15-16; thickness, embankment
installation (table 5.2-1), 6; thickness, trench
installation (table 5.2-2), 6; trench installation
(figure 5.2-2), 5; trench installation (table 5.2-2),
6; uncompacted (figure 5.2-1), 4
Bell holes, 16
Circumferential reinforcement, 26
Clay. See soil
Compaction, 11, 16, 37; embankment (table 5.2-1), 6;
trench (table 5.2-2), 6; embankment installation
(figure 5.2-1), 4
Compression, limit of, 34
Concrete, 17
Cover requirements for construction loads, 17, 37
Covers, construction loads, 37
Covers for open pipe sections, 15
Crack control, 9, 12, 25-26, 35; coefficients (table
7.3.3-1), 11; factors, plotted (figure C-l), 24
Crack Control Factor, 8, 25, 34-35; formula 11,
English, 12, 34; formula 11, SI Units, 21
Crown: defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2; trench
(figure 5.2-2), 5
Definitions and terminology, 2. See also notations
Design requirements, 8
Drawings, shop, 8
Earth loads, 4, 8, 9, 30-31; formula C-4, 30
Earth pressure, distribution (figure 5.3-1), 7
Embankment, standard: figure 5.2-1, 4; table 5.2-1, 6
Excavation, 15; line, embankment installation (figure
5.2-1), 4
Fill. See overfill; sidefill
Fill loads, 9
Fittings, precast concrete, 17
Flexure, control of (figure C-l), 24
Flotation prevention, 15
Fluid loads, 9
Foundation, 15; defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2
Grade, corrections to, 16
Gravel. See soil
Haunch, 16, 37; defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2;
embankment installation (figure 5.2-1), 4;
embankment installation (table 5.2-1), 6; trench
installation (figure 5.2-2), 5; trench installation
(table 5.2-2), 6
Hydrostatic loads, 10
Hydrostatic pressure loads, 10
Inspection requirements, 15
Installation, 29-30; embankment installation (figure
5.2-1), 4; trench installation (figure 5.2-2), 5
Invert: defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2; trench
installation (figure 5.2-2), 5
Load factors, 8
Load types, 30
Loads, dead, 9, 10. See also specific loads, e.g., soil
loads
Loads, live, 10, 26-29. SIDD method, 25; spacing of
(figure C-2), 27; stress resultants, 8; top of pipe
(table C-2A, English), 29; top of pipe (table C-
2B, SI Units), 30; See also specific loads, e.g.,
truck loads
Lower side, 16; defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2;
trench installation (figure 5.2-2), 5
Manhole installation, 17
Manufacturing design and specifications, 8
Marking information, pipe, 37
Measurement units, 1
Moment, 8
Notations and definitions, 2-3, 19-20. See also
terminology
Orientation angle, 2, 8, 26; formula, 29, English, 13;
formula, 29, SI Units, 22
Overfill, 16; defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2;
embankment installation (figure 5.2-1), 4; trench
installation (figure 5.2-2), 5
Passing loads, 26; figures C-2, C-5, C-6, 27-29
Pavement loads, 9
Phi. See strength reduction factors
Pipe: cushioning in installation, 15; design criteria, 4;
designation markings, 37; diameter, inside
39
BURIED PRECAST CONCRETE PIPE USING STANDARD INSTALLATIONS
standard (table C-l), 25; displacement,
prevention of lateral, 16; flotation prevention, 15;
joining, 16; open end covers, 15; support,
uniform (figure 18.1-1), 15; top and bottom,
defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2
PIPECAR microcomputer system, 24
Pipe/soil system, 1, 15-17
Pressure, 8, 10, 30; distribution (figure 5.3-1), 7
Prism load, 2; formula C-5, 31
Railroad loads, 10
Reinforcement: concrete compression, limited by
(formula 9, English), 12, 34; concrete
compression, limited by (formula 9, SI Units),
21; concrete cover, minimum design, 9; for crack
control (table 7.3.3-1), 12; development of, 14;
equations, 31; flexural, maximum (formula 5,
English), 11, 33, 36; flexural, maximum (formula
5, SI Units), 20; flexural strength (formula la,
English), 32; flexural strength (formula 1,
English), 11, 36; flexural tensile area (formula 9,
English), 34; at joint, 23; longitudinal,
specification, 23; minimum (formula 2, 3, 4,
English), 11, 32-33; minimum (formula 1, SI
Units), 20; radial tension, limiting (formula 5,
English), 11, 33; radial tension, limiting (formula
5, SI Units), 20; radial tension, limiting (formula
C-5a), 33; required vs. load area (figure C-l),
24; specifications, 8-10; tension, 9
Reinforcement, types of: circumferential, 22, 26
Safety requirements, 15
Sand. See soil
Shear, 8, 30; control of (figure C-l), 24
Shear strength, 35-36; formula 16, English, 12-13;
formula, 16, SI Units, 21
Sheathing removal, 17
SIDD method, 1, 3-4, 8, 24-26, 30-31; installation
coefficients, Type 1 (table C-3.1), 31; installation
coefficients, Type 2 (table C-3.2), 32; installation
40
coefficients, Type 3 (table C-3.3), 33; installation
coefficients, Type 4 (table C-3.4), 34
Sidefill, defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2
Soil, 10-11, 15, 16; classifications (table 10.2-1), 10;
embankment installation (table 5.2-1), 6; trench
installation (table 5.2-2), 6
Soil loads, 30
Spread dimensions, top of pipe: English (table C-2A),
29; SI Units (table C-2B), 30
Springline: defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2;
trench installation (figure 5.2-2), 5
Standard, purpose of, 1
Steel, specifications, 9-10
Stirrups, 13-14, 22, 26, 36; radial tension (formula
23, English), 13; radial tension (formula 23, SI
Units), 22; shear (formula 25, English), 13; shear
(formula 25, SI Units), 22
Strength reduction factors, 8, 24, 25
Stress resultants, 8, 30, 35
Subgrade, defined with limits (figure 3.6-1), 2
Tension: axial, 35; diagonal, 8. See also shear
strength; flexural, 8, 31-32, 35; radial, 8, 11,
20-21, 33-34, 36; reinforcement, 9
Terminology and definitions (figure 3.6-1), 2
Thrust, 8, 33; compressive (formula 20, English), 13;
compressive (formula 20, SI Units), 22; tensile
(formula 21, English), 13; tensile (formula 21, SI
Units), 22
Trench shields, removal of, 17
Trench, standard: figure 5.2-2, 5; table 5.2-2, 6
Truck loads, 10, 26-29; distributed area (figure C-4),
28; distributed area (figure C-6), 29
Units of measurement: inch-pound (English), defined,
1; SI Units (metric), defined, 1
Water, removal of, 15
Wheel loads (figure C-3), 27
Wire fabric, 9-10, 35