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Variable Loading
• Variable loading results when the applied load or
the induced stress on a component is not constant
but changes with time
• In reality most mechanical components experience
variable loading due to
-Change in the magnitude of applied load
Example: Extrusion process
-Change in direction of load application
Example: a connecting rod
-Change in point of load application
Example: a rotating shaft
Fatigue
• Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable
loading or more precisely to cyclic stressing or
straining of a material
Beach marks
showing the
nature of crack
propagation
Crack initiation at
the outer surface
Crack initiation, propagation and rupture in a shaft subjected to repeated bending
Crack initiation at
the root of keyway
at B
Crack
propagation
occurs over a
time period
Flash
line of
forging
No surface crack.
Crack may initiate
anywhere that is
the weakest or
unknown source
Radial direction of
of weakness.
crack propagation
SFD
Mb
BMD
The S-N Diagram for steel (UNS G41300), normalized, Sut=812 MPa.
Endurance Limit,
It is the stress at
which the
component can
sustain infinite
number of cycles
Endurance limit, not applicable for non-
ferrous metals and alloys
• The plot in the S-N diagram never
becomes horizontal for non-ferrous metals
and alloys
• Hence there is no endurance limit for non-
ferrous metals and alloys
• Fatigue strength (Se) is used instead which
is specified, normally, as fatigue strength
at 5*108 cycles
For different aluminium alloys (which is non-ferrous)
For non-ferrous metals and alloys, as can be seen here, the S-N diagram never
becomes horizontal and hence they do not have endurance limit. Hence, a
stress at a specific number of cycles, normally at 5*108 cycles, must be used as
fatigue strength
Quick Estimation of Endurance Limit
Maximum stress
Kt =
Nominal stress w d
P
Nominal stress =
(w − d )t
σ max = K t × σ nom
K t = Determined through experiments or
numerical simulation such as FEM
What is Kt?: Determination from FEA
Maximum stress
Kt =
Nominal stress
Actual stress concentration factor, Kf
• Also called as fatigue strength reduction factor
K f = 1 + q(K t − 1) or K fs = 1 + qshear (K ts − 1)
q = notch sensitivity value (from Fig. 6 - 20 & 6 - 21)
K t = Theoretical stress concentration factor
(or geometric factor, from tables)
Notch Sensitivity plot for normal stress
Fig: 6-20
Notch Sensitivity plot for shear stress
Fig: 6-21
Endurance limit ≠ Endurance strength
S e = k a kb k c k d k e S '
e
k a = surface condition modification factor
k a = aS b
ut
Table 6.2
Size factor, kb
kb = size modifying factor
For rotating circular CS bars in bending and torsion only :
(d / 7.62 )−0.107 = 1.24d −0.107 if 2.79 ≤ d ≤ 51 mm
kb =
0.859 − 0.000837d if 51 ≤ d ≤ 254 mm
For axial loading no size effect, kb = 1.
A0.95σ =
π
4
[d 2
e ]
− (0.95d e ) = 0.0766 d e2 K (1), for rotating circular hollow CS bars
2
For nonrotatin g solid or hollow rounds, the 95 percent stress area is twice the area outside
of two parallel chords having a spacing of 0.95d i.e
A0.95σ = 0.01046 d 2 K ( 2), for non - rotating circular CS bars
Equation (1) and (2) d e = 0.37 d
Kb for non-conforming situations:
Table 6-3
Load modification factor, kc
1, bending
k c = 0 . 85 , axial
0 . 59 , torsion
Actually the kc is dependent on the Sut of the material.
Tables 6-11 to 6-14 (page no. 325) in Text Book give the
details. The above values are average values.
Temperature modifying factor, kd
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
k d = 0.975 + 0.432 10 −3 TF − 0.115 10 −5 TF2 + 0.104 10 −8 TF3 − 0.595 10 −12 TF4
where
70 ≤ TF ≥ 1000o F
Reliability factor, ke
ke = 1− 0.08 za
R za R za
50% 0 99.9% 3.031
90% 1.288 99.99% 3.719
95% 1.645 99.999% 4.265
99% 2.326 99.9999% 4.753
Miscellaneous effects factor, kf
• Accounts for
– Corrosion
– Coating failure
– Spraying etc.
Four specific types of cyclic loading identified in mechanical
systems:
σ σ 1
a
+ m
= K Soderberg line
Se S yt n
σ σ 1
a
+ m
= K Modified Goodman line
Se S ut n
2
nσ a nσ m
+ =1 K Gerber line
Se S ut
2 2
nσ a nσ m
+ =1 K ASME Elliptic line
S
Se yt
σ σ 1
a
+ m = K Langer line (only for checking
S yt S yt n
for static yielding)
Where σ m = K f σ mo and σ a = K f σ ao
How to estimate Kf
•Kf = 1+q(Kt -1).
•When q=0, the material has no sensitivity to notches,
and hence Kf=1.
•When q=1, or when notch radius is large for which q
is almost equal to 1, the material has full notch
sensitivity, and hence Kf = Kt.
•For all grades of cast iron, use q=0.20.
•Use the different graphs as given to obtain q for
bending/axial and torsional loading.
How to estimate Kf Contd.
Considering that the bending, torsional, and axial stresses have alternating and
midrange components, the von Mises stresses for the two stress elements can be
written as
Design for Combined loading
• Calculate von Mises stresses for alternating and
midrange stress states, σ′a and σ′m .
• Apply stresses to fatigue criterion i.e Soderberg,
Modified-Goodman, Gerber’s or ASME Elliptic
criteria by replacing σa and σm with σ′a and σ′m
respectively
• Conservative check for localized yielding using
von Mises stresses i.e
• 6-27 Fig shows clutch testing machine. Axial load
applied to the shaft is cycled from 0 to P. Torque
is induced as T=0.25fP(D+d). Sy=800 MPa,
Sut=1000 MPa, Kta=3, Kts=1.8, f=0.3. Find the
maximum value of P such that the shaft will
survive 106 cycles with factor of safety of 3 using
Goodman criteria.