238 Chapter Incompressible Invi 6.2 Flow IL the z axis is directed vertically upward, then g, = g»—0 and g, ~ ~g. Equations 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3 apply to problems in which there are no viscous stresses. Before continuing with the main topic of this chapter (inviscid flow), let’s consider for a moment when we have no viscous stresses, other than when 1 = 0. We recall from previous discussions that, in general, viscous stresses are present when we have fluid deformation (in fact this is how we initially defined a fuid); when we have no uid deformation, i... when we have rigid-body motion, no viscous stresses will be present, even if #0. Hence Euler's equations apply to rigid-body motions as well as to inviscid flows. We discussed rigid-body motion in detail in Section 3.7 as a special case of fiuid statics, As an exercise, you can show that Euler's equations can be used to solve Examples 3.9 and 3.10. Euler's Equations in Streamline Coordinates In Chapters 2 and 5 we pointed out that streamlines, drawn tangent to the velocity vectors at every point in the flow field, provide a convenient graphical representation, In steady low a fuid particle will move along a streamline because, for steady flow, pathlines and streamlines coincide, Thus, in describing the motion of a fluid particle in a steady flow, in addition to using orthogonal coordinates x, y, z, the distance along a streamline is a logical coordinate to use in writing the equations of motion, Streamline coordinates” also may be used to describe unsteady dow, Streamlines in ‘unsteady flow give a graphical representation of the instantaneous velocity field, For simplicity, consider the flow in the yz plane shown in Fig. 6.1. We wish to write the equations of motion in terms of the coordinate s, distance along a streamline, and the coordinate n, distance normal to the streamline. The pressure at the center of the fluid elementis p. Ewe apply Newton's second law in the direction # ofthe streamline, to the fluid element of volume ds dn dx, then neglecting viscous forces we obtain (0-2 San te= (p28 dn depen d= pd dn de ep = pgsin 3 = pa, Fig. 6.1 Fluid particle moving along a streamtine.62 Euler's Equations in Streamline Coordinates 239 B2/s, we can write 1» 3a Along any streamline V~ V(s, 1), and the material or total acceleration of a fuid particle m the streamwise direction is given by _ DV _ ava Dr > or Vas @ Euler’s equation in the streamwise direction with the z axis directed vertically upward is then a1 _ pas az az (64a) For steady flow, and neglecting body forees, Euler's equation in the streamwise direction reduces to Lop __y av pos os (6.40) which indicates that (for an incompressible, inviscid flow) a decrease in velocity is accompanied by an increase in pressure and conversely. This makes sense: The only force experienced by the particle is the net pressure force, so the particle accelerates toward low-pressure regions and decelerates when approaching high-pressure regions. To obtain Fuler's equation in a direction normal to the streamlines, we apply Newton's second law in the m direction to the uid element, Again, neglecting viscous forces, we obtain (> ‘where is the angle between the 7 direction and the vertical, and ay is the acceleration of the fuid particle in the n direction. Simplifying the equation, we obtain Sh de d= pacos i dndds = paydn dx ds ~ (0B) » a1 8 _ 2 aan Fan The normal acceleration of the fluid element is toward the conter of curvature of the streamline, in the minus » direction; thus in the coordinate system of Fig. 6.1, the familiar centripetal acceleration is written for steady low, where R is the radius of curvature of the streamline at the point chosen. Then, Euler's equation normal {o the streamline is written for steady flow as 18,2 oE (65a) yaaa bg240 Chapéer& Incompressible Inviscid Flow For steady flow in a horizontal plane, Euler's equation normal to a streamline EE vse oe becomes ena cn v (os) z (6.5b) Equation 6.5h indicates that pressure increases in the direction outward from the center of curvature of the streamlines. This also makes sense: Because the only force experienced by the particle isthe net pressure force, the pressure Held creates the centripetal acceleration. In regions where the streamlines are straight, the radius of curvature, R, is infinite so there is no pressure variation normal to straight streamlines. END at standard conditions in a flat duct is to be determined by installing pressure taps across a bend. The duct is 0.3 m deep and 0.1 m wide. The inner radius of the bend is 0.25 m, If the measured pressure difference between the taps is 40 mm of water, compute the approximate flow rate. Given: Flow through duct bend as shown, few P2~Pt = pro8 Mh —_ Where Af = 40 mm HO. Airis at STP Find: Volume flow rate, 0 Solution: ‘Apply Balers n component equation acoss flow streamlines oa corners koe Assumptions: (1) Frictionless flow. (2) Incompressible flow. 3) Uniform flow at measurement section. For this flow, p = p(?), 80 ® & wo o= pt iterate ” st == pV'tar] = pvt? pm = e¥*ine] = pv In eae63 Bemoulli Equation: Integration of Euler’s Equation Along a Streamline for Steady Flow 242 But Ap = pp—p: = pyogAh, 30 V ‘Substituting numerical values, ~ [ovo 8 xeos1™ n v= [opedS x9813 xooimx ee = 308m/s or ir fom 0=VA~ 982 xo1mxo3m Q = 0.924 m3 /s ——____@ a Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler's 6.3 Equation Along a Streamline for Steady Flow Compared to the viscous-flow equivalents, the momentum or Euler’s equation for incompressible, inviscid flow (Eq. 6.1) is simpler mathematically, but solution (in conjunction with the mass conservation equation, Eq. S.1c) still presents formidable difficulties in all but the most basic flow problems. One convenient approach for a steady flow is to integrate Euler's equation along a streamline. We will do this below using {wo different mathematical approaches, and each will result in the Bernoulli equation, Recall that in Section 4.4 we derived the Bernoulli equation by starting with a differential control volume; these two additional derivations will give us more insight into the restrictions inherent in use of the Bernoulli equation, *Derivation Using Streamline Coordinates Euler's equation for steady flow along a streamline (from Eq, 6.48) is La dr _ ev pas 8a or (6.6) Ifa fluid particle moves a distance, ds, along a streamline, then be 245 ap econ pose sone) Begg de (de chane eatin sone) aa av he chang ped song ‘Thus, after multiplying Fg. 66 by ds, we can write242 chapter Incompressible Inviscid Flow ®gac=vav ot VdVtgde=0 (alongs) ? Integration ofthis equation gives ve [e+e gz = constant (along s) (67) Before Eq. 6.7 can be applied, we must specify the relation between pressure and density. For the special ease of incompressible flow, p = constant, and Eq. 6.7 becomes the Bernoulli equation, +% +g2 = constant (68) zr ve oe Restrictions: (1) Steady flow (2) Incompressible flow G) Frictionless flow. (4) Flow along a streamline, ‘The Bernoulli equation is probably the most famous, and abused, equation in all of fluid mechanics. Its always tempting to use because it isa simple algebraic equation {or relating the pressure, velocity, and elevation in a fluid. For example, itis used to explain the lift of a wing: In aerodynamics the gravity term is usually negligible, so Eq 68 indicates that wherever the velocity is relatively high (¢.g., on the upper surface of wing), the pressure must he relatively low, and wherever the velocity is relatively low (e.g., on the lower surface of a wing), the pressure must be relatively high, gen- erating substantial lift. Equation 68 indicates that, in general (if the flow is not constrained in some way), if a particle increases its elevation (z 1) of moves into a higher pressure region (p 1), it will tend to decelerate (V ); this makes sense from a momentum point of view (recall that the equation was derived from momentum, considerations). These comments only apply if the four restrictions listed are rea~ sonable. For example, Eq, 6.8 cannot be used to explain the pressure drop in a hor- izontal constant diameter pipe flow: according to it, for z = constant and V= constant, P= constant! We cannot stress enough that you should keep the restrictions firmly in ‘mind whenever you consider using the Bernoulli equation! (In general, the Bernoulli constant in Eq. 6.8 has different values along different streamlines.!) *Derivation Using Rectangular Coordinates ‘The vector form of Euler's equation, Eq. 6.1, also can be integrated along a stream- line, We shall restrict the derivation to steady flow; thus, the end result of our effort should be Bq, 67 For steady flow, Euler's equation in rectangular coordinates can be expressed as bv _ av Dr oe vp-sk (63) 2 For steady flow the velocity field is given by V = V(x,y,2). The streamlines are lines drawn in the flow field tangent tothe velocity vector at every point, Recall again that for steady flow, streamlines, patlines, and streaklines coincide, The motion of a "or the case ofirotational low. the constant has a singe vale throughout the emtite ow fel (Section 67) ‘This section may be omit without lot of continuity inthe tent material