Socratic Puzzles! ROBERT NOZICK Ignorance Socrates claims he does not know the answers to the questions he puts, and that if he is superior in wisdom this lies only in the fact that, unlike others, he is aware that he does not know. Yet he does have doctrines he recurs to (that it is better to suffer injustice than to do it, that no one does wrong, voluntarily but only from ignorance,’ that a doer of injustice is better off ' This essay was stimulated by questions posed by Gregory Viastos in his Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher (Cornell University Press, aca, 1991), and its tide derives from Vlastos's speaking, in his Plazonic Studies (Princeton Univ, Press, 1973), ‘of cracking puzzles in Plato. After writing an earlier draft with the current tite, T ‘encountered Terence Irwin's review of Viastos's Socrates, also entitled “Socratic Puz~ es” (Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, volume X, 1992.) hope Irwin will accept rm reusing his ttle as a reinforcement of his tribute to Vlasts. Lam grateful to Myles Burnyeat for his comments on an earlier draft ofthis essay 2 Whether or not this doctrine is an accurate description of everyone, it is a correct description of Socrates himself, it is inconceivable that Socrates would know what is best yet do otherwise, However, we should not abandon Socrates too soon tothe familia objection that someone might know the good but be too weak of will to carry it out. For ‘what explains weakness of will? If that phenomegon itself arises due to, and crucially involves, some particular ignorance on the agents part, then Socrates’ doctrine will not fall tothe akrasia objection. Consider the psychologist George Ainslie's explanation of weakness of will in terms of time preference, and the crossing curves these can involve. (George Ainslie, “Specious Reward: a behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control”, Psychological Bul letin, vol. 82, 1975, pp. 463-496, I first discussed this explanation in “On Austrian Methodology”, Syathese, vol. 36, 1977, pp. 353-392, and I returned to it in The Natu of Rationality, Princeton Univ. Press, 1993, pp. 14-18.) On this explanation, an akati ‘act might involve a failure of knowledge. Because of visual perspective, a nearer object cean look larger than a more distant one that actually is larger (where the actual size of the object is measured atthe objec). Someone who thinks the nearer object larger makes ‘a mistake of knowledge. Is time preference like visual perspective, so that rewards look ‘smaller, the more distant they are in the future? If they thereby look smaller than they ‘actually ae (where their actual magnitude is measured ar the reward), then isn't some- ‘one making a mistake, a cognitive mistake, who acts as ifthe nearer reward is the larger ‘one. Isn't this an illusion, akin to a visual illusion? (See Protagoras, 356e-Te.) I don't insist thatthe answer is clear, in this case. And Ainslie's explanation of akrasia is not Phronesis 1995. Vol XL/2 (Accepted November 1994) 13being punished for it), and he shows great confidence in these judgements. When Polus says it is easy to refute the view that the unpunished unjust man is more wretched than the punished one, Socrates replies that it is “impossible. For the truth is never refuted.” (Gorgias, 4736) And Socrates tells Callicles that the doctrine that it is more evil, ugly and shameful to do injustice than to undergo it “is secured and bound fast... with arguments of ‘adamant and iron”. (508e-509a) Is this supremely confident Socrates merely being ironic when he elsewhere denies that he knows? How are we to understand what Gregory Vlastos terms “Socrates? central paradox”, his profession of ignorance? Socrates does not (generally) deny knowledge of the Socratic doctrines (it is better to suffer injustice than to do it, etc.) but of the answers to the “What is F?” questions he pursues with others. His superior wisdom then resides in his knowing that he doesn’t know, and cannot produce, the com rect answer to these “What is F?” questions. Not knowing these things is ‘compatible with his knowing other things. There is no contradiction in his saying he knows he does not know the nature of the relevant F's, for that Knowledge he has is not itself the answer to one of his “What is F?” questions. This limits the scope of Socrates’ claim not to know, but what precisely does he mean by this profession of ignorance? It has been suggested that Socrates does believe he has true beliefs about the matters he discusses, but that he lacks something in addition to true belief that (he thinks) is neces- sary for knowledge or for a certain kind of knowledge. Terence Irwin holds that Socrates claims only true belief.“ Vlastos objects (didn’t Socrates think some of his beliefs justified?), and he proposes instead a distinction be- tween two kinds of knowledge: elenctic knowledge, which one has when ‘one’s (true) belief has survived repeated testing in the process of elenctic inquiry; and certain-knowledge, which one has only if one knows with infallibility and certainty. Socrates (says Viastos) is consistent: when he claims knowledge, he is claiming only the first kind; when he denies he has knowledge he is denying he has the second.’ ‘Those who heard Socrates say the only possible one. Still, we had better be sure that we possess an account of weak- ness of Will that does not atbute any failure of Znowledge to the agent before we contend that Socrates is obviously mistaken in holding that no one does wrong. (or chooses the worse) voluntarily » Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher, a. 3. + Plato's Moral Theory, pp. 38-40. * About something where he hasn't claimed knowledge ofthe first kind, he might also be denying knowledge of both kinds. See Gregory Vlastos, “Socrates' Disavowal of Knowledge", Philosophical Quartery, vol. 35, 1985, pp. 1-31. 144that he doesn’t know the answer would have taken him to mean that he doesn’t know the truth, whereas Irwin and Vlastos interpret him as saying that he doesn’t know the truth. Theit interpretations might rescue the literal truth of Socrates’ denial but they leave him generating misleading implica- tures. | suggest that when Socrates says he himself doesn’t know the answers to these questions, he means not just that he doesn’t know the truth but that he doesn’t have the truth; he doesn’t even have true belief. One instance where commentators have suggested a particular what-is-F truth that Socrates possesses concerns piety.° Socrates leads Euthyphro to the suggestion that piety is performing a service to the gods, Vlastos sug- gests that Socrates would have gone on to speak of a service to the gods that the gods want done and would do by themselves if they could. What specif- ically is this service? Viastos suggests that Socrates would say it is improv- ing our own souls, and helping to improve the souls of our fellows.’ (Vias- tos states that Socrates has arrived at a new and religiously revolutionary, non-rtualistic conception of piety.) We can add that a pious act would be. one that does this improving not by accident or solely for some different reason but (in part) because it is desired by the Gods. This would make Socrates, pursuing his ordained mission, the most pious person in Athens. Should we call it another paradox of Socrates that he, the most pious per- son, was prosecuted for impiety? (The first paradox is that the founder of ‘Western rationality was set upon his course by an oracle’s statement.) Or is this Socratic irony? Can Socrates offer a satisfactory account to answer the question: what is piety? We already have suggested one component in addition to the ones Socrates mentions or hints at: doing the pious act because it is desired by the gods. But the investigation into the nature of piety cannot stop here. Further questions will arise, (How precisely do we delineate the needed connection between our doing the act and its being desired by the gods? Will any desire by the gods for something excellent do, or does it matter © Euthypho’s prosecution of his father for impiety is shocking. Notice, however, that if Euthyphro’s father did commit murder or otherwise do wrong in forgetting about the murderer slave left tied in a field while the authorities were sent for, then according to Socrates’ doctrine that a wrongdoer is better off being punished, the father will be better off being punished for his act ” Socrates: Ironst and Moral Philosopher, pp. 174-176. * Such an account would present necessary and sufficient conditions for piety, stating ‘what is (non-accidently) common to all and only pious actions, perhaps in a way that provides a standard by which we can judge the piety of any act. So must the concepts F be recursive? Would a recursively enumerable concept fail to provide the requisite standard? 145why the gods have this desire? Would it nevertheless be pious if the gods desired something bad of us? What is the nature of the good to which the ‘gods adhere? Must a pious act concer what the gods literally cannot do for (or accomplish by) themselves? Precisely what counts as an improvement in the soul’s state? And so on.) In the same paragraph where he credits So- crates with reaching (and leading Euthyphro up to) a new conception of piety, Vlastos says: ‘To derive from ths a definition of piety, Euthyphro would then have had to gener alize, contriving a formula that would apply, not only in Socrates’ case, but in every possible case of pious conduct. This is a tall order, and itis by no means clear that Socrates himself would have been able to fill. But this technical failure would not shake ~ would scarcely touch the central insight into the narure of piety...]Whether or not a formula could be devised to encapsulate this insight in an clenctically foolproof definition.” (pp. 175-176) Let us consider another concept, that of knowledge, a concept not discussed in the early dialogues but one which (as we have seen) the recent com- ‘mentators lean upon. The history I shall rehearse is familiar but this partic- ular example will serve us later. Is knowledge true belief? No, says Plato in the Theaetetus. Is it true belief with an account or true belief with adequate reasons or justified true belief? No, shows the Gettier counterexample. Is ita true belief that p that is caused (or explained in part) by the fact that p? No, in view of the example of the person floating in a tank brought by psychologists to believe he is floating in that tank. Is knowledge belief that tracks the truth, that is, (1) a belief that p, where (2) p is tre, (3) if p were not true the person would not believe it, and (4) if p were true the person would believe it? Leaving aside additional complications about methods and ways of knowing, I said yes in Philosophical Explanations, but others have raised objections.” So what is knowledge, what are the necessary and sufficient conditions for knowledge that p? A reasonable philosopher today might say that, in view of the difficulties thus far encountered, he just does not know. And by this he means not that he is prepared to put forward conditions that he believes are correct without being certain that they are, but that there are not conditions he is prepared to put forth, not conditions he believes will not succumb to further counterexamples and complications. This reasonable philosopher may believe, on inductive grounds, that since all previous ac- ° See Robert Nozick, Philosophical Explanations, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1981, pp 172-196, and Steven Luper-Foy, The Passbilty of Knowledge: Essays on Notick’s Theory of Knowledge, Rowman and Littlefield, NJ, 1987. 146‘counts have fallen so will any one he can formulate, or he may already know of examples or objections that he cannot yet handle. He knows that he cannot yet formulate “an elenctically foolproof definition.” He does know something else that more naive people do not; he knows that knowledge is not just true belief, or justified true belief, or... More- ver, he may know more than they do, in the sense that the account he ‘would put forward if forced to mention the most adequate one he knows of, while itself false and inadequate, is more adequate, is closer to the truth, (whatever that true account is) than the earlier accounts or than the general accounts that would be proposed by those who do not know the history of successive accounts Socrates himself, I suggest, was in this position with regard to the topics he discussed. I do not claim, anachronistically and absurdly, that he knew all of the difficulties revealed in the future discussions of knowledge or of any other topic. But I do claim that he was more thoughtful and more acute than his Athenian contemporaries in probing various topics. He knew more than his fellows, he knew precisely where theit accounts failed, and he could formulate a more adequate account that did not fall to those ob- Jections. However, he also knew of or believed there were objections that ‘would show his current best account to be inadequate, that is, false. He didn’t know what piety, courage, justice, etc. were. He didn’t have a com- pletely adequate true belief about any of these topics. He didn’t have accu- rate necessary and sufficient conditions for any of these notions, much less a completely accurate understanding of how all of these notions were in- terrelated. Hence, Socrates was not being ironic when he denied knowing the answers. He did not know. And he knew he did not. Elenchus In his discussions with others (and presumably in his own internal thinking) Socrates uses the method of elenchus. Inconsistencies in belief are uncov- cred, thus impelling the person to modify his beliefs. An inconsistency reveals that we must have some false belief, but we do have many false beliefs anyway — few of us believe all of our beliefs are true — so why is inconsistency especially bad? Provided we are careful not to deduce any ‘consequences by forms of inference that depend upon the beliefs being inconsistent, why should inconsistency trouble us especially? ‘An inconsistency or mistake about the important (evaluative) concepts Socrates discusses is dangerous, either because it itself constitutes a defect in the state of one’s soul, or because it easily can lead to one. Other appar- 147cently good things (wealth, power, etc.), without guidance by a correct knowledge of the good, can lead to one’s harm." ‘The Socratic search for the definition of a concept F is a search for necessary and sufficient conditions that provide a standard that can be uti- lized to decide whether F applies in any given case, However, when people often are able to apply the concept F to particular cases, judging whether or not it applies, why is an explicit standard necessary? An explicit standard can help to judge difficult cases or borderline ones. Moreover, explicit understanding of what makes something F can prevent being thrown into confusion by arguments that seem to show that F is impossible or never applies. Even someone who by and large can classify cases correctly as being knowledge or not, when faced with the skeptical argument, “you cannot know that you are not floating in a tank that generates all the experi- ences you have had; therefore you know almost nothing”, might conclude that indeed he does not know most of what he thought he knew. An explicit understanding of what constitutes knowledge (or F) makes your beliefs about knowledge (or F) more stable and less prone to being upset by inade- «quate arguments. About the important evaluative concepts, connected with the nature of the good and the best state of one’s soul, it is especially important not to be misled, given Socrates’ view that knowledge is virtue. Moreover, the stability of one’s correct belief might itself be a component of a well-ordered soul. What makes Socrates’ method of elenchus a method of reaching the ‘ruth? What most hold true if elenchus is to be an effective way of reaching, the truth? In “The Socratic Elenchus”,"' Viastos offers a very illuminating discussion of this matter. First, itis possible that I hold a false belief about some matter though my beliefS are not inconsistent. I believe that a partic- ular undergraduate student comes from Seattle. Elenchus will not help here, in the absence of further information which I don’t yet have. (For example, might also believe that that student does know what city he comes from. If you now tell me, and I believe this, thatthe student believes he comes from Minneapolis, then my beliefs will form an inconsistent trio.) ™ We need not attribute to Socrates the very strong assumption that something is good only if tis good (and benefits one) in every possible coatext. Even a knowledge of the good cannot pass such a test. Consider the context in which if you do come to have knowledge of the good, then beings on alpha centauri will destroy your own mental capacities, or will estoy all life on earth. Socrates need only claim that something is good only if it is good in all normal contexts, whether or not there is some extraordinary context in which it leads to disaster, and thatthe ignorance of the good Socrates speaks of can lead to disaster in a normal context. " Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, vol. 1, 1983, pp. 27-58. 148Socratic elenchus doesn’t get a grip to impel a change in belief unless there are inconsistencies. Or so the commentators tell us, We can imagine that a questioning procedure also is able to impel changes because of ten- sions, disharmonies, and complications that it uncovers, even when these do not constitute strict inconsistencies. A person can be made uncomfortable if his beliefs in combination are very improbable, or if to harmonize them he has to assume some other very improbable (or inordinately complex) further group of statements, etc. The discussion and probing of issues can utilize norms of belief, in addition to the norm of avoiding inconsistency, to impel ‘change in belief. ‘What must hold, though, for the stringent elenchus that works only upon inconsistencies to do its work? When a person holds a false belief, what ‘guarantees there will be inconsistencies? Socrates assumes (suggests Vlas- tos) that about the evaluative matters he discusses, the person will hold some true beliefs inconsistent with the falsehood. (B) For any person and for any false belief « about the requisite subject matter, the person entering into elenchus also will hold some true belief p, inconsistent with a (How did he acquire these true beliefs? By recollection?) ‘An inconsistency is enough to get the elenctic process of change going, ‘but what points that process towards the truth?! When an inconsistency is discovered among a person's beliefs p and q, he can remove that inconsis- tency by denying the true one p or by denying the false one q. What stops him from denying the true statement p? If the belief that p and the belief that q are each merely beliefs, they seem on a par. What, then, prevents elenchus from leading him further from the truth? 1 suggest the following. (Here, perhaps, I trespass upon Plato's topics rather than Socrates’ assumptions.) Elenchus is a reliable vehicle for getting towards the truth when a person knows (and doesn’t merely hold as true beliefs) truths about the subject matter sufficient to introduce inconsistency with any false beliefs he holds. So we strengthen Viastos’ assumption B to: ® See Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher, pg. 113-114. See also footnote 4 in Viastos's “Socrates’ Disavowal of Knowledge” ° Vlastos calls this “the puzzle of the elenchos” in the introduction to Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher, pa. 15, but in stating only (B) he does not reach all the way to And once he denies the ue statement p, has he then avid inconsistency? Or is the person assumed to have other rue beliefs that will maintain inconsistency with his existent fale ones: does he have sufficient true beliefs about the central nature or essence of C, so that any false belief will conflict with one of these? But what stops him from giving up these? 149(K) For any person and for any false belief about the requisite subject mater, the person entering into elenchus also will now some truth p, inconsistent with g But why does this knowledge make (it more likely that) the process of removing inconsistencies (will) move towards the truth, and not further in the direction of consistently false beliefs? The former will happen if know!- edge has more stability (tenacity, stickiness) than belief, true or false. What this means is the following. (R) When a person is faced with an inconsistency among statements, and resolves this inconsistency by giving up one statement, he will (tend to) give up a false statement that he belioves rather than a true one tht he knows. ‘When beliefs conflict, something about knowledge makes the person adhere ‘more to what is known than to a false belief.* If this isso, then the elenctic process will (tend to) lead someone towards the truth. Even if he just is more likely to give up a false belief rather than something known, and so sometimes does not do that, still, provided he has enough of such knowledge so that conflicts with his false beliefs will con- tinue, the higher stickiness of knowledge will (tend to) win out in the end. In this elenctic competition, knowledge is more fit than false belief, and so tends to be selected for. Do the necessary and sufficient conditions for knowledge guarantee its greater stability or stickiness, of is that just knowledge’s fortunate concom- itant? In the tracking account of knowledge described earlier, the fourth condition states that if p were true, the person would believe it. The belief that p is stable under small enough perturbations. In terms of the modelling of subjunctives by possible worlds, he continues to believe p in those p- worlds, the p-band of worlds, closest to the actual world. These include the worlds where p comes into conflict with a false belief in q; even there the person believes that p. Thus this fourth tracking condition gives us (a por- tion of the requisite stability and stickiness of knowledge. I do not want to insist that this particular tracking condition is a part of the (correct) analysis of knowledge. But if itis, or if some modification is, or if some different condition is that gives knowledge greater stability than merely false belief, then the crucial condition will hold that makes elenchus an effective route toward the truth. T have said that Socratic ignorance consists in not knowing (and not having a true belief stating) the answer to the “What is F?" question. And I "The leters naming the three assumptions mark these facts: Vlastos's assumption speaks only of belief, the second one speaks also of knowledge, and the third one speaks of how inconsistencies are resolved 150have not denied that Socrates believes that he has reached the truth about some evaluative matters, e.g. conceming the doctrines that it is better to suffer injustice than to do it, that no one does wrong voluntarily but only out of ignorance, that it is better for someone that he be punished for an injustice he has committed. Elenchus is an effective route to reaching such cvaluative truths, on this account, only for persons who satisfy conditions (K) and (R), that is, only for people who already do have some knowledge ‘about these evaluative matters. So elenchus (if itis reliably effective) can- not be the only route to knowledge about these matters. Why is elenchus not also an effective route to reaching a correct answer to “What is FY" Is it that we do not have the requisite knowledge concern- ing the nature of F to satisfy condition (K)? We will have some knowledge about F, though, for those concepts F that are involved in Socratic doctrines that elenchus can yield. Another possible answer would be that elenchus is able, in principle, to reach such a correct answer after a finite number of hhumanly takable steps (proposals, objections, modifications, etc), but that ‘number is so large, the process is so long and arduous, that no one has yet, reached that resultant stage." Particular evaluative truths are less complex ‘than the complete truth about the nature of the evaluative concepts; they can ‘be reached early in the elenctic process, whenceforth they remain stable. Why are the answers to the what-is-F questions so complex? Analytic phi- losophers should not tax Socrates with these questions when they them- selves lack a satisfactory explanation for why their own stock of correct analyses is so meager. Improving Souls In “The Paradox of Socrates”, Gregory Vlasios accuses Socrates of being so strongly wedded to his method of elenchus as to evidence “a failure of love”. have already argued that he does care forthe souls of his fellows. But the care is limited and conditional. If men’s souls are to be saved, they must be saved his way. ‘And when he sees they cannot, he watches them go down the road to perdition with regret but without anguish. Jesus wept for Jerusalem, Socrates wams Athens, scolds, exhors i, condemns it, But he has no tears fori... One feels there is last zone of frgidity in the soul of the great erotic; had he loved his fellows more, he could hardly have laid on them the burdens of his “despotic logic,” impossible to bbe borne.” "Or ate they reachable but not in any faite number of steps? Should we redust Leib- itz’s notion of infinite analysis and Pierce's of the ideal limit of inquiry? "The Paradox of Socrates" was published in the Queen's Quarterly. Winter 1958, and is reprinted as the Introduction in Gregory Vlastos, ed, The Philosophy of Socrates, 151Does Socrates know of (or at least, believe there is) some other way souls ccan be improved? If not, then in adhering to his way he is, at worst, making ‘4 mistake due to ignorance. Indeed, it is not enough for Vlastos’s charge that Socrates know of another way to improve souls. That other way must fit Socrates’ particular talents and skills, it must be one that Socrates can follow (whether exclusively or in mixture with his own way) with at least equal success and effect. That Buddha too had a way of improving people ~ suppose that Socrates knew of this way — does not mean that Socrates willfully follows his own. Of course, Viastos is aware that firm Socratic doctrines seem to leave Socrates (or anyone else) no other way.'* To improve the state of someones soul is to make him more virtuous. That requires (and requires only) bring- ing him into a state of greater knowledge of the good. (Knowledge is virtue; virtue is knowledge.) True belief about the good is not sufficient. Perhaps knowledge of the good is an intrinsic part of a virtuous soul. In any case, true belief is unstable, hence an insufficient guide and gyroscope. More- over, Socrates cannot simply tell people the truth; they cannot reach a knowledge of the good through the say-so and authority of anyone else. At best, that will give them an unstable true belief, open to upsetting by the ‘next contrary “authority”. The only way to aid their knowledge of the good is to get them to think through issues about the nature of the good and its relation to other things, that is, to engage them (or to get them to engage themselves) in elenchus conceming these matters. Socrates can give others ‘a method of inquiry only by showing it to them in action; thereby he launches them upon their own path of inquiry. Given his doctrines and views, Socrates is not insisting upon saving his fellow citizens his way. ‘There is no other way. Inquiry arises because of puzzlement, John Dewey said. People who are quite confident of the truth of their very extensive views are unlikely to Anchor Books, N.Y, 1971. In Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher, page 44, foot- note 82, Viastos says that in earlier drafts ofthat volume's chapter on Socratic irony, he ‘maintained the failure of love thesis but was convinced it was false (or unnecessary to Introduce in explaining Socrates’ behavior) by a student in his seminar, Don Adams. ‘Viastos does not state What reasons convinced him to change his view. The thesis is still worth discussing, I believe, even though Viasts came no longer to maintain it. ° But afer he states this point in “The Paradox of Socrates", Viastos goes on to argue (pp. 15-16) thatthe doctrine that virue is knowledge is mistaken, However, a mistaken doctrine does not indicate a failure of love unless Socrates was led to this particular mistake because it excluded other more loving ways of saving souls. Vlasos then goes ‘onto state that Socrates’ flaw isnot just a mistake in doctrine but a failure of love. But he offers no further argument for this 152engage in probing inquiry about these matters. The first step for Socrates, then, must be to show these others that they need to think about these ‘matters, that is, to show them that what they already are thinking (or un- thinkingly assuming) is quite definitely wrong. Why will someone who is, confident of his views enter such discussions? Travelling teachers may do so to show their wares. Others may have to be shamed or bulldozed into such discussions, for their own good (and the good of the onlookers.) Even apart from its further effects, Socrates may hold that it is better for a person with false views about these matters to be refuted, just as itis better for someone who has committed injustice to be punished." To improve peo- ple’s souls, then, Socrates will have to make a pest of himself, buttonboling ‘unwilling conversants, forcing them into physical and then intellectual cor- ners.” Being a pest, an expression of his caring, puts Socrates into danger, or increases the danger he already is in. Socrates has doctrines but what he teaches is not a doctrine but a method of inquiry. (He does think or hope that sustained inquiry will lead others closer to his doctrines.) He teaches the method of inquiry by involving others init, by exhibiting it. Their job is to catch on, and to go on, Socrates shows something more: the kind of person that such sustained inquiry produces. It is not his method alone that teaches us but rather that method (and those doctrines it has led him to) as embodied in Socrates. We see Socrates within his inquiries and his inquiring interactions with others; wwe see the way his inquiries shape and infuse his life, and his death, So- crates teaches with his person. Buddha and Jesus did as well. Socrates is unique among philosophers in doing this. Socrates teaches us beyond the arguments he offers. The arguments pre- ' Why is this beter? The account of retributive punishment offered in Philosophical Explanations, pp. 363-393, might supplement Socrates’ view. Even if retributive puni- shment effects no further change in a person, it is better for that person to be connected (ia punishment for wrongs done) to correct values than to be completely disconnected. Bests to act on correct values, second best to repent oneself for flouting them, third best to be (even unwillingly) connected to correct values, and worst is to be completely disconnected, ° Some of Socrates’ tactics seem unfair. A person is asked a question, little suspecting ‘what lies ahead, He might have answered differently, or expressed hesitation, if he knew which aspects of the issues Socrates was concerned with, Unsuspectingly he answers, and then is pushed, nt to an unwelcome consequence of what he realy does believe, but to an unbelieved consequence of what he literally and uncarefully has said. No wonder that often Socrates’ interlocutoes were annoyed. ‘Yet Socrates is not merely a crafty lawyer who traps people into contradictions no matter ‘what they believe or start out saying. For his questioning often is illuminating, and drives a reader toa deeper view even when he disagrees with Socrates’ view. 153sented in the Crito are weak, after all” They are insufficient, individually and jointly, to show that Socrates has an obligation to the city not to escape. Yet who would say that Socrates should have accepted Crito’s offer? So- crates is right that scurrying off to another city to gain a few more years would be the wrong thing for him to do. To escape would show an un- seemly concern with death. It would not improve the state of his soul. The unflinching courage and integrity and calmness and clarity with which So- crates faces and meets death teaches us how death is to be faced. This incarnation of rationality and courage and justice uplifts and ennobles our souls; we are the better for admiring and loving him. ‘About the best state of the soul, too, Socrates shows us more than he says. Arguments are presented in the Gorgias that it is better to suffer injustice than to do it, but these involve an aesthetic component. The unjust soul is disordered and unlovely; it is ugly. Socrates invokes here (without explicitly developing) a general notion of value within which the moral and the aesthetic fit, According to this general conception, souls can be more or less lovely, more or less beautiful We learn what this beauty of soul is, as did his hearers, not by being presented with an explicit theory but by encountering Socrates.” Socrates’ teaching and its convincingness depend significantly upon the embodiment Socrates is, and the way in which this is displayed. ‘That is not something that Socrates himself would have said or believed, His reasoning and arguments were supposed to bear the full weight, at least Bscape would injure the state, and injury isnot to be caused. But may it not be caused in (legitimate) self-defense ~ Socrates did serve as a soldier, afterall ~ and is not Socrates under unjust attack? By his actions and acceptance ofthe benefits of the legal system and the city, Socrates has consented to the city's laws and procedures. How do Wwe know, though, the extent of implicit consent or commitment? Apparently Socrates had not consented to carrying out orders to inflict injustices upon ethers. Suppose Tamm {old I've implicidy consented to being killed unjustly; mightn't I answer that my actions and receipt of benefits hadn't said shar? How can the detailed conteat of an agreement, including whatever exception-clauses it contains, be read off actions performed in ci. ‘cumstances that did not exhibit any of the exceptional conditions? And is Socrates trying to kil the city, merely because the city would be destroyed if no one obeyed its ects in ‘any circumstances? Even if a generalization argument is appropriate here, was “No one should ever obey any edict of the city” really the maxim of Socrates’ action? Socrates hhas received benefits, but is there no limit to what one must do (or accept) in gratitude {or benefits received from parents o from one’s city? It isnot a coincidence that Socrates developed this notion of a beautifully ordered soul While growing up and living in Athens wt the very time the Parthenon was being con- structed. Did Phidias’s building influence Socrates’ view, or was Athenian culture the ‘common cause that influenced them both? 154when combined in elenchus with what the other person already knew or believed. This additional way that Socrates teaches us ~ call it the method of embodiment — stands alongside his method of elenchus, and also is, ‘worthy of sustained attention. Harvard University 158