INNOVATIVE PV MICRO-INVERTER TOPOLOGY ELIMINATES
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS FOR LONGER LIFETIME
Ward Bower1, Rick West2, Art Dickerson3
1
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185; USA, wibower@sandia.gov
2
Distributed Power, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401; USA, Rick.West@distributedpower.us
3
Bluepoint Associates, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401; USA, adickersn@charter.net
ABSTRACT
An extremely reliable micro-inverter is critical to the
success of the AC PV Building Block and the AC PV
Module concepts. [1,2,3,4] An innovative inverter design
has been developed and prototyped in order to address
some of the most critical issues associated with extending
the mean time between failure (MTBF) and the total
lifetime of the micro-inverter when it is integrated onto a
PV module. The innovative micro-inverter addressed in
this paper uses a unique proprietary circuit topology to
reduce the numbers and sizes of capacitors, is currently
rated at 150W, and has been shown to be thermally robust
and feasible. Additionally, the smaller capacitors used in
the design use advanced technology exhibiting much
longer lifetime (30-year) in the anticipated thermal
environment. The unconventional micro-inverter design
considerations, layout, early findings from modeling and
evaluation results are presented. Preliminary findings for
a proposed redesign to increase the rating to 300W are
presented. An initial assessment of a reliability
requirement study for micro-inverters is also discussed. [5]
INTRODUCTION
The concepts known as the AC Photovoltaic Building
Block and AC PV module can revolutionize the
photovoltaic industry by offering ultimate plug-n-play
products that need no system designer and that can be
sold directly to the customer as a complete system.[4]
Both concepts offer sweeping technical and installation
challenges as well as advantages over the conventional
photovoltaic system. With the AC PV Building Block,
photovoltaic modules are fully integrated with a micro-
inverter mounted into the frames or rails. The frames and
rails also serve as approved electrical conduit, micro-
inverter housing, enclosed interconnects, ac buses, and
safety device housings. They could be marketed as a
complete, certified plug-and-play system.
The AC PV Building Block concept can easily reduce
other balance-of-systems (BOS) and installation costs by
at least 50% and can improve reliability through mass
production and ease of installation by offering a
standardized, snap-together, modular design. The
success of implementing both concepts relies on: (1)
mass-production of extremely high quality components
using the latest technology and (2) all of the elements and
components integrated together into a rugged, reliable,
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low cost, and proven package. The integrated micro-
inverters must have lifetimes and mean time between
failures (MTBF) comparable to the 20-30 years common in
today’s high quality silicon photovoltaic modules.
The fully-packaged nature of the AC PV Building Block
concept brings utility-compatible photovoltaic products
directly to the utility-interactive market by eliminating many
design, installation, and purchasing headaches. The
concept can also be used in hybrid and stand-alone
applications with little or no change to the micro-inverter or
internal package, but with small additional control
schemes for the system.
The topology, design and construction of a micro-
inverter that is to be mounted upon or near to PV modules
cannot be business as usual. One objective of this project
was to prove the feasibility of a new innovative inverter
design that uses no electrolytic capacitors. A second was
to show that the inverter operates in a package layout
consistent with being contained within the frame of a PV
module or as a rail member that is also used for mounting
the PV module. Lifetime and MTBF issues for micro-
inverters are predominantly electrolytic capacitors and
thermal management because they are exposed to brutal
environmental conditions that are not commonly
addressed for typical consumer electronic circuitry. Other
critical reliability-sensitive considerations included surge
protection (on the ac and dc side), long-lived connectors,
corrosion resistant interconnects, and improved magnetic
materials. A commercially available wide-band-gap
semiconductor device was included in this design, but as
more advanced wide-band-gap devices become
economically available it is expected even more lifetime
issues will be eliminated.
Employing the evolutionary technical innovations of
devices and components in new micro-inverter designs
can incrementally improve the lifetime of micro-inverters,
but the environment presented on rooftops and the close
coupling with photovoltaic modules virtually dictates a
need for leapfrog advances in some components and
micro-inverter designs. Innovative circuitry can
revolutionize inverter designs by eliminating short-lived
components and utilizing digital signal processing coupled
to state-of-the-art integrated devices. This prototype
development was a first step, and was intended primarily
to prove the feasibility of the innovative circuitry and to
study the thermal management aspects of the unique
packaging layout that fits into a frame (bar in Fig. 1) or rail
of a PV module. The initial success has prompted a new
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prototype design to operate at a 300W level as discussed INVERTER COSTS
later in this paper.
As already indicated, the innovative micro-inverter Costs remain a critical issue for successful AC PV
described in this paper uses a unique circuit topology to Building Block micro-inverter designs. The cost of a
reduce the numbers and sizes of capacitors. Additionally, complete AC PV Building Block or AC PV module can
the smaller capacitors used in the design use an generally exceed the cost of a conventional PV system
advanced technology exhibiting much longer lifetime (30- because lower installation costs, modularity, flexibility in
year) in the expected environment. The innovative circuit orientation, array utilization and overall performance will
uses the advantages of a single photovoltaic module likely otherwise lower installation costs. The additional
package, close dc coupling that reduces inductive issues, cost of the micro-inverter for the AC PV Building Block
simplified controls for maximum-power-point-tracking and must be a consideration of final designs, but must be
dc set points, high-speed switching, no system diodes and balanced with performance and high reliability.[6] Today’s
other cost saving plug-and-play AC PV Building Block cost goal for the complete integrated product in quantities
features as shown in Fig. 1. [4] of greater than 10,000 is a cost of less than $4.50/W.
That is slightly higher, but consistent with the new U.S.
Department of Energy Solar America Initiative goals that
are targeting levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for PV
power generation of $.08 to $.10/kWh by the year 2015 for
residential size systems.[8] The higher AC PV Building
Block cost must be balanced with value added features
that include built-in communications either via power-line
carrier or wireless, and plug-n-play features that reduce
installation expenses.
Features including advanced integrated surge
suppression, input and output communications with the
consumer, advanced digital signal processing, and
electromagnetic susceptibility must be designed into the
final micro-inverter. Cost and surge issues were priority
considerations in the developed prototype and that work is
Fig. 1. Artists Concept of an AC PV Building Block continuing. Table 1 shows estimated costs and the
The PV module chosen for this prototype was a 72-cell, (elongated) form factor for various power ratings of the
BP Solar, multi-crystalline technology. It has a nominal innovative inverter.
maximum power point (MPP) at 30 to 34 Vdc and a (STP)
Table 1. Estimated costs and thermal considerations for
power rating of 160 W.
the innovative micro-inverter design
This prototype micro-inverter required a boost circuit
with a significant voltage boost ratio ranging from 10 to 14 Inverter Estimated Calculated Estimated
with this PV module. This high boost ratio resulted in Rating Cost $/W@ Thermal Dimensions
inverter losses that can easily be reduced with higher (10,000/yr) Management (cm)
maximum power point voltages. 100 W $0.36/W No Special 41 X 4.5 X 3.5
Requirements
The likelihood of PV manufacturers marketing higher
voltage modules in the 150-W power ranges rests entirely 150 W $0.30/W More Attention 41 X 4.5 X 3.5
upon prospects for a very large market for the AC PV to Layout
Building Block or AC PV modules. The real trade off that
200 W $0.24/W Passive 55 X 4.5 X 3.5
must be considered is whether a more complex PV Assistance
module with more series tabs or a micro-inverter with
higher efficiency fits into the design for the desired end 300 W $0.19/W Higher Voltage 55 X 4.5 X 3.5
product. [6,7] Prototype being
(Higher Developed
Advanced power semiconductors, including some Voltage)
silicon-carbide devices are becoming commercially
available at reasonable costs and are being included in
the new design. [7] An ultimate goal is to use additional INVERTER PERFORMANCE
high-temperature wide-band-gap devices in future
iterations. Higher temperature operation with improved
lifetimes and high-speed performance are some This innovative micro-inverter design, suitable for use
advantages offered by newly-developed silicon-carbide with AC PV modules or the AC PV Building Block concept
power switches and diodes, but it must be noted that with has been completed and preliminary evaluations are now
higher temperatures, the entire package must be complete. As noted, the prototype design addressed only
innovative to prevent detrimental thermal effects on other the most critical issues associated with extending the
conventional electronic components. mean time between failure and the total lifetime of a micro-

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inverter for an AC PV Building Block. Both frame and rail improvements. Figure 3 shows a close-up showing the
applications are being considered with plans to use the input capacitor for this prototype. The resulting dc current
same micro-inverter design and layout in each. Results ripple, that is generally significant with single-phase
from circuit modeling, simulations and bench testing are inverters, is shown in Fig. 4 with a reference to half sine
very encouraging.
Array utilization has been simulated using input from
measured parameters and found to be nearly 100%, even
with fast moving clouds. Other simulations and bench
testing have aided in selecting components, compensation
factors, and determining some of the effects of different
switching frequencies. The measured efficiency is
consistent with design calculations, but must be improved
for the final design. Conducted and radiated
electromagnetic susceptibility and emanations have been
measured and were not problematic, and in fact, additional
filtering on the ac line was not needed. Surge protection
remains unmeasured at this time and studies are ongoing.
The evaluation results have been very encouraging
prompting further evolution of the design to a 300-W
rating. Slightly more than a 300-W rating will be Fig. 3. Micro-inverter input section showing the small
necessary to accommodate the largest PV modules that 3.3 µF filter capacitor.
are available today.
A State Energy Program (SEP) Special Projects
program conducted by the U.S. Department of Energy has PM3394A
issued a grant to measure, model and analyze the
operating environment experienced by the micro-inverter
mounted on the back of the 300-W PV module. [5] To DC Current
accomplish this, several non-functional prototypes will be
constructed and installed at several test facilities where Half-
instrumentation will fully characterize temperatures and Sine
other parameters over an extended period if time. Several
different inverter attachment methods will be investigated
to ascertain the impacts on thermal operating conditions.
These investigations will lay the groundwork for more
extensive thermal modeling, innovative thermal
management, electronic circuit design analysis and 4
lifetime assessment for the micro-inverters now in 3
development.
Fig. 4. Inverter half-wave output current and dc ripple

current. The dc current ripple is only 0.3% when the

Fig. 2. Micro-inverter prototype layout for the
thermal analysis project
Figure 2 shows the prototype constructed for thermal
analysis reported herein. Preliminary measurements
indicate that a heat sink will not be needed for 150-W
ratings. Initial validation of the circuit topology has shown
impressive performance with only a few areas needing
power delivered is 90W in this oscillograph. This low
value of dc ripple allows excellent array utilization and
maximum-power-point tracking. Figure 5 shows the
output power and the array voltage ripple. The ripple
represented here is accomplished with the 3.3 µF filter
capacitor at the PV module (dc) input of the inverter.
The peak efficiency of this prototype was measured to
be in the high 80s. This relatively low peak efficiency is
primarily a result of off-the-shelf magnetic components
that were used for the proof-of-feasibility prototype, and to
a lesser extent that discrete control components are
currently being used instead of a digital signal processor
with integrated controls.
It is estimated that core magnetic losses can be
reduced by 50% with advanced magnetic materials.
Further, since this unit was constructed, new
semiconductor devices have been announced with

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Fig. 5. Power output (60W/div) and PV module voltage
(1V/div “ac” coupled)
advanced MOSFET switches exhibiting a 50% reduction in
on-resistance. Additionally, the use of a digital-signal-
processor (DSP), an optimized switching frequency and
integrated controls will further improve efficiency and
reduce internal heat generation.
It has been estimated through calculations and analysis
that advanced magnetic core materials and lower on-
resistance MOSFETs alone will permit operation of this
prototype with 300-W PV modules having a maximum-
power-point rating around 92V. This improved power
rating is related to the fact that over 50% of the losses in
the prototype derive from I2R sources, while approximately
20% derive from other sources that vary with power
throughput. Thus a 300-W unit compared to the 150-W
unit would have a reduction in I2R losses approximately
equal to the proposed increase in power-throughput
losses. In essence, the heat release of the lower current
300-W unit would essentially equal that of the higher
current 150-W unit.
Computer simulations using SPICE also have been run
for PV modules of 200W at 40V and 300W at 92V MPP
ratings. The simulations verify the early calculations cited
above. The SPICE simulations also agree closely with the
still-air tests at ambient air temperatures up to 60°C which
were conducted on the original feasibility prototype.
CONCLUSIONS
The innovative inverter topology, the circuit layout and
the design concept have been shown to be feasible and
the very encouraging results have been nearly as
originally calculated. Cost estimates are consistent with
the needs for the AC PV Building Block or AC PV modules
and with the goals of the U.S. Department of Energy Solar
America Initiative. Initial thermal analysis shows the
design resulted in adequate thermal dissipation when the
150-W inverter is mounted within a frame of a PV module.
Further thermal analysis and performance studies are
being conducted as part of a U.S. Department of Energy,
State Energy Program Special Projects study to determine
the extremes and ranges of environmental requirements
expected for micro-inverters. The study is now under way.
A redesigned, higher voltage, higher power throughput
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micro-inverter with ratings up to 300W is being designed
using the same control package and with advanced and
higher voltage power handling components.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia
Corporation, a Lockheed Martin company, for the U.S.
DOE National Nuclear Security Administration under
contract DE-AC04-94AL85000. The authors wish to
thank Dr. Jean Posbic of BP Solar for providing the PV
modules used in this development.
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