Course - Advanced Electrical Workshop

ADVANCED ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP Rev0.
0 July 04
CONTENTS
1. ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY.................................................................. 1-6
2. CAPACITANCE & CAPACITORS ............................................................. 7-11
3. ELECTROMAGNETISM .......................................................................... 12-14
4. INDUCTANCE IN DC CIRCUIT ............................................................... 15-16
5. ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ........................................... 17-19
6. SINGLE-PHASE SERIES CIRCUITS....................................................... 20-27
7. POWER IN AC CIRCUITS ....................................................................... 28-33
8. MULTIPHASE SYSTEMS ........................................................................ 34-40
9. AC GENERATOR & SWITCHBOARD ..................................................... 41-53
10. SYNCHRONIZING ................................................................................... 54-67
11. ELECTRICAL MACHINES ....................................................................... 68-75
12. ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM TRACING & COMPONENTS........... 76-98
13. BATTERIES ............................................................................................. 99-106
14. MAINTENANCE ....................................................................................... 107-113
15. SHIP'S SURVEY REQUIREMENTS ........................................................ 114-119
16. SEMICONDUCTORS............................................................................... 120-135
17. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS .............................................................. 136-161
18. ELECTRICAL SURVEY REQUIREMENTS ............................................. 162-173
19. FIRST AID FOR ELECTRICAL SHOCKS ................................................ 174-176
20. CATHODIC PROTECTION...................................................................... 177-185
21. TYPES OF EX PROTECTION ................................................................. 186-191
22. INTRINSIC SAFETY ................................................................................ 192-202
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ADVANCED ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP Rev0.0 Jan 03
CHAPTER 1
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
Movement of All electrons have a certain potential energy. Given a suitable medium in which to
electrons exist, they move freely from one energy level to another and this movement, when
undertaken in a concerted manner, is termed an electric current flow. Conventionally
it is said that the current flows from a point of high energy level to a point of low
energy level. These points are said to have high potential and low potential
respectively. For convenience the point of high potential is termed the positive and
the point of low potential is termed the negative, hence conventionally a current is
said to flow from positive to negative.
This convention was in general use long before the nature of electric charge was
discovered. Unfortunately it was found that electrons move in the other direction
since the negatively charged electron is attracted to the positive potential. Thus
conventional current flows in the opposite direction to that of electron current.
Normally only conventional current is described by the term current and this will apply
throughout the text.
The transfer of electrons takes place more readily in a medium in which atoms can
readily release electrons, e.g. copper, aluminium, silver, etc. Such a material is
termed a conductor. A material that does not readily permit electron flow is termed
an insulator, e.g porcelain, nylon, rubber, etc. There is also a family of materials
termed semiconductors, which have certain characteristics that belong to neither of
the other groups.
Current flow in a For most practical applications it is necessary that the current flow continues for as
circuit fig 1.1 long as it is required; this will not happen unless the following conditions are fulfilled:
1. There must be a complete circuit around which the electrons may move. If
the electrons cannot return to the point of starting, then eventually they will all
congregate together and the flow will cease.
2. There must be a driving influence to cause the continuous flow. This
influence is provided by the source, which causes the current to leave at a
high potential and to move round the circuit until it returns to the source at a
low potential. This circuit arrangement is indicated in Fig. 1.1.
The driving influence is termed the electromotive force, hereafter called the e. m. f.
Each time the charge passes through the source, more energy is provided by the
source to permit it to continue round once more. This is a continuous process since
the current flow is continuous. It should be noted that the current is the rate of flow of
charge through a section of the circuit.
The e. m. f. represents the driving influence that causes a current of flow. The e. m.
f. is not a force, but represents the energy expended during the passing of a unit
charge through the source; an e. m. f. is always connected with energy conversion.
The energy introduced into a circuit is transferred to the load unit by the transmission
system, and the energy transferred due to the passage of unit charge between two
points in a circuit is termed the potential difference (p.d.). If all the energy is
transferred to the load unit, the p.d. across the load unit is equal to the source e.m.f.
It will be observed that both e.m.f. and p.d. are similar quantities. However, an e.m.f.
is always active in that it tends to produce an electric current in a circuit while a p.d.
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may be either passive or active. A p.d. is passive whenever it has no tendency to

create a current in a circuit.
Unless it is otherwise stated, it is usual to consider the transmission system of a

circuit to be ideal, i.e. it transmits all the energy from the source to the load unit
without loss. Appropriate imperfections will be considered later.
Certain conventions of representing the e. m. f. and p.d. in a circuit diagram should

be noted. Each is indicated by an arrow as shown in Fig 1.2. In each case, the
arrowhead points towards the point of high (or assumed higher) potential. It is
misleading to show an arrowhead at each end of the line as if it were a dimension
line. An arrowhead is drawn on the transmission system to indicate the
corresponding direction of conventional current flow.
CURRENT FLOW
Fig 1.2 Circuit Diagram
conventions SOURCE LOAD
EMF PD
+
SOURCE
It will be seen that the current flow leaves the source at the positive terminal and
therefore moves in the same direction as indicated by the source e.m.f. arrow. The
current flow enters the load at the positive terminal, and therefore in the opposite
direction to that indicated by the load p.d. arrow. Energy is converted within the load
unit and, depending on the nature of this conversion, the p.d. may be constituted in a
variety of ways. It is sufficient at first to consider the p.d. as the change in energy
level across the terminals of the load unit. This is termed a volt drop since the p.d.
(and e.m.f.) are measured in volts.
(e) Electromotive An electromotive force is that which tends to produce an electric current in a circuit,
force and the unit of e.m.f. is the volt.
Electromotive force Symbol : E Unit : volt (V)
The principal sources of e.m.f. are as follows :
1. The electrodes of dissimilar materials immersed in an electrolyte, as in

primary and secondary cells.
2. The relative movement of a conductor and a magnetic flux, as in electric
generators; this source can, alternatively, be expressed as the variation of
magnetic flux linked with a coil.
3. The difference of temperature between junctions of dissimilar metals, as in
thermo-junctions.
__________________________________________________________________
Ohm’s law One of the most important steps in the analysis of the circuit was undertaken by
Georg Ohm, who found that the p.d. across the ends of many conductors is
proportional to the current flowing between them. This, he found, was a direct

proportionality, provided that temperature remained constant. Since the symbol for
current is I, this relationship may be expressed as
V∝I [1.1]
Relation [1.1] is the mathematical expression of what is termed Ohm’s law.

Subsequent experimental evidence has shown that many other factors affect this
relationship, and that in fact few conduction processes give a direct proportionality
between p.d. and current. However, this relationship is almost constant for many
electrical circuits and it is convenient at this introductory stage to consider only
circuits in which the relationship is constant, then
AMMETER
Fig 1.3 Constant potential V MEASURING
CURRENT
difference/ current
A
characteristic and the
circuit from which it is
obtained VOLTMETER
MEASURING
V POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE
V = R
I
Where R is a constant termed the resistance of the conductor. The boxes used in
Figs 1.2 and 1.3 are generally used to represent a load with resistance properties.
The expession involving R is usually expressed as
V = IR [1.2]
It should be noted that this relationship is derived from Ohm’s law and is not a
symbolic expression for it. Ohm’s law only notes the constancy of p.d. to current
provided that other physical factors remain unchanged, i.e. for a given p.d. the
current will vary in consequence of variation of external physical factors.
___________________________________________________________________
Resistance A resistor is a device which provides resistance in an electrical circuit. The

resistance of a resistor is said to be linear if the current through the resistor is
proportional to the p.d. across its terminals. If the resistance were to vary with the
magnitude of either the voltage or the current, the resistor is said to be non-linear.
Those materials, which permit current to flow, are the conductors, while those that do
not permit current to flow are the insulators. Common examples of each are given in
Table 2.2.
This classification is rather over-simplified because no material completely stops the

flow of current, just as no material permits the passage of charge without some
opposition. However, recalling the insulated wire, the copper provided an easy path
and the charge, which would leak away through the insulating plastic covering, is
negligible by comparison. Just how negligible will become apparent in later studies,
but in these initial stages it is reasonable to consider the current as remaining within
the conductors.

Table 2.2 - Typical Conductors Insulators

electrical materials
Copper Glass
Aluminium Rubber
Silver Plastic
Platinum Air
Bronze Varnish
Gold Paper
Wood
Mica
Ceramic
Certain Oils
Therefore the function of the conductors is to provide a complete circuit at all points
where there is material with free electrons. If at any part of the circuit free electrons
are not available, and if they cannot readily be introduced into the material, then
current will not flow in the circuit. Materials with no energy gap readily provide the
free electrons and are used to make up a circuit, but those materials with sizeable
energy gaps between the valence and conduction bands are used to insulate the
circuit and to contain the current within the conductors.
Series circuits It can take a little time to sort out one circuit arrangement from the other when they
versus parallel are being introduced.
networks
Here are some points to remember:
1. In a series circuit, the total resistance is always greater than the greatest
resistance in the circuit. This serves as a check when combining series
resistances.
2. In a parallel network, the total resistance is always less than the smallest
resistance in the network. Again this serves as a useful check especially as
it is easy to forget to invert the term I/R during the evaluations of R.
3. To tell the difference between series and parallel, if in doubt imagine being
an electron faced with the problem of passing through the circuits. If the
electron has no choice but to pass through all the load units, then they are in
series. If the electron has the choice of which load unit through which to
pass, then the load units are in parallel.
4. Finally there are certain practical points to note about the two systems. For
instance, with the parallel lamp arrangement, either lamp could fail to operate
without affecting the operating of the other lamp. Lamp bulbs only last a
certain length of time after which the filament breaks and the circuit is
interrupted. This only interrupts the current flow in one branch and the
remaining branch (or branches if there are more than two lamps) continues
to pas current as before. However, if lamps are connected in series and one
fails then all the lamps are extinguished. This is the problem of the lights on a
Christmas tree. The only advantage that the series connection of lamps
provides is that since they share the voltage then each operates at a
relatively low voltage and therefore cheap lamps can be used, but the
reliability of continuity of having some lamps giving out light makes the
parallel arrangements highly preferable in practical terms.

Series circuit Parallel network
Current The current is the same in all parts of the The total current supplied to the network
circuit. equals the sum of the currents in the
various branches.
I = I 1 = I2 = I3 I = I1 + I2 + I3
Voltage The total voltage equals the sum of the The voltage across a parallel
voltages across the different parts of combination is the same as the
the circuit. voltage across each branch
V = V1 + V2 + V3 V = V1 = V2 = V3
Resistance The total resistance equals the sum of The total resistance equals the sum the
the separate resistances. reciprocal of the equivalent resistance
equals the sum of the reciprocals of the
branch resistances.
R = R1 + R2 + R3 1/R = 1/R1 – 1/R2 –1/R3
Kirchhoff 's laws From our consideration of series and of parallel connections of resistors, we have
observed certain conditions appertaining to each form of connection. For instance, in
a series circuit, the sum of the voltages across each of the components is equal to
the applied voltage; again the sum of the currents in the branches of a parallel
I5
network is equal to the supply current.
I1
Gustay Kirchhoff, a German physicist, observed that these were particular
instances of two general conditions fundamental to the analysis of any electrical
I2 network. These conditions may be stated as follows:
I4 I3 First (current) law. At any instant the algebraic sum of the currents at a junction in a
network is zero. Different signs are allocated to currents held to flow towards the
junction and to those away from it.
I1 – I2 + I3 – I4 + I5 = 0 Second (voltage) law. At any instant in a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s
acting round the loop is equal to the algebraic sum of the p.d.s round the loop.
Fig 1.4 Kirchhoff 's first
(current) law Stated in such words, the concepts are difficult to grasp and they are more readily
appreciated by example. In Fig. 1.4, the currents flowing towards the junction have
been considered positive while those flooding away from the junction negative. (Had
the opposite convention been taken, the algebraic expression would have remained
the same since, the application of - 1 to all terms does not change its validity.)

Example Calculate VAB for the network shown in fig. 1.5
Fig 1.5 Circuit

diagram for
Example
For branch A, let VAC be the voltage at A with respect to C:
VAC = __R3 .V = 15 x 20 = 7.5 V

R1 + R3 25 + 15
For branch B:
VBC = __R4 .V = 10 x 20 = 4.0 V

R2 + R4 40 + 10
Applying Krichhoff’s second law to loop ABC:

0 = VAB + VBC + VCA
= VAB + VBC – VAC
VAB = VAC - VBC = 7.5 – 4.0 = 3.5 V

CHAPTER 2
CAPACITANCE & CAPACITORS
Hydraulic analogy The operation of charging and discharging a capacitor may be more easily
understood if we consider the hydraulic analogy given in Fig. 2.1, where P represents
a piston operated by a rod R and D is a rubber diaphragm stretched across a
cylindrical chamber C. The cylinders are connected by pipes E and are filled with
water.
When no force is being exerted on P, the diaphragm is flat, as shown dotted, and
the piston is in position A. If P is pushed towards the left, water is withdrawn from, G
and forced into F and the diaphragm is in consequence distended, as shown by & c
full line. The greater the force applied to P, the greater is the amount of water
displaced. But the rate at which this displacement takes place depends upon the
resistance offered by pipes E; thus the smaller the cross-sectional area of the pipes
the longer is the time required for the steady state to be reached. The force applied
to P is analogous to the e.m.f of the battery, the quantity of water displaced
corresponds to the charge, the rate at which the water passes any point in the pipes
corresponds to the current and the cylinder C with its elastic diaphragm is the
Fig 2.1 Hydraulic analogy
analogue of the capacitor.
of a capacitor
When the force exerted on P is removed, the distended diaphragm forces water out
of F back into G; and if the frictional resistance of the water in the pipes exceeds a
certain value, it is found that the piston. is merely pushed back to its original position
A. The strain energy stored in the diaphragm due to its distension is converted into
heat by the frictional resistance. The effect is similar to the discharge of the capacitor
through a resistor.
No water can pass from F to G through the diaphragm so long as it remains intact;
but if it is strained excessively it bursts, just as the insulation in a capacitor is
punctured when the p.d. across it becomes excessive.
Capacitance The property of a capacitor to store an electric charge when its plates are at different
potentials is referred to as its capacitance.
Capacitors The unit of capacitance is termed the farad (abbreviation F), which may be defined,
as the capacitance of a capacitor between the plates of which there appears a
potential differgnce of 1 volt when it is charged by 1 coulomb of electricity.
It follows from the definition of the farad that

Charge [coulombs] = capacitance [farads]
Applied p.d [volts]
Fig 2.2 Paper-insulated
Or in symbols;
capacitor
Q =C
V
Therefore Q = CV coulombs
In practice, the farad is found to be inconveniently large and the capacitance is
usually expressed in microfarads ( F) or in picofarads (pF), where
–6
1 F = 10 F
–12
and 1 pF = 10 F

Example 2.3 A capacitor having a capacitance of 80 F is connected across a 500 V d.c. supply.
Calculate the charge.
For equation [2.1]
Q = CV
-6
Therefore, charge = (80 x 10 ) [F] x 500[V]
= 0.04 C = 40 mC
Capacitors In parallel Suppose two capacitors having capacitances C1 and C2 farads respectively to be
connected in parallel (Fig. 2.3) across a p.d. of t" volts. The charge on
C1 is Q, coulombs and that on C2 is Q2 coulombs, where

Q1 = C1V and Q2 = C2V
If we were to replace C1 and C2 by a single capacitor of such capacitance C farads
that the same total charge of (Q1 + Q2) coulombs would be produced by the same
p.d., then Q1 + Q2 = CV.
Substituting for Q, and Q2, we have
C1V + C2V = CV
Fig 2.3 Capacitors in C = C1 + C2 farads [2.1]

parallel
Hence the resultant capacitance of capacitors in parallel is the arithmetic sum of their
respective capacitances
Capacitors in series Suppose C1 and C2 in Fig. 2.4 to be two capacitors connected in series with suitable
centre-zero ammeters A1 and A2, a resistor R and a two-way switch S. When 5 is put
over to position a, A1 and A2 are found to indicate exactly the same charging current,
each reading decreasing simultaneously from a maximum to zero, as already shown
in Fig. 2.4. Similarly, when 5 is put over to position b, A1 and A2 indicate similar
discharges. If follows that during charge the displacement of electrons from the
positive plate of C1 to the negative plate of C2 is exactly the same as that from the
upper plate (Fig. 2.4) of C2 to the lower plate of C1. In other words the displacement
of Q coulombs of electricity is the same in every part of the circuit, and the charge on
each capacitor is therefore Q coulombs.
If V1 and V2 are the corresponding p.d.s across C1 and C2 respectively, then from
equation [2.1]:
Q = C1V1 = C2V2
so that
V1 = Q/C1 and V2 = Q/C2
If we were to replace C1 and C2 by a single capacitor of capacitance C farads such

that it would have the same charge Q coulombs with the same p.d. of V volts, then
Q= CV or V = Q/C
But it is evident from Fig. 5.8 that V= V1 + V2. Substituting for V, V1 and V2, we have
Fig 2.4 Q= Q + Q
C C1 C2
Therefore, 1 = 1 + 1
C C1 C2

Types of capacitor and We have already noted that capacitors are devices, which promote capacitance, i.e.
capacitance they are designed to have a high ability to hold electric charge. Capacitors are
generally made to have a fixed value of capacitance, but some are variable. The
symbols for fixed and variable capacitors are shows in Fig. 2.5.
Fixed capacitors The fixed capacitors come in variety of groups depending on the type of dielectric
used.
(a) Paper capacitors

This has already been considered the electrodes of the capacitor being layers of
metal foil interleaved with paper impregnated with wax or oil. Such capacitors are
commonly used in the power circuits of household appliances.
(b) Electrolytic capacitors

The type most commonly used consists of two aluminum foils, one with an oxide film
and one without, the foils being interleaved with a material such as paper saturated
with a suitable electrolyte; for example, ammonium borate. The aluminum oxide film
is formed on the one foil by passing it through an electrolytic bath of which the foil
forms the positive electrode. The finished unit is assembled in a container - usually
of aluminum - and hermetically sealed. The oxide film acts as the dielectric, and as its
Fixed capacitor
thickness in a capacitor suitable for a working voltage of 100 V is only about 0.15 µm,
a very large capacitance is obtainable in a relatively small volume.
The main disadvantages of this type of capacitor are: (a) the insulation resistance is
comparatively low, and (b) it is only suitable for circuits where the voltage applied to
the capacitor never reverses its direction. Electrolytic capacitors are mainly used
where very large capacitances are required, e.g. for reducing the ripple in the voltage
wave obtained from a rectifier.
Solid types of electrolytic capacitors have been developed to avoid some of the
disadvantages of the wet electrolytic type. In one arrangement, the wet electrolyte is
replaced by manganese dioxide. In another arrangement the anode is a cylinder of
pressed sintered tantalum powder coated with in oxide layer, which forms the
dielectric. This oxide has a conducting coat of manganese dioxide which acts as an
electron conductor and replaces the ionic conduction of the liquid electrolyte in the
Variable capacitor wet ". A layer of graphite forms the connection with a silver or copper cathode and
the whole is enclosed in a hermetically scaled steel can.
(c) Mica capacitors

This type consists either of alternate layers of mica and metal foil clamped tightly
together, or of thin films of silver sputtered on the two sides of a mica sheet. Owing to
its relatively high cost, this type is mainly used in high- frequency circuits when it is
necessary to reduce to a minimum the loss an the dielectric.
(d) Polyester capacitors

Polyester is relatively new as a dielectric when used in capacitors. It is manufactured
in very thin films of thickness as little as 2 µm and is metailized on one side. Two
films are then rolled together rather like the paper-insulated capacitor.
Such capacitors can be very small so that there is insufficient outside surface on
Electrolytic capacitor which to print the ratings and other data. For this reason, they often come with a
colour coding after the fashion used with resistors. Usually 2 black bind is printed
Fig 2.5 near the lead connected to the outer metal electrode. This lead should he kept at the
lower working potential.
These capacitors can operate at high voltages, i.e. a few thousand volts and the
leakage resistance is high, say 100 MΩ

(e) Ceramic capacitors

The ceramic capacitor is manufactured in many forms, but all are basically the same.
A thin ceramic dielectric is coated on both sides with a metal. The capacitor is made
up by making a stack of these ceramic layers, each layer being separated from the
next by more ceramic. The plates are connected by electrodes to the supply leads
and a coating of ceramic is then applied to the outside of the stack. The arrangement
is then fired to give a solid device.
Such capacitors generally have small capacitance values from 1 pF to about 1 µF.
Like the polyester capacitors, working voltages can be up to a few thousand volts, but
the leakage resistance can be even higher say 1000 MΩ. Ceramic capacitors are
useful in high-temperature situations.
Ceramic materials include compounds of barium titanate, which, it will be recalled,
has in exceptionally high relative permittivity (6000 +). This permits very small
separation between the plates and gives rise to high values of capacitance from
relatively small capacitors.
(f) Tantalum electrolytic capacitors

These capacitors are much smaller than the corresponding aluminium electrolytic
capacitors. The construction may take the form indicated in Fig. 5.36, in which one
plate consists of pressed, sintered tantalum powder coated with an oxide layer, which
is the dielectric. The case of brass, copper or even silver forms the other plate.
Layers of manganese dioxide and graphite form the electrolyte.
Fig 2.6
Displacement current in Let us consider the capacitor in Fig. 5.34 with a vacuum between the plates. There
a dielectric are no electrons in the space between the plates and therefore there cannot be any
movement of electrons in this space when the capacitor is being charged. We know,
however, that an electric field is being set up and that energy is being stored in the
space between the plates; in other words, the space between the plates of a charged
capacitor is in a state of electrostatic strain.
We do not know the exact nature of this strain (any more than we know the nature
of the strain in a magnetic field), but James Clerk Maxwell, in 1865, introduced the
concept that any change in the electric flux in any region is equivalent to an electric
current in that region, and he called this electric current a displacement current, to
distinguish it from the conduction current referred to above.
This displacement current produces a magnetic field exactly as if it had been
conduction current. For instance, when a capacitor having circular parallel metal
plates M and N (Fig. 2.7) is being charged by a current i flowing in tire direction
Fig 2.7 Magnetic field shown, a magnetic field (set Chapter 6) is created in the space between the plates,
due to
displacement
current
as indicated by the concentric dotted lines. The plant of these concentric circles is
parallel to the plates.
This magnetic field disappears as soon as the displacement current ceases, i.e. as
soon as the charge on the capacitor ceases to increase. When the capacitor is
discharged, the magnetic field reappears in the reverse direction and again
disappears when the discharge ceases. In other words, the magnetic field is set up
only when the electric field is undergoing a change or intensity. Hence, when a
capacitor is basing charged or discharged, we can say that the current is continuous
around the whole circuit, being in the form of conduction current in the wires and
displacement current in the dielectric of the capacitor. This means that we can apply
Kirchhoff's first law to plate M of the capacitor of Fig. 2.6 by saying that the
conduction current entering the plate is equal to the displacement current leaving
that plate.
Variable capacitors These require two sets of rigid plates, which can be moved between one another as
indicated in fig. 2.5. The plates must be rigid so that they can move between each
other without touching. It follows that the dielectric between the plates is air.
Normally one set of plates is fixed and the other made to rotate. The greater
the insertion of the movable plates then the greater the capacitance. Most of
us know this type of capacitor because it is the device to tune radios.
Variable capacitor

CHAPTER 3
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Magnetic field due to When a conductor carries an electric current, a magnetic field is produced around
electric current that conductor - a phenomenon discovered by Oersted at Copenhagen in 1820. He
found that when a wire carrying an electric current was placed above a magnetic
needle (Fig. 3.1) and in line with the normal direction of the latter, the needle was
deflected clockwise or anticlockwise, depending upon the direction of the current.
Thus it is found that if we look along the conductor and if the current is flowing away
from us, as shown by the cross inside the conductor in Fig. 3.2, the magnetic field
has a clockwise direction and the lines of magnetic flux can be represented by
concentric circles around the wire.
Fig. 3.1 Oersted’s We should note the interesting convention for showing the direction of current flow in
experiment a conductor. In Fig. 3.3, we have a conductor in which we have drawn an arrow
indicating the direction of conventional current flow. However, if we observe the
conductor end on, the current would either be flowing towards us or away from us. If
the current is flowing towards us, we indicate this by a dot equivalent to the
approaching point of the arrow, and if the current is flowing away then it is
represented by a cross equivalent to the departing tail feathers of the arrow.
A convenient method of representing the relationship between the direction of a
current and that of its magnetic field is to place a corkscrew or a woodscrew (Fig. 3.4)
alongside the conductor carrying the current. In order that the screw may travel in the
same direction as the current, namely towards the right in Fig. 3.4, it has to be turned
clockwise when viewed from the left-hand side. Similarly, the direction of the
magnetic field, viewed from the same side, is clockwise around the conductor, as
indicated by the curved arrow F.
An alternative method of deriving this relationship is to grip the conductor with the
Fig. 3.2 Magnetic flux
right hand, with the thumb outstretched parallel to the conductor and pointing in the
due to current
direction of the current; the fingers then point in the direction of the magnetic flux
in straight
around the conductor.
conductor
Fig. 3.3 Current Convention Fig. 3.4 Right hand screw rule
Magnetic field of a If a coil is wound on a steel rod, as in Fig. 3.5, and connected to a battery, the steel
solenoid becomes magnetized and behaves like a permanent magnet. The magnetic field of
the electromagnet is represented by the dotted lines and its direction by the
arrowheads.

The direction of the magnetic field produced by a current in a solenoid may he

deduced by applying either the screw or the grip rule.
If the axis of the screw is placed along that of the solenoid and if the screw is turned
in the direction of the current, it travels in the direction of the magnetic Field inside
the solenoid, namely towards the right in Fig. 3.5.
The grip rule can be expressed thus: if the solenoid is gripped with the left hand, with
the fingers pointing in the direction of the current, i.e. conventional current, then the
thumb outstretched parallel to the axis of the solenoid points in the direction of the
magnetic field inside the solenoid.
Fig 3.5 Solenoid with a In 1831, Michael Faraday made the great discovery of electromagnetic induction,
steel core namely a method of obtaining an electric current with the did of magnetic flux. He
wound two coils, A and C, on a steel ring R, as in Fig. 3.7 and found that, when
Electromagnetic induction switch ‘S’ was closed, a deflection was obtained on galvanometer G, and that when 5
was opened, G was deflected in the reverse direction. A few weeks later he found
that when a permanent magnet NS was moved relative to a coil C (Fig. 3.6),
galvanometer G was deflected in one direction when the magnet was moved towards
the coil and in the reverse direction when the magnet was withdrawn; and it was this
experiment that finally convinced Faraday that an electric current could be produced
by the movement of magnetic flux relative to a coil. Faraday also showed that the
magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate at which the magnetic flux
passed through the coil is varied. Alternatively, we can say that when a conductor
cuts or is cut by magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is generated in the conductor and the
Fig. 3.6 Electromagnetic
magnitude of the generated e.m.f. is proportional to the rate at which the conductor
induction cuts or is cut by the magnetic flux.
In 1834 Heinrich Lenz, a German physicist, enunciated a simple rule, now knowri as
(b) Lenz's law Lenz's law, which can be expressed thus: The direction or a induced e.m.f is always
such that it tends to set up a current opposing the motion or the change of flux
responsible for inducing that e.m.f.
Let us consider the application of Lenz's law to the ring shown in Fig. 3.7. By
applying either the screw or the grip rule given as above, we find that when S is
closed and the battery has the polarity shown, the direction of the magnetic flux in the
ring is clockwise. Consequently, the current in C must be such as to try to produce a
flux in an anticlockwise direction, tending to oppose the growth of the flux due to A,
namely the flux that is responsible for the e.m.f. induced in C. But an anti-clockwise
Fig 3.7 Electromagnetic flux in the ring would require the current in C to be passing through the coil from X to
induction Y (Fig 3.7). Hence, this must also be the direction of the e.m.f. induced in C.
Direction of induced Two methods are available for deducing the direction of the induced or generated
e.m.f. e.m.f. namely (a) Fleming's* right-hand rule and (b) Lenz's law. The former is
empirical, but the latter is fundamental in that it is based upon electrical principles.
Fig 3.8 Fleming’s right-hand

rule

a) Left – Hand Rule If the right hand is pointed in the direction of the magnetic flux as in Fig. 3.8, and if
the thumb is pointed in the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the
magnetic field, then the second finger, held at right angles to both the thumb and the
first finger, represents the direction of the e.m.f. The manipulation of the thumb and
fingers and their association with the correct quantity present some difficulty to many
students. Easy manipulation can be acquired only by experience; and it may be
helpful to associate Field or Flux with First finger, Motion of the conductor relative to
the field with the M in thuMb and e.m.f. with the E in sEcond finger. If any two of
these are correctly applied, the third is correct automatically.
Fig 3.8 Left-hand rule
The rule can be summarized as follows:

1. Hold the thumb, fist finger and second finger of the left hind in the manner
indicated whereby they are mutually at right angles.
2. Point the First finger in the Field direction.
3. Point the second finger in the Current direction.
4. The thuMb then indicates the direction of the Mechanical force exerted by the
conductor.
By trying this with your left hand, you can readily demonstrate that if either the current
or the direction of the field is reversed then the direction of the force is also reversed.
Also you can demonstrate that, if both current and field are reversed, the direction of
the force remains unchanged.

CHAPTER 4
INDUCTANCE IN A DC CIRCUIT
The unit of inductance is termed the henry, in commemoration of a famous American
physicist, Joseph Henry (1797-1878), who, quite independently, discovered
electromagnetic induction within a year after it had been discovered in Britain by
Michael Faraday in 1831. A circuit has an inductance, of 1 henry (or 1 H) if an e.m.f.
of 1 volt is induced in the circuit when the current varies uniformly at the rate of 1
ampere per second. If either the inductance or the rate of change of current is
doubled the induced e.m.f. is doubled. Hence if a circuit has an inductance of L
henrys and if the current increases from i1 to i2 amperes in t seconds the average rate
of change of current is
i2 – i1 amperes per second
t
and average induced e.m.f. is
L x rate of change of current = L x i2 – i1 volts [4.1]
t
Considering instantaneous values, if di = increase of current, in amperes, in time dt

seconds, rate of change of current is
di amperes per second
dt
and e.m.f. induced in circuit is
L . di volts
dt
i.e. e = L . di
dt
[4.2]
Mutual inductance While this term gives the magnitude of the e.m.f. there remains the problem of
polarity. When a force is applied to a mechanical system, the system reacts by
deforming, or mass-accelerating or dissipating or absorbing energy. A comparable
state exists when a force (voltage) is applied to an electric system, which accelerates
(accepts magnetic energy in an inductor) or dissipates energy in beat (in a resistor).
If two coils A and C are placed relative to each other as in Fig. 4.1, then, when S is
closed, some of the flux produced by the current in A becomes linked with C, and
the e.m.f. induced in C circulates a momentary current through galvanometer G.
Similarly when S is opened the collapse of the flux inducts an e.m.f. in the reverse
direction in C. Since a change of current in one coil is accompanied by a change of
flux linked with the other coil and therefore by an e.m.f. induced in the latter, the two
coils are said to have mutual inductance.
Fig 4.1 Mutual If two circuits possess a mutual inductance of M henrys and if the current in one
inductance circuit – termed the primary circuit – increases by di amperes in dt seconds, e.m.f.
induced in secondary circuit is
M . di volts [4.3]
dt

The induced e.m.f tends to circulate a current in the secondary circuit in such a
direction as to oppose the increase of flux due to the increase of current in the
primary circuit.
We have already noted that inductors me devices which promote inductance, i.e.
they are designed to have a great ability to hold magnetic energy. Inductors are
generally to have a fixed value of inductance, but some are variable. The symbols for
fixed and variable capacitors are shown in Fig. 4.2.
Inductors, unlike resistors and capacitors, cannot be considered as pure elements.

Inductor Most resistors can be considered to be purely resistive and likewise most capacitors
can be considered to be purely capacitive. Inductors always introduce inductance but
also resistance into a circuit.
Inductance is the ratio of flux linkages to current, i.e. the flux linking the turns through
which it appears to pass. Any circuit must comprise atleast a single turn, and
therefore the current in the circuit sets up a flux, which links the circuit itself. It follows
that any circuit has inductance. However, the inductance can be negligible unless the
Ferromagnetic-cored Inductor circuit includes a coil so that the number of turns ensures high flux-linkage or the
circuit is large enough to permit high flux-linkage. The latter infers a transmission line,
which is effectively long.
Inductors always involve coils of conductor wire. Such conductors are nude of wire,
which cannot be of too large a cross-section. Because the cross-section is small, the
cod resistance is at least a few ohms, but can easily be as much as a few thousand
ohms.
Variable Inductor
Inductors fall into two categories - those with an air core and those with a
Fig 4.2 Circuit ferromagnetic core. The air core his the advantage that it has a linear BIH
symbols for characteristic which means that the inductance L is the same no matter what current
inductors is in the coil. However, the relative permeability of air being 1 means that the values
of inductance attained are very low.
The ferromagnetic core products very much higher values of inductance, but the B/H
characteristic is not linear and therefore the inductance L varies indirectly with the
current. However, many of the sintered ferromagnetic materials have almost linear
characteristics and they are therefore almost ideal.
There are variable inductors in which the core is mounted on a screw so that it can
be made to move in and out of the coil, thus varying the inductance.
Like capacitors, the weakness of inductors lies in the insulation. In particular if the
insulation fails and as a result one or more turns of the coil are short-circuited, the
inductance reduces to a value similar to that of an air-cored inductor. The
consequence is that there is liable back e.m.f. when the coil current is varied.

CHAPTER 5
ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
We have developed an extensive understanding of circuits in which the current

comes from a battery, and flows only in one direction. In practice, most circuits
operate with current In which the direction of flow alternates.
In order to understand alternating current systems, we first need to be familiar with

the terms and methods of analysis relating to alternating systems. In this chapter, we
shall be introduced to waveforms and find that most are basically sinusoidal.
We shall also find that the variation makes it difficult to describe the equivalent value.
For instance, the average of a sinusoidal quantity is zero unless we take samples
over short periods of time. However we shall be introduced to the root mean square
value, which indicates the average heating value of a current
Alternating systems A current, which varies after the fashion suggested in Fig. 5.1 is known as an
alternating current. It flows first in one direction and then in the other. The cycle of
variation is repeated exactly for each direction.
i i i
Fig 5.1
O O O
t t t
Sinusoidal wave Square wave Triangular wave
Alternating current can be abbreviated to a.c., hence a system with such an

alternating current is known as an a.c. system. The curves relating current to time are
known as waveforms. Those shown in Fig. 5.1 are simple waveforms, but waveforms
can be quite complicated. Of the waveforms shown in Fig. 5.1, the sinusoidal
example is most important.
Waveform terms and Our consideration of alternating systems has already introduced a number of terms
definitions and we will find the need of a few more. It will therefore be helpful to consider the
terms, which we most commonly use.
Waveform. The variation of a quantity such as voltage or current shown on a graph to

base of time or rotation is a waveform.
Cycle. Each repetition of variable quantity, recurring at equal intervals, is termed a

cycle.
Period. The duration of one cycle is termed its period. (Cycles and periods need not
commence when a waveform is zero.)
Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant in time (or position
of rotation). Instantaneous values are denoted by lower-case symbols such
as e, v and t.

Relationship The waveform of the e.m.f. generated in an a.c. generator undergoes one complete
between frequency, cycle of variation when the conductors move past a N and a S pole; and the shape of
speed and number of the wave over the negative half is exactly the same as that over the positive half. This
pole pairs symmetry of the positive and negative half-cycles does not necessarily hold for
waveform of voltage and current in circuits incorporating rectifiers or transistors.
If an a.c. generator has p pairs of poles and if its speed is N revolutions per second,
then
Frequency = f = no. of cycles per second

= no. of cycles per revolution
x no of revolutions per second
Therefore, f= pn hertz [5.1]
Average and r.m.s. Most electrical energy is provided by rotating a.c. generators operating on the
values of an principles already described in this chapter. The e.m.f’s and the resulting voltages
alternating current. and currents are for the most part sinusoidal which is the waveform on which we
have concentrated. However, the use of electronic switching has resulted in many
circuits operating with waveforms, which are anything but sinusoidal; square
waveforms are especially common in communication circuits.
Let us first consider the general case of a current the waveform of which cannot be
represented by a simple mathematical expression. For instance, the wave shown in
Fig.5.2 is typical of the current taken by a transformer on no load. In equidistant mid-
ordinates, i1, i2 etc are taken over either the positive or the negative half-cycle, then
average value of current over half a cycle is
Iav =i1+i2+…+in [5.2]

n
Fig.5.2 (a)
Fig.5.2 (b)

Or, alternatively, average value of current is
Area enclosed over half -cycle

Length of base over half cycle
This method of expressing the average value is the more convenient when we come
to deal with sinusoidal waves.
In a c work, however, the average value is of comparatively little importance. This is
due to the fact that it is the power produced by the electric current that usually
matters. Thus, if the current represented in
Fig. 5.2(a) is passed through a resistor having resistance R ohms, the heating effect
of
The variation of the heating effect during the second half-cycle is exactly the same as
that during the first half-cycle.
2 2 2
∴ Average heating effect = i 1 R + i 2 R +..…+ i n R
n
Suppose I to be the value of direct current through the same resistance R to produce
a heating effect equal to the average heating effect of the alternating current, then,
2 2 2 2
IR = i 1R + i 2 R +..…+ i n R
n
i21 + i22 +..…+ i2n

∴ I = √ ( n
)
= square root of the mean of the squares of the current
= root-mean-square (or r.m.s) value of the current

CHAPTER 6: SINGLE-PHASE SERIES CIRCUITS

Basic a.c. circuits We were introduced o a variety of waveforms, which apply to alternating currents and
voltages. In order to make our approach as simple is possible, we will limit the
content of this chapter to circuits, which contain a single generator producing a pure
sinusoidal voltage. As previously noted, this is a reasonably good approximation to
the electricity supply we meet at home. Such circuits are termed single-phase
circuits.
Alternating current in Consider a circuit having resistance R ohms connected across the terminals of an
a resistive circuit a.c. generator A, as in fig. 6.1, and suppose the alternating voltage to be represented
by the sine wave of Fig. 6.2. If the value of the voltage at any instant B is v volts, the
I value of the current at that instant is given by
V
i = v amperes
R
R
A
When the voltage is zero, the current is also zero; and since the current is
proportional to the voltage, the waveform of the current is exactly the same as that of
the voltage. Also the two quantities are in phase with each other; that is, they pass
through their zero values at the same instant and attain their maximum values in a
given direction at the same instant. Hence the current wave is as shown blue in Fig.
Fig. 6.1 6.2.
If Vm and Im are the maximum values of the voltage and current respectively, it
follows that
Im = Vm / R [6.1]
Vm
+
Im
O B t
Fig 6.2 Voltage and
current waveforms for
a resistive circuit -
But the r.m.s. value of a sine wave is 0.707 times the maximum value, so that
r.m.s. value of voltage = V = 0.707 Vm

and r.m.s. value of current = V = 0.707 Im
Substituting for Im and Vm in equation [6.1] we have
I = V .
0.707 0.707R
I= V [6.2]
R

Hence Ohm’s law can be applied without any modification to an a.c. circuit
possessing resistance only.
If the instantaneous value of the applied voltage is represented by
v = Vm sin wt,
then instantaneous value of current in a resistive circuit is
I = V sin wt [6.3]
R
The phasors representing the voltage and current in a resistive circuit are shown in
I V Fig.6.3. The two phasors are actually coincident but are drawn slightly apart so that
the identity of each may be clearly recognized. As mentioned, it is usual to draw the
Fig 6.3 Phasor for a phasors in the position corresponding to wt=0. Hence the phasors representing the
resistive circuit. voltage and current of expression 6.3 are drawn along x-axis.
Alternating current in Let us consider the effect of a sinusoidal current flowing through a coil having an
an inductive circuit. inductance of L henrys and a negligible resistance, as in Fig. 6.4. For instance, let us
consider what is happening during the first quarter-cycle of Fig. 6.5. This quarter-
I
cycle has been divided into three intervals, OA, AC and CF seconds. During interval
OA, the current increases from zero to AB; hence the average rate of change of
current is AB/OA amperes per second, and is represented by ordinate JK drawn
midway between O and A. From expression [6.2], the e.m.f., in volts, induced in a
coil is
L x rate of change of current in amperes per second
V L
consequently, the average value of the induced e.m.f. during interval OA is L x
AB/OA, namely L x JK volts, and is represented by ordinate JQ in Fig. 6.5.
Similarly, during interval AC, the current increases from AB to CE, so that the
average rate of change of current is DE/AC amperes per second, which is
Fig 6.4 represented by ordinate LM in Fig 6.5; and the corresponding induced e.m.f. is L x
LM volts and is represented by LR. During the third interval CF, the average rate of
change of current is GH/CF, namely NP amperes per second; and the corresponding
induced e.m.f. is L x NP volts and is represented by NS. At instant F, the current has
ceased growing but has not yet begun to decrease; consequently the rate of change
of current is then zero. The induced e.m.f. will therefore have decreased from a
maximum at O to
zero at F. Curves
can now be drawn
through the derived
points, as shown in
Fig. 6.5.
Fig 6.5

During second quarter-cycle, the current decreases, so that the rate of change of
current is negative and the induced e.m.f. becomes positive, tending to prevent the
current decreasing. Since the sine wave of current is symmetrical about ordinate FH,
the curves representing the rate of change of current and the e.m.f. induced in the
coil will be symmetrical with those derived for the first quarter-cycle. Since the rate of
change of current at any instant is proportional to the slope of the current wave at
that instant, it is evident that the value of the induced e.m.f increases from zero at F
to a maximum at T and then decreases to zero at U in Fig. 6.5.
By using shorter intervals, for example by taking ordinates at intervals of 10° and
noting the corresponding values of the ordinates with the aid of a calculator with
trigonometric functions, it is possible to derive fairly accurately the shapes of the
curves representing the rate of change of current and the induced e.m.f.
From Fig. 6.6 it will be seen that the induced e.m.f. attains its maximum positive
value a quarter of a cycle before the current has done the same thing – in fact, it
goes through all its variations a quarter of a cycle before the current has gone
through similar variations. Hence the induced e.m.f. is said to lead the current by a
quarter of a cycle or the current is said to lag the induced e.m.f. by a quarter of a
cycle.
v,e,i
Fig 6.6 Voltage and
current waveforms for a
purely inductive circuit
+
lm
0 l
o o o o
90 180 270 360
3π / 2 2π rad
π /2 π
v,e,i
Since the resistance of the coil is assumed negligible, we can regard the whole of the
applied voltage as being the induced e.m.f. Hence the curve of applied voltage in Fig.
6.6 can be drawn the same as that of the induced e.m.f.; and since the latte is
sinusoidal, the wave of applied voltage must also be a sine curve.
From Fig. 6.6 it is seen that the applied voltage attains its maximum positive value a
quarter of a cycle earlier than the current; in other words, the voltage applied to a
purely inductive circuit leads the current by a quarter of a cycle or 90°, or the current
lags the applied voltage by a quarter of a cycle or 90°.
The student might quite reasonable ask: If the applied voltage is neutralized by the
induced e.m.f., how can there be any current? The answer is that if there were no
current there would be no flux, and therefore no induced e.m.f. The current has to
vary at such a rate that the e.m.f. induced by the corresponding variation of flux is
equal and opposite to the applied voltage. Actually there is a slight difference
between the applied voltage and the induced e.m.f., this difference being the voltage
required to send the current through the low resistance of the coil.

Current and Suppose the instantaneous value of the current through a coil having inductance L
voltage in an henrys and negligible resistance to be represented by
inductive circuit
i=Im sin ωt=Im sin 2πft
where t is the time, in seconds, after the current has passed through zero from
negative to positive values, as shown in Fig. 6.7
Fig 6.7 Voltage and v,i
current waveforms for a
purely inductive circuit
di Applied
Current voltage
v lm
t Time
t
1 1
2f f
Suppose the current to increase by di amperes in dt seconds, then instantaneous

value of induced e.m.f. is
E = L. di
dt
= LIm d (sin 2πft)

dt
= 2πfLIm cos 2πft
e = 2πfLIm sin ( 2πft + π/2)
Since f represents the number of cycles per second, the duration of

1cycle = 1/f seconds. Consequently when
t= 0, cos 2πft =1
and Induced e.m.f. = 2πfLIm
When, t = 1/(2f) , cos 2πft = cos π = 1
and, Induced e.m.f. = 2πfLIm
Hence the induced e.m.f. is represented by the curve in Fig. 6.7, leading the current
by a quarter of a cycle.

Since the resistance of the circuit is assumed negligible, the whole of the applied
voltage is equal to the induced e.m.f., therefore instantaneous value of applied
voltage is
v = e
= 2πfLIm cos 2πft
= 2πfLIm sin (2πft - π/2)
Comparison of expressions [10.4] and [10.6] shows that the applied voltage leads the
current by a quarter of cycle. Also, from expression [10.6], it follows that the
maximum value Vm of the applied voltage is 2πfLIm, i.e.
Vm = 2πfLIm so that, Vm = 2πfL

Im
If I and V are the r.m.s. values, then
V = 0.707Vm = 2πfL
I 0.707 Im
= inductive reactance
Fig 6.8 Variation of

reactance and Current Fig 6.9 Phasor diagram πfLI)
V (= 2π
current with for a purely
frequency for a inductive circuit
purely inductive Inductive
circuit. reactance
0
90
0 Frequency
The inductive reactance is expressed in ohms and is represented by the symbol XL .
Hence
I= V = V
2πfl XL
where XL = 2πfl
The inductive reactance is proportional to the frequency and the current produced by
a given voltage is inversely proportional to the frequency, as shown in Fig. 6.8.
The phasor diagram for a purely inductive circuit is given in Fig. 6.9, where E
represents the r.m.s. value of applied voltage.
One of the most puzzling things to a student commencing the study of alternating
currents is the behaviour of a current in an inductive circuit. For instance, why should
the current in Fig. 6.7 be at its maximum value when there is no applied voltage?
Why should there be no current when the applied voltage is at its maximum? Why
should it be possible to have a voltage applied in one direction and a current flowing
in the reverse direction, as is the case during the second and fourth quarter cycles in
Fig. 6.7?

It might therefore be found helpful to consider a simple mechanical analogy - the

simpler the better. In mechanics, the inertia of a body opposes any change in the
speed of that body. The effect of inertia is therefore analogous to that of inductance
in opposing any change in the current.
Suppose we take a heavy metal cylinder C (Fig. 6.10), and roll it backwards and
forwards on a horizontal surface between two extreme positions A and B. Let us
consider the forces and the speed while C is being rolled from A to B. At first the
speed is zero, but the force applied to the body is at its maximum, causing C to
accelerate towards the right. This applied force is reduced - as indicated by the
length of the arrows in Fig. 6.10 - until it is zero when C is midway between A and B;
C ceases to accelerate and will therefore have attained its maximum speed from left
to right. Immediately after C has passed the mid-point, the direction of the applied
force is reversed and increased until the body is brought to rest at 3 and then begins
its return movement.
Fig 6.10. Mechanical

analogy of a purely A C B
inductive circuit
Applied force
Reaction
Speed
Applied force
(applied voltage)
Speed
(current)
Time
Reaction
(induced e.m.f.)
The reaction of C, on the other hand, is equal and opposite to the applied force and
corresponds to the e.m.f. induced in the inductive circuit.
From an inspection of the arrows in Fig. 6.10 it is seen that the speed in a given
direction is a maximum a quarter of a complete oscillation after the applied force has
been a maximum in the same direction, but a quarter of an oscillation before the
reaction reaches its maximum in that direction. This is analogous to the current in a
purely inductive circuit lagging the applied voltage by a quarter of a cycle. Also it is
evident that when the speed is a maximum the applied force is zero, and that when
the applied force is a maximum the speed is zero; and that during the second half of
the movement indicated in Fig. 6.10, the direction of motion is opposite to that of the
applied force. These relationships correspond exactly to those found for a purely
inductive circuit.
Current and In this case we start with the voltage wave, whereas with inductance we started with
voltage in a the current wave. The reason for this is that in the case of inductance, we derive the
capacitive circuit induced by differentiating the current expression, whereas with capacitance, we
derive the current by differentiating the voltage expression.

Suppose that the instantaneous value of the voltage applied to a capacitor having
capacitance C farads is represented by
v = Vm sin wt = Vm sin 2πrft [10. 13]
If the applied voltage increases by dv volts in dt seconds, instantaneous value of

current is
i = C dv
dt
= C d (Vm sin 2πft)

dt
= 2πfcVm cos 2πft
= 2πfCVm sin (2πft + π/2) [10.14]
Fig 6.11 Phasor diagram for Comparison of expressions [10.13] and [10.14] shows that the current leads the
a purely applied voltage by a quarter of a cycle, and the current and voltage can be
capacitive circuit represented by phasors as in Fig. 6.11.
From expression [10.14] it follows that the maximum value Im of the current is 2πfCVm
I
Vm = 1 .
Im 2πfC
Hence, if I and V are the r.m.s. values

0
90
V = 1 = capacitive reactance
I 2πfC [10.15]
V
The capacitive reactance is expressed in ohms and is represented by the symbol XC.
Hence
I = 2πfCV = V
XC
∴ XC = I [10.16]
2πfCV
The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency, and the current
produced by a given voltage is proportional to the frequency, as shown in Fig. 10.20.
x, i Current
Example A 30 µF capacitor it connected across a 400 V, 50 Hz
supply.
Calculate:
Inductive
(a) the reactance of the capacitor reactance
(b) the current.
(a) From expression (10.16):
reactance XC = 1 .
2 x 3.14 x 50 x 30 x 10
-6 0 Frequency f
Variation of reactance and current with
frequency for a purely captive circuit

(b) From expression

Current = - 400 3.77 A
106.2
Alternating current in We have already considered resistive, inductive and capacitive circuits separately.
an RLC circuit However, we know that a practical inductor possesses inductance and resistance
effectively in series. It follows that our analysis of R and L in series is equivalent to
the analysis of a circuit including a practical inductor.
We can now consider the general case of R, L and C in series. This combines the
instances of R and L in series with that of R. and C in series. However, by producing
the general case, we can adapt the results to the other two casts by merely emitting
the capacitive or the inductive reactance from the expressions derived for the general
case.
Before we start the general analysis, let us remind ourselves about the drawing of the
phasor diagrams. Sometimes it is hard to know where to start, but the rule is simple -
start with the quantity that is common to the components of the circuit. We are
dealing with a series circuit, therefore the current is the common quantity so that in
Fig. 6.12 the current phasor is the first to he drawn. Later we will come to parallel
circuits in which case the voltage is the common quantity, hence the voltage phasor
is the first to he drawn.
Figure 6.12 shows a circuit having resistance R ohms, inductance L henrys and
capacitance C farads in series, connected across an a.c. supply of V volts (r.m.s.) at
a frequency off hertz. Let 1 be the r.m.s. value of the current in amperes.
From previous section, the p.d. across R is RI volts in phase with the current and is
represented by phasor OA in phase with 01 in Fig. 6.13. From previous section, the
Fig. 6.12 Circuit with 0
p.d. across L is 2πfLI, and is represented by phasor OB, leading the current by 90 ;
R, L and C
and from previous section, the p.d. across C is 11 (2πfC) and is represented by
in series 0
phasor OC lagging the current by 90 .
Since OB and OC are in direct opposition, their resultant is OD = OB - OC, OB being
assumed greater than OC in Fig. 6.13; and the supply voltage is the phasor sum of
OA and OD, namely OE. From Fig. 6.13,
2 2 2 2 2
OE = OA + OD = OA + (OB - OC)
∴ V2 = (RI)2 + (2πfL - 1/2πfLC)2
So that
I = V = V [10.20]
√ { R + (2πfl – 0.1/2πfc) }
2 2
Z
Where Z = impedance of circuit in ohms
= V/I = √{ R + (2πfL - 1/2πfC) }

2 2
[10.21]
Fig 6.13 Phasor
diagram for From this expression it is seen that
fig.5.2
Resultant reactance = 2πfL - 1 .
2πfC
= inductive reactance - capacitive reactance

CHAPTER 7
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
The Impossible Power When alternating current systems were first introduced, learned scientists claimed
that it was impossible to deliver energy by such a means. Their argument was that
power transfer would take place during the first half of the cycle - and then it would
transfer back during the second half.
Curiously there was some truth in what they claimed, but they had overlooked the
2
basic relationship p = i R. The square of the current means that the power is positive
no matter whether the current has a positive or a negative value. But it is only the
resistive element that dissipates energy from the circuit. Inductors and capacitors do
not dissipate energy, which supports the theory of the impossible power.
Let us therefore examine in more detail the energy transfer process, which takes
place first in resistive circuits and then in reactive circuits.
It was explained that when an alternating current flows through a resistor of R ohms,
2
the average heating effect over a complete cycle is I R watts, where I is the r.m.s.
value of the current in amperes.
Fig 7.1
If V volts is the r.m.s. value of the applied voltage, then for a non-reactive circuit
having constant resistance R ohms, V= IR.
The waveform diagrams for resistance are shown in Fig. 7.1. To the current and
voltage waves, there has been added the waves of the product vi. Since the
instantaneous values of vi represent the instantaneous power p, it follows that these
waves are the power waves. Because the power is continually fluctuating, the power
in art a.c. circuit is taken to be the average value of the wave.
In the case of the pure resistance, the average power can he most easily obtained
from the definition of the r.m.s. current in the circuit, i.e.
2
P = IR
This relation can also be expressed as P = VI

Hence the power in 2 non-reactive circuit is given by the product of the ammeter and
voltmeter readings, exactly as in d.c. circuit.
The power associated with energy transfer from the electrical system to another
system such as heat, light or mechanical drives is termed active power, and thus the
2
average power given by I R is the active power of the arrangement.
Alternatively, the average power can be derived from a formal analysis of the power
waveform.
Power in a purely Consider a coil would with such thick wire that the resistance is negligible in
inductive circuit comparison with the inductive reactance X1 ohms. If such a coil is connected across
a supply voltage V, the current is given by I amperes. Since the resistance is very
small, the heating effect and therefore the active power art also very small, even
though the voltage and the current are large. Such a curious conclusion - so different
from anything we have experienced in d.c. circuits - requires fuller explanation if its
significance is to be properly understood. Let us therefore consider Fig. 7.2, which
shows the applied voltage and the current for a purely inductive circuit, the current
lagging the voltage by a quarter of a cycle.
Fig 7.2 Power curve Applied Voltage
for a purely inductive N
circuit v, i, p
Current
P
O
A L B C D T
Power
The power at any instant is given by the product of the voltage and the current at that
instant; thus at instant L, the applied voltage is LN volts and the current is LM
amperes, so that the power at that instant is LN x LM watts and is represented to
scale by LP.
By repeating this calculation at various instants we can deduce the curve

representing the variation of power over one cycle. It is seen that during interval OA
the applied voltage is positive, but the current is negative, so that the power is
negative; and that during interval AB, both the current and the voltage are positive,
so that the power is positive.
The power curve is found to be symmetrical about the horizontal axis OD.
Consequently the shaded areas marked ' - ' are exactly equal to those marked '+',
so that the mean value of the power over the complete cycle OD is zero.
Fig 7.3

It is necessary, however, to consider the significance of the positive and negative

areas if we are to understand what is really taking place. So let us consider an a.c,
generator P (Fig. 7.3) connected to a coil Q whose resistance is negligible, and let us
assume that the voltage and current are represented by the graphs in Fig. 7.2. At
instant A, there is no current and therefore no magnetic field through and around Q.
During interval AB, the growth of the current is accompanied by a growth of flux as
shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 7.3. But the existence of a magnetic field involves
some kind of a strain in the space occupied by the field and the storing up of energy
in that field, as already dealt with before. The current, and therefore the magnetic
energy associated with it, reach their maximum values at instant B, and, since the
loss in the coil is assumed negligible, it follows that at that instant the whole of the
energy supplied to the coil during interval AB, and represented has the shaded area
marked ‘ - ‘ is stored up in the magnetic field.
During the interval BC the current and its magnetic field are decreasing and the e.m.f.
induced by the collapse of the magnetic flux is in the same direction as the current.
But any circuit in which the current and the induced or generated e.m.f. are In the
same direction acts as a generator of electrical energy. Consequently the coil is now
acting as a generator transforming the energy of its magnetic field into electrical
energy the latter being sent to generator P to drive it as a motor. The energy thus
returned represented by the shaded area marked ‘ – ‘ in Fig 7.2; and since the
positive and negative areas are equal, it follows that during alternate quarter-cycles
the same amount of energy is sent back from the coil to the generator. Consequently
the net energy absorbed by the coil during a complete cycle is zero, in other words,
the average power over a complete cycle is zero.
EXAMPLE 7.1 A coil having a resistance of 6.1 Ω and an inductance of 0.03 H is connected across
a 50 V, 60 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the current;

(b) the phase angle between the current and the applied voltage;
(c) the apparent power;
(d) the active power.
In a.c. work, the product of the r.m.s. values of the applied voltage and current is VI.
It has already been shown that the active power P= VI cos φ and the value of cos φ
has to lie between 0 and 1. It follows that the active power P can be either equal to or
less than the product VI, which is termed the apparent power and is measured in volt-
amperes (VA).
The ratio of the active power P to the apparent power S is termed the power factor,
i.e.
Active power P in watts = power factor [12.8]

Apparent power S in voltamperes
∴ cos φ = P = P
S VI
Or Active power P = apparent power S x power factor [12.9]
Comparison of expressions [12.8] and [12.9] shows that for sinusoidal voltage and
current

power factor = cos φ
From the general phasor diagram of Fig. 10.26 for a series circuit, it follows that
cos φ = IR = IR = resistance
V IZ impedance
∴ cos φ = R
Z [12.10]
It has become the practice to say that the power factor is lagging when the
current lags the supply voltage, and leading when the current leads the supply
voltage. This means that the supply voltage is regarded as the reference
quantity.
Example An inductor coil is connected to a supply of 250 V at 50 Hz and takes a current

of 5A. The coil dissipates 750 W. Calculate:
(a) the resistance and the inductance of the coil;

(b) the power factor of the coil.
In this example, the symbol r will be used to denote the resistance of the coil instead
of R. This is done to draw attention to the fact that the resistance is not a separate
component of the circuit but is an integral part of the inductor coil. This device was
also used in Example 12.2.
Z = V = 250 = 50Ω
I 5
r = P = 750 = 30Ω
2 2
I 5
2 2 ½ 2 2 ½
XL = (Z – r ) = (50 – 30 ) = 40Ω
L = XL = 40 = 40 = 0.127 H
2πf 2π50 314
= 127 mH
Power factor = cos φ = P = R .
S VI
= 750 = 0.6 lag

250 x 5
Active and If a current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle φ, as in Fig. 7.4, it can resolved
reactive currents into two components, OA in phase with the voltage and OB tagging by 90'.
If the phasor diagram of Fig. 7.4 refers to a circuit possessing resistance and
inductance in series, OA and OB must not be labeled Ir and IL respectively. This is an
error frequently made by beginners.
Since
Power = IV cos φ = V x OI cos φ = V x OA watts

Therefore OA is termed the active component of the current, i.e.
Active component of current = I cos φ [12.11]
Power due to component OB is

o
V x OB cos 90 = 0
So that OB is termed the reactive component current, i.e.
Reactive component of current = I sin φ [12.12]
And Reactive power Q in vars = VI sin φ
The term ‘var’ is the short for voltampere reactive.

Fig 7.4 Active and
reactive ∴ Q = VI sin φ [12.13]
components of
= (VI cos φ) + (VI sin φ)
2 2 2 2
current Also P + Q
= (VI) (cos φ + sin φ) = (VI) = S
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
S =P +Q [12.14]
Example A single-phase motor operating of a 400 V, 50 Hz supply is developing 10 kW with an

efficiency of 84 per cent and a power factor of 0.7 lagging. Calculate:
(a) the input apparent power;

(b) the active and reactive components of the current;
(c) the reactive power (in kilovars).
Calculate the capacitance required In parallel with the motor of Example to raise the
power factor 0.9 lagging.
The circuit and phasor diagrams are given in Fig 7.4 and 7.5 respectively, M being
the motor taking a current lm of 42.5 A.
Current lc taken by the capacitor must be such that when combined with lm, the
resultant current I lags the voltage by an angle φ, where cos φ = 0.9. From Fig. 7.5
active component of lm = lm cos φm = 42.5 x 0.7

= 29.75 A
and active component of I is
I cos φ= I x 0.9
These components are represented by OA in FIG. 7.5
∴ I = 29.75 =33.06 A
Fig 7.5 Phasor diagram for 0.9
fig 6.5 Reactive component of IM = IM sin φM
= 30.35 A (from Example)

and reactive component of I is
I sin φ = 33.06 √{1 – (0.9) }

2
= 33.06 x 0.436 = 14.4 A
From Fig 6.5 it will be seen that

IC = reactive component of IM – reactive component of I
= 30.35 – 14.4 = 15.95 A
But IC = 2πfCV
∴ 15.95 = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x C x 400
= 127 x 10 F = 127 µF
-6
and C
From example it will be seen that the effect of connecting a 127 µF capacitor in
parallel with the motor is to reduce the current taken from the supply from 42.5 to
33.06 A, without altering either the current or the power taken by the motor. This
enables an economy to he effected in the size of the generating plant and in the
cross-sectional area of conductor in the cable.
7.6 The practical If an a.c. generator is rated to give, say, 2000 A at a voltage of 400 V, it means that
importance of power these are the highest current and voltage values the machine can give without the
factor temperature exceeding a safe value. Consequently the rating of the generator is
given as 400 x 2000/1000 = 800 kVA. The phase difference between the voltage and
C
the current depends upon the nature of the load and not upon the generator. Thus if
RELATIVE POWER
the power factor of the load is unity, the 800 kVA are also 800 kW, and the engine
KVAR V x I x C
I) ER
V x OW
A( P
KV E N T
S driving the generator has to be capable of developing this power together with the
AR Q
PP
A losses in the generator. But if the power factor of the load is, say, 0.5, the power is
P only 400 kW, so that the engine is developing only about one-half of the power of
A B
KW (V x I x Cos ) which it is capable, though the generator is supplying its rated output of 800 kVA.
ACTIVE / TREU POWER
Similarly, the conductors connecting the generator to the load have to be capable of
carrying 2000 A without excessive temperature rise. Consequently they can transmit
Ff = KW 800 kW if the power factor is unity, but only 400 kW at 0.5 power factor for the same
KVA rise of temperature.
It is therefore evident that the higher the power factor of the load, the greater is the
active power that can be generated by a given generator and transmitted by a given
conductor.
The matter may be put another way by saying that, for a given power, the lower the
power factor, the larger must he the size of the source to generate that power and the
greater must be the cross-sectional area of the conductor to transmit it; in other
words, the greater is the cost of generation and transmission of the electrical energy.
This is the reason why supply authorities do all they can to improve the power factor
of their loads, either by the installation of capacitors or special machines or by the
use of tariffs which encourage consumers to do so.
Measurement of power in Since the product of the voltage and current in an a.c. circuit must be multiplied by
single-phase circuit the power factor to give the active power in watts, the most convenient method of
measuring the power is to use a watt-meter.
For a general circuit

Active power P= VI cos φ (watts)
Reactive power Q= VI sin φ (vars)
Apparent power S= VI (volt-amperes)
Power factor cos φ = P/S
2 2 2
S =P +Q

CHAPTER 8
MULTIPHASE SYSTEMS
Disadvantages of the The earliest application of alternating current was for beating the filaments of electric
single-phase system lamps. For this purpose the single-phase system was perfectly satisfactory. Some
years later, a.c. motors were developed, and it was found that for this application the
single-phase system was not very satisfactory. For instance, the single-phase
induction motor - the type most commonly employed - was not self-starting unless it
was fitted with an auxiliary winding. By using two separate windings with currents
differing in phase by a quarter of a cycle or three windings with currents differing in
phase by a third of a cycle, it was found that the induction motor was self-starting and
had better efficiency and power factor than the corresponding single-phase machine.
The system utilizing two windings is referred to as a two-phase system and that
utilizing three windings is referred to as a three-phase system. We shall now consider
the three-phase system in detail.
Generation of three- In Fig. 8.1, RR1, YY1 and BB1 represent three similar loops fixed to one another at
phase e.m.f’s angles of 120o, each loop terminating in a pair of slip-rings carried on the shaft as
indicated in Fig. 8.2. We shall refer to the slip-rings connected to sides R, Y and B as
the 'finishes' of the respective phases and those connected to R1, Y1 and B1 as the
'starts'.
The letters R, Y and B are abbreviations of 'red', 'yellow' and 'blue', namely the colors
used to identify the three phases. Also, 'red-yellow- blue' is the sequence that is
universally adopted to denote that the e.m.f. in the yellow phase lags that in the red
phase by a third of a cycle, and the e.m.f. in the blue phase lags that in the yellow
phase by another third of a cycle.
Fig 8.1 Generation of Suppose the three coils are rotated anticlockwise at a uniform speed in the magnetic
three-phase e.m.f’s field due to poles NS. The e.m.f. generated in loop RR1 is zero for the position shown
0
in Fig.8.1. When the loop has moved through 90 to the Position shown in Fig. 8.2,
the generated e.m.f. is at its maximum value, its direction round the loop being from
the 'start’ slip-ring towards the 'Finish' slip-ring. Let us regard this direction as
Positive; consequently the e.m.f. induced in loop RR1 can he represented by the full-
line curve of Fig. 8.3.
Since the loops are being rotated anticlockwise, it is evident from Fig.8.1 that the
e.m.f. generated in side Y of loop YY1 has exactly the same amplitude as that
0
generated in side R, but lags by 120 (or one-third of a cycle). Similarly, the e.m.f.
0
generated in side B of loop BB1 is equal to but lags that in side Y by 120 . Hence the
e.m.fs generated in loops RR1, YY1 and BB1 are represented by the three equally
Fig 8.2 Loop RR1 at
spaced curves of Fig. 8.3, the e.m.f.s being assumed positive when their directions
instant of maximum round the loops are from 'start' to 'finish' of their respective loops.
e.m.f
If the instantaneous value of the e.m.f. generated in phase RR1 is represented by
eR=eM sin φ, then instantaneous e.m.f. in YY1 is
eY = Em sin(φ - 1200)
and instantaneous e.m.f. in BB1 is

0
eB = Em sin(φ - 240 )

Fig 8.3 Wave form of

three-phase emf
Delta connection of The three phases of Fig. 8.1 can, for convenience, be represented as in Fig.8.4
three-phase where the phases are shown isolated from one another; L1, L2 and L3 represent loads
windings connected across the respective phases. Since we have assumed the e.m.f.s to be
positive when acting from 'start' to 'finish', they can be represented by the arrows eR,
eY and eB in Fig.8.4. This arrangement necessitates six line conductors and is
therefore cumbersome and expensive, so let us consider how it may be simplified.
For instance, let us join R1 and Y together as in Fig. 8.5, thereby enabling conductors
2 and 3 of Fig. 8.4 to be replaced by a single conductor. Similarly, let us join Y1 and B
together so that conductors 4 and 5 may be replaced by another single conductor.
Before we can proceed to join 'start' B, to 'finish' R, we have to prove that the
resultant e.m.f. between these two points is zero at every instant, so that no
circulating current is set up when they are connected together.
Fig 8.4 Three-phase windings with six Fig 8.5 Resultant e.m.f in a delta-
line conductors connected winding

Instantaneous value of total e.m.f. acting from B1 to R is
eR + eY + eB
= Em {sin φ + sin(φ - 120 ) + sin(φ - 240 )}
0 0
= Em (sinφ+sinφ.cos 120 -cos φ.sin 120 +sin φ.cos 240 -cos φ.sin
0 0 0
0
240 )
= Em (sin φ - 0.5 sin φ - 0.866 cos φ - 0.5 sin φ + 0.866 cos φ)
=0
Since this condition holds for every instant, it follows that R and B, can be joined
together, as in Fig. 8.6, without any circulating current being set up around the circuit.
The three line conductors are joined to the junctions thus formed.
It might he helpful at this stage to consider the actual values and directions of the
e.m.f.s at a particular instant. For instance, at instant P in Fig. 8.3 the e.m.f.
generated in phase R is positive and is represented by PL acting from R1 to R in Fig.
8.6. The e.m.f. in phase Y is negative and is represented by PM acting from Y to Y1,
and that in phase B is also negative and is represented by PN acting from B to B1.
Fig 8.6 Delta
But the sum of PM and PN is exactly equal numerically to PL; consequently the
connection of
algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s round the closed circuit formed by the three windings is
three-phase
zero.
winding
It should be noted that the directions of the arrows in Fig. 8.6 represent the directions
of the e.m.f. at a particular instant, whereas arrows placed alongside symbol e, as in
eY Fig. 7.7, represent the positive directions of the e.m.f.s.
R
Y
The circuit derived in Fig. 7.6 is usually drawn as in Fig. 7.7 and the arrangement is
eR Y referred to as delta (from the Greek capital letter ∆) connection, also known as a
B mesh connection.
R
eB
B It would be noticed that in Fig. 8.7, R is connected to Y1 instead of B1 as in Fig. 8.6.
Actually, it is immaterial which method is used. What is of importance is that the 'start'
Fig 8.7 Conventional of one phase should be connected to the 'finish' of another phase, so that the arrows
representation of mesh representing the positive directions of the e.m.f.s point in the same direction round
connected winding the mesh formed by the three windings
Star connection with Let us go back to Fig. 8.4 and join together the three 'starts', R1, Y1 and B1 at N, as in
three phase windings Fig. 8.8, so that the three conductors 2, 4 and 6 of Fig. 7.4 can be replaced by the
single conductor NM of Fig. 7.8.
Fig 8.8 Star connection with

three phase windings

Since the generated e.m.f. has beer& assumed positive when acting from ‘start' to
'finish', the current in each phase must also be regarded as positive when flowing in
that direction, as represented by the arrows in Fig. 8.8. If iR, iY and iB are the
instantaneous values of the currents in the three phases, the instantaneous value of
the current in the common wire MN is (iR + iY + iB), having its positive direction from M
to N.
This arrangement is referred to as a four-wire star-connected system and is more

conveniently represented as in Fig. 8.9, and junction N is referred to as the star or
neutral point. Three-phase motors are connected to the line conductors R, Y and B,
whereas lamps, heaters, etc. are usually connected between the line and neutral
conductors, as indicated by L1, L2 and L3, the total load being distributed as equally
as possible between the three lines. If these three loads are exactly alike, the phase
0
currents have the same peak value, Im, and differ in phase by 120 . Hence if the
instantaneous value of the current in load L1 is represented by
i1 = Im sinθ
Fig 8.9 Four-wire star-

connected system
instantaneous current in L2 is
0
i2 = Im sin(θ - 120 )
and instantaneous current in L3 is

0
i3 = Im sin(θ - 240 )
Hence instantaneous value of the resultant current in neutral conductor MN (Fig. 8.8)
is
i1 + i 2 + i3
= Im {sin θ + sin(θ - 120") + sin(θ -240')}
= Im X 0 = 0

i.e. with a balanced load the resultant current in the neutral conductor is zero at
every instant; hence this conductor can be dispensed with, thereby giving us the
three-wire star-connected system shown in Fig. 8.10.
Fig 8.10 Three-wire star

connected system with
balanced load
When we are considered the distribution of current in a three-wire, three-phase

system it is helpful to bear in mind:
1. That arrows such as those of Fig. 8.8, placed alongside symbols, indicate the
direction of the current when it is assumed to be positive and not the direction at
a particular instant.
2. That the current flowing outwards in one or two conductors is equal to that
flowing back in the remaining conductor or conductors.
Let us consider the second statement in greater details. Suppose the curves in
0
Fig 8.11 Waveforms of Fig.8.11 represent the three currents differing in phase by 120 and having a peak
current in a balanced value of 10 A. At instant a, the currents in phases R and B are each 5 A, whereas the
three-phase system current in phase Y is –10 A. These values are indicated above a in Fig. 7.10, i.e. 5 A
are flowing outwards in phases R and B and
10 A are returning in phase Y.
At instant b the current in Y is zero, that in R

is 8.66 A and that in B is –8.66 A , i.e. 8.66 A
are flowing outwards in phase R and
returning in phase B. At instant c, the
currents in R, Y and B are –2.6, 9.7 and –7.1
A respectively; i.e. 9.7 A flow outwards in Y
and return via phases R (2.6 A) and B (7.1
A).
It will be seen that the distribution of currents

between the three lines is continually
changing, but at every instant the algebraic
sum of the currents is zero.

Voltages and currents Let us again assume the e.m.f. in each phase to be positive when acting from the
in star-connected neutral point outwards, so that the r.m.s. values of the e.m.f.s generated in the three
systems phases can be represented by ENR.ENY and ENB in Fig 8.12 and 8.13.
When the relationships between line and phase quantities are being derived for
either the star- or the delta-connected system, it is essential to relate the phasor
diagram to a circuit diagram and to indicate on each phase the direction in which the
voltage or current is assumed to be positive. A phasor diagram by itself is
meaningless.
The value of the e.m.f. acting from Y via N to R is the phasor difference of ENR and
ENY. Hence EYN is drawn equal and opposite to ENY and added to ENR, giving EYNR as
the e.m.f. acting from Y to R via N. Note that the three subscript letters YNR are
necessary to indicate unambiguously the positive direction of this e.m.f.
Fig 8.12 Star-connected
Generator Having decided on YNR as the positive direction of the line e.m.f. between Y and R,
we must adhere to the same sequence for the e.m.f.s between the other lines, i.e.
the sequence must be YNR, RNB and BNY. Here ERNB is obtained by subtracting ENR
from ENB, and EBNY is obtained by subtracting ENR from ENY, as shown in Fig. 8.13.
From the symmetry of this diagram it is evident that the line voltage are equal and are
0
spaced 120 apart. Further, since the sides of all the parallelograms are of equal
length, the diagonals bisect one another at right angles. Also, they bisect the angles
0
of their respective parallelogram; and, since the angle between ENR and EYN is 60 ,
∴ EYNR = 2ENR cos 300 = √3ENR
i.e. Line voltage = 1.73 x star (or phase) voltage
Fig 8.13 Phasor diagram

for fig 7.12 From Fig.8.12 it is obvious that in a star-connected system the current in a line
conductor is the same as that in the phase to which that line conductor is connected.
Hence, in general, if
VL = p.d. between any two line conductors
= line voltage
and
VP = p.d. between a line conductor and the neutral point
= star voltage ( or voltage to neutral)
and if IL AND IP are line and phase current respectively, then for a star-connected
system,
VL = 1.73 VP [32.1]
And
IL =IF [32.2]
In practice, it is the voltage between two line conductors or between a line conductor
and the neutral point that is measured. Owing to the impedance drop in the windings,
this p.d. is different form the corresponding e.m.f. generated in the winding, expect
when the generator potential difference, V, rather than with the e.m.f., E.

The voltage given for a three-phase system is always the line voltage unless it is
stated otherwise.
Fig 8.14 Delta

Connection System
with Balanced Load
From Fig. 8.14 it will be seen that IL, when positive, flows away from line conductor
R, whereas I3, when positive, flows towards it. Consequently, IR is obtained by
subtracting I3 and I1,as in Fig.8.15. Similarly, IY is the phasor difference of I3 and I2.
From Fig. 32.15 it is evident that the line currents are equal in magnitude and differ in
0
phase by 120 .
Also
0
IR = 2I1 cos 30 = √3I1
Hence for a delta-connected system with a balanced load
Line current = 1.73 x phase current

Fig 8.15 Phasor diagram
i.e. IL = 1.73IP [32.3]
for fig 7.14
From Fig. 32.14 it is obvious that in a delta-connected system, the line and the phase
voltages are the same, i.e.
VL = VP [32.4]

CHAPTER 9
AC GENERATOR & SWITCH BOARD
Generator Construction
The two main parts of any rotating ac machine are its STATOR and ROTOR

CONSTRUCTION OF
GENERATOR
A.C. Generators or alternators
operate on the fundamental
principles of electro magnetic
induction. Standard construction
consists of windings mounted on
a stationary element called
“Stator”, and field windings on a
rotating element called “Rotor”.
The Stator Consists of a cast iron frame,

which supports the stator element
having slots on its inner periphery
for housing the stator conductors.
The Stator Core The stator core is supported by

the stator frame and is built up of laminations of special magnetic steel alloy. The
lamination is done to minimize the loss due to eddy currents.
The Rotor The Rotor is like a flywheel having alternate N

(north) and S (south) poles. These poles induce
an e.m.f. and hence current in stator conductors
which first flows in one direction and then in the
other. Thus an alternating e.m.f. is produced in
the stator conductors whose frequency depends
on the number of poles moving passed a
conductor in one second.
The Rotor Core It has a large number of projecting (salient) poles having their cores bolted or
dovetailed into a heavy magnetic wheel of cast iron or steel of good magnetic quality.
The poles and pole shows are laminated to minimize heating due to eddy currents.
Speed and In an alternator there exists a definite

Frequency relationship between the rotational speed (N) of
the rotor, the frequency (f) of the generated
e.m.f. and the number of poles (P). The direction
of the induced e.m.f. is given by the Fleming’s
right hand rule. One cycle of e.m.f. is induced in
a conductor when one pair of poles passes over
it. In other words the e.m.f. in an stator
conductor goes through one cycle in an angular
distance equal to twice the pool pitch as shown in the figure.
Since one cycle of e.m.f. is produced when a pair of poles passes past a conductor
the number of cycles of e.m.f. produced in one revolution of the rotor is equal to the
number of pair of poles.
∴ No. of cycles / revolution = P/12

No. of revolutions / see = N/60
∴ frequency = P x N = PN c/s or f = PN c/s
2 60 120 120

SWITCH BOARD
The majority of ships have a 3-phrase a.c., 3-wire, 440 V insulated-neutral system.
This means that the neutral point of star-connected generators in not earthed to the
ship’s hull. For continental European vessels, a 380 V, 3-phase system is common.
Ships with very large electrical loads have generators operating at high voltages (HV)
of 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV and even 11 kV.
The most common power frequency adopted for use on board ships and offshore
platforms is 60 Hz. This higher frequency means that motors and generators run at
higher speeds with a consequent reduction in size for a given power rating.
Lightning and low power single-phase supplies usually operate at the lower voltage
of 220 V a.c. although 110 V a.c. is also used. These voltages are derived from step-
down transformers connected to the 440 V system.
The distribution system is the means by which the electrical power produced by the
generators is delivered to the various motors, lighting, galley services, navigation
aids, etc. which comprise the ship’s electrical load.
The electrical energy is routed through the main switchboard, and then distributed via
cables to section and distribution boards then ultimately to the final load consumers.
The circuit-breakers and switches are the means of interrupting the flow of electric
current, and fuses and relays protect the distribution system from the damaging
effects of large fault current.

Main circuit breakers Generator circuit-breakers and other large circuit-breakers (600-6000A) on board
ship are usually of the air break type. This means that the circuit-breaker contacts
separate in air. (Ashore, comparable size circuit-breaker are often immersed in oil
(OCB) and larger circuit-breakers for high voltage operation are either air blast, or
have a special gas filling or a vacuum break).
ACBs are mounted on special rails in the main switchboard cubicle, and must be
racked out and isolated from the bus-bars for maintenance and testing. The ACB and
its slide rails are usually mounted in a special cassette bolted into the switchboard
cubicle and electrically connected to the bus-bars. If repair work demands that the
ACB be completely removed from its cassette then usually a special hoist or “fork-lift”
is required for large, heavy-duty breakers.
4. CONNECTED POSITION: 3. TEST POSITION:

Both main and control The main circuit isolating
circuit isolating contacts on contacts are separated, but
the breaker body are the control circuit isolating
connected with their contacts are connected. In
counterparts on the draw- this position, the breaker can
out frame. This is the be tested for operation with
normal service position the switchboard front panel
shut
2. DISCONNECTED 1. REMOVE POSITION:

POSITION: The breaker body is just
Both main and control circuit out of the draw-out frame.
isolating contacts are More than 2000A frame
separated. In this position, ACB’s are further drawn
the switchboard front panel out using extension rails
cannot be shut (attached)
The action of withdrawing the “breaker” causes a safety shutter to cover the live bus-
bar contacts.
Mechanical linkage in the circuit-breaker is quite complex and should not be

interfered with expect for maintenance and lubrication as specified by the
manufacturer.
The main fixed and moving contacts are of copper (sometimes of special arc
resistant alloy or silver tipped) and most often silver coated. Main contacts should not
be scraped or filed. If the main contacts suffer severe burning they probably require
realignment as specified by the manufacturer. Arcing contacts normally suffer burning
and may be dressed by a smooth file as recommended by the manufacturer.
Carborundum and emery should not be used – the hard particles can embed
themselves in the soft copper contacts and future contact troubles.
The arc chutes or arc splitter boxes confine and control the inevitable arc to
accelerate arc extinction. These must be removed and inspected for broken parts
and erosion of the steel splitter plates.

Various types of (a) Independent Manual Spring – The spring charge is directly applied by
closing mechanism manual depression of the closing handle. The last few centimeters of
may be fitted. handle movement releases the spring to close the “breaker”. Closing
speed is independent of the operator.
(b) Motor Wound Stored Charge Spring – Closing spring are charged by a
motor/gearbox unit. Spring recharging is automatic following closure of
the “breaker”. Breaker closure is operated by a push button. This may be
a direct mechanical release of the charged spring or it may initiate an
electrical release via a solenoid latch.
(c) Hand Wound Stored Charge Spring – This is similar to (b) but with
manually charged closing springs.
(d) Solenoid – The “breaker” is closed by a de solenoid energized from the

generator or bus-bar via a transformer/rectifier unit, contactor, push
button and, sometimes, a timing relay.
WARNING – Circuit (a) in store-charge mechanisms in the closing springs and

breaker store energy in
springs; (b) in contact and kick-off springs.
Extreme care must be exercised when handling circuit breaker with the closing
springs charged, or when the circuit breaker is in the ON position.
Isolated circuit-breakers when racked out for maintenance should be left with the
closing springs discharged and in the OFF position.
Circuit-breakers are held in the “closed” or ON position by a mechanical latch.

The breaker is tripped by releasing this latch allowing the kick-off springs and
contact pressure to force the contacts open.
Tripping can be
(a) Manually – a push button with mechanical linkage trips the latch.
initiated:
(b) Undervoltage trip coil (trip when de-energised).
(c) Overcurrent/Short-circuit trip device (trip when energized).
(d) Solenoid trip coil – when energized by a remote switch or relay (such as an
electronic overcurrent relay).
Mechanical interlocks are fitted to ACBs to prevent racking out if still in the ON
position.
Care must be taken not to exert “undue force” if the breaker will not move –
otherwise damage may be caused to the interlocks and other mechanical parts.
Dangers of explosion and fire may also result from such action.
Electrical interlock switches are connected into circuit-breaker control circuits to

prevent incorrect sequence operation, e.g. when a shore-supply breaker is
closed onto a switchboard.
The ship’s generator breaker are usually interlocked OFF to prevent parallel
running of a ship’s generator and the shore supply.


Circuit breaker control and protect generators and incoming feeders, the bus bars and outgoing feeders. If
prospective fault current are very high then bus-bar splitting circuit breaker may be used. These breakers
split the board when a fault occurs to limit the fault current that has to be tripped by the outgoing circuit
breakers. An alternative to connect the two bus-bar sections through a reactor which will limit the flow of
fault current from one side of the switchboard to the other.
The majority of marine circuit breakers are air-break rather than oil-immersed or vacuum-break.
Figure shows a typical circuit breaker construction. It comprises fixed and moving main arcing contacts,
arranged so that the arcing contacts make before and break after the main contacts. The main contacts are
usually silver faced copper, copper with silver insert or silver cadmium oxide, and the arcing contacts are
usually silver tungsten or silver cadmium oxide. These combine to provide minimum contact resistance for
current carrying with reduced arc erosion. If severe burning or pitting occurs on the main contacts they may
require filing. The manufacturer handbook will give instructions to rectify this condition. It is often caused by
misalignment of the contacts.


The arcing contacts are normally subject to burning and can be dressed with a
smooth file, but not emery cloth. Circuit breakers are capable of breaking very large
short circuit currents. This is achieved by providing fast break with long travel to
hinder arc formation. Arc extinction occurs as the arc rises into the splitter (arc
chute). Never allow a circuit breaker to operate with the arc chutes removed.
Here is a general guide 1. Monthly – operate circuit breaker

to circuit breaker 2. Annually – check:
maintenance: Tightness of all electrical connections;
Condition of arc chutes and arcing contacts, clean or replace as necessary;
Condition of main contacts;
Operation of breaker-opening, closing and charging;
Cleanliness – clean as necessary;
Lubrication – lubricate as necessary; do not over lubricate.
3. After a fault trip – check main and arcing contacts and arc chutes.
This is the minimum maintenance required. Manufacturers’ recommended
procedures should be followed.
There is a limit to the number of switching operations a circuit breaker can perform. It
is designed to be closed continuously and is primarily intended for protection
purposes. The circuit breaker trip can be initiated by a wide range of fault conditions,
particularly generator circuit breakers. Short circuit, undervoltage, overload, phase
imbalance, low frequency and prime-mover overspeed are possible trip conditions.
To obtain a fast break, circuit breakers are fitted with powerful spring mechanisms
which can be very dangerous. Handling and maintenance should always be carried
out with the spring discharged. The closing /tripping mechanism is complicated, as
shown in Fig 11.
Carefully follow manufacturers’ instructions for maintenance and lubrication.
Circuit breaker closing is achieved either manually or electrically by solenoid or

motor. A mechanical latch holds the circuit breaker in the closed position. The circuit
breaker is tripped by releasing the hold-on latch.
Feeder circuits are often protected by moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB) which
have current ratings in the range 30-1500A. These are generally manually operated
and have a magnetic short circuit and thermal overload trips incorporated. Back-up
fuses are sometimes necessary because the MCCB does not have the short circuit
capacity of an air break circuit breaker.
Above figure shows the construction of a Terasaki no-fuse MCCB with a fast acting
repulsive mechanism which does not require back-up fuses.
Smaller sizes are fully encapsulated and contact cleaning is achieved by periodically
closing and tripping a few times. This should also be done with breakers that are
closed for long periods in order to free the mechanism, clean the contacts and check
for contact welding. After isolation, tighten all terminals on the breaker. The larger
size are accessible and maintenance is similar to the air-break type. After a short-
circuit trip the breaker should be inspected for possible damage to contact and the
close/trip mechanism operated and checked. Insulation reading between poles and
each pole to earth should be taken. A minimum of 5MΩ is usually specified by the
manufacturer.
Many distribution boards are now fitted with miniature circuit breaker (MCB) instead
of fuses for sub-circuit protection. Current range is 5-100A and thermal overload and
magnetic short circuit trip facilities are provided.

POWER SYSTEM To obtain satisfactory parallel operation between ac generators certain requirements
OPERATION concerning the prime mover speed governor and the automatic voltage regulator
(AVR) must be met. It is also necessary for the operating personnel to have a clear
understanding of the terms active power and reactive power.
Active power is more often called kilowatts (KW) and reactive power called kilovars
(kVAr).
KW (Active Power) This type of power flow is best illustrated by considering a simple resistor connected
to a single phase ac supply of V volts. The resistor will take a current I and will take
electrical energy from the supply and convert it into heat. The waveform of voltage
and current are in phase, i = v / R. The power waveform is obtained by multiplying
the voltage and current together. You will see that when v and i are both negative the
power waveform will be positive; in fact the power flow is always positive. Positive
power flow means that power is taken from the supply and converted by resistor into
a power output. This type of power flow is called active power (symbol, P). Active
power flow occurs when V and I are in phase, as in Fig
9.1.
KVAR (Reactive Power)
Figure 9.1 shows a reactive device. It is a coil which

has zero resistance, wound around a steel core. The
device is connected to an ac supply of V volts and will
take an ac current I amps.
Consider the current waveform. At instant A the

current is zero, as the current starts to increase it will
create a magnetic field Ø in the steel core. The
Fig 9.1. strength of this field increases as the current builds up.
During the quarter cycle between A and B the electric current transfers energy from
the supply and stores it in the magnetic field. In the next quarter cycle, B to C, the
current falls to zero and the magnetic fields, along with its stored energy, disappears.
Since there is no power output, the only place it can go is

back into the supply, so the device now feeds power back
into the supply. In the next quarter cycle, C to D, the
current builds up again and power flow is supply→devices
and the process repeats itself. Power is alternately positive
and negative as energy is stored and discharged. So the
power waveform is first positive and then negative.
To create this power flow the current lags behind the

voltage by 90 deg.
This to-and-fro flow of electrical power is called reactive
and is caused by power devices which can store energy in
Fig 9.2 magnetic fields (motors, fluorescent lamps etc.).
Reactive power, Q = V x I.
0
When V and I are at 90 to each other the reactive power reverses every quarter
cycle.

Units of reactive If V is in volts, and I is in amps, Q is in VAr

power (1000 VAr = 1kVAr; 1,000,000 VAr = 1MVAr)
Marine electrical services
The main electrical services comprising a typical ship’s load would be electric motors,
lighting, and heating.
All these loads will draw kW from the supply because they all provide power outputs,
but motors and fluorescent lighting have coils and steel cores so they also require
kVAr. A typical load will require both kW and kVAr simultaneously from the generator.
To do this the load draws a current which lags the voltages at an angle Ø, where Ø is
somewhere between 0 deg and 90 deg.
You will recall that

P = volts x amps in phase,
and Q = volts x amps at 90 deg,
so P = =V.I cos Ø / 1000 kW,

and Q = V.I sin Ø / 1000 kVAr
Apparent power You will notice from the phasor diagram that there are 3 volt-amp products.
a) V x I cos Ø the active power (P);
b) V x I sin Ø the reactive power (Q);
c) V x I the volts times the actual current, a power but not a new type. It is just
the combination of P and Q and is called the apparent power (S);
Apparent power = volts x circuit amps.
Units of apparent power If V is in volts, and I is in amps, S is in VA.

(1000 VA = 1 kVA; 1,000,000 VA = 1 MVA)
Power factor If you know the kVA in a system you may need to know how much of it consists
of kW. This is indicated by the power factor of the system.
Power factor = kW = VI cos Ø = cos Ø.
KVA VI
Power in 3-phase systems In 3-phase systems, the formulae for P,Q and S are the same as for single phase
systems except that each formula is multiplied by √3, i.e.:
Single phase 3-phase
P = VI cos Ø P = √3 VI cos Ø
Q = VI sin Ø Q = √3 VI sin Ø
S = VI S = √3 Vi
Power factor = cos Ø power factor = cos Ø
GOVERNOR AND The two factor essential for the production of generated voltage in an ac generator
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE are rotational speed and magnetic flux. Field windings on the rotor create strong
REGULATOR magnetic field “poles” when direct current is passed through them.
The rotor is driven at constant speed by the prime mover (diesel, turbine or main
shaft). This produces voltage at the generator stator terminals of the correct
frequency (60 Hz or 50Hz). The dc current (called the excitation) in the rotor is
adjusted until the generator produces the correct voltage (typically 440V).
Both the frequency and voltage are affected by changes of electrical load on the
generator.

To keep the frequency constant when the load changes a speed governor is fitted to
the prime mover.
To keep the voltage constant when the load changes an automatic voltage regulator
(AVR) is fitted to the generator Fig 9.3.
The governor and AVR also play an important part in the successful parallel
operation of ac generators.
Fig 9.3: Schematic diagram of diesel/alternator system
Effect of kW loading When the generator is on no-load the governor set point is manually adjusted until
the frequency is correct. The AVR trimmer (if fitted) is adjusted until system voltage is
correct, The prime mover does not require much fuel to run the generator on no load
so the governor has only opened the fuel throttle valve a small amount. If a kW load
such as heating is switched on to the generator, then energy is drawn from the
generator and converted into heat. This energy must be provided by increasing the
rate of fuel supply to the prime mover. This happens automatically in the following
way:
1. When kW load is applied the load draws current from the stator
windings.
2. This current flowing in the stator windings produces a rotating

magnetic field. This field rotates at the same speed as the rotor.
3. The stator field lies across the rotor field and exerts a magnetic
“pull” or “torque” on the rotor, which tries to pull the rotor backwards
as in Fig 9.4.
Fig 9.4 Exertion on torque on
motor due to stator fields 4. The magnetic torque exerted on the causes the rotor to slow down.
This reduction of speed is detected by the governor
5. The governor opens up the throttle valve to increase the fuel supply.
6. The throttle valve is opened until the frequency is back to normal (in fact
slightly less).
Now the prime mover is developing enough power to drive the alternator at the
correct speed and meet the kW load demand.

The governor responds to changes of kW load to keep the system frequency

constant.
Governor When kW load is applied the governor tries to keep the frequency constant. The
characteristic graph of frequency against kW for the governor shows how closely it maintains
constant frequency.
For perfect accuracy the characteristic should be horizontal.This means the system
frequency is exactly constant at every kW load. This is called isochronous. In practice
most marine governors exhibit a “droop” of up to 5 %. This is so that the generator
can be run in parallel with other generators.
Some modern electronic governors may provide a selector switch where isochronous
operation is selected when the generator is running alone and droop inject for
running parallel.
Effect of kVAr loading When a kVAr load is applied to an ac generator there is no power demand on the
prime mover. This is because the energy flow with kVAr loading is backwards and
forwards between the generator and the load, the prime
mover is not involved. The stator current again produces a
rotating magnetic field, but unlike the kW loading it does not
exert a magnetic torque on the rotor. This time the stator
field is in line with the rotor field so no torque is produced.
It can be seen from Fig 9.5 that the stator field is acting in
the opposite direction to the rotor field which results in a
large reduction of flux in the machine, and reduced flux
means reduced output voltage. The AVR responds to the fall
of output voltage and boost up the excitation current to the
rotor to increase the flux. The excitation is increased until the
Fig 9.5 Opposition of stator feild and rotor voltage is back to normal (in practice slightly lass than
feild resuling in reduction of flux and normal).
decreased voltage
The AVR responds to changes of kVAr load to keep the
system voltage constant.
AVR Characteristic
This is a graph of volts/kVAr and like the governor, exhibits a “droop” which is
required for stable parallel operation.
PARALLEL OPERATION Parallel operation of ac generators requires both synchronising and load sharing
OF AC GENERATORS procedures. In many large systems these operations are completely automatic, being
carried out by a computer-based power management system. Generator sets are
automatically run-up, synchronized and loaded or disconnected and stopped as the
load demand varies. A more common system requires engineers to respond to
changes in load demand but the process of synchronizing and load sharing are
automatic after initiation by the engineer

CHAPTER 10
SYNCHRONIZING
Synchronizing Although fundamentally the problem of paralleling two a.c. generators is the same as
that of paralleling two d.c. generators, i.e. that the two voltages must be the same
and remain the same after paralleling , the practical operation is vastly different. The
voltage is alternating and the voltmeter registers the r.m.s. value of volts and not the
instantaneous value, whereas for synchronizing purposes the instantaneous voltages
must match in both magnitude and polarity. Furthermore, they must remain matched,
i.e. the frequencies must be identical. Before synchronization slight variation within
narrow limits are permissible. The vectors must also rotate in the same direction, but
this condition must be established when the sets are first installed and connected. It
is therefore essential in a new installation or when reconnecting a machine after
repair to check phase rotation, i.e. that the phase voltages rise to their maximum in
the same order for all machines which are to run in parallel.
When paralleling an a.c. generator with other sets already on load the following
operations are necessary:
1. The speed of the incoming machine must be adjusted until its frequency is
approximately equal to that of the generators already connected to the
busbars. Ordinary engine tachometers are not suitable for this purpose.
2. The voltage must be adjusted to correspond with that of the busbars.
3. The paralleling switch must be closed as nearly as possible at the moment
when the two instantaneous voltage are in phase (i,e, phase angle zero) and
equal in magnitude.
In practice these operations are just as simple as paralleling two d.c. supplies, but
they require a little more patience to get the right conditions, as closing the switch
0
when the two supplies are approaching 180 out of phase can have serious
consequences.
Synchroscopes This has two windings, one of which is connected to the busbar or running machine,
and the other to the incoming machine, i.e. on the machine side of the appropriate
circuit breaker. Where there are several machines, the synchroscope winding
intended to monitor the incoming machine is connected to each machine via a
selector switch. A pointer rotates freely in either direction and indicates the phase
angle between the two voltage supplies. When the voltages are in phase the pointer
remains at 12 o’clock. The dial is marked Fast and Slow with appropriate arrows to
indicate, according to the direction in which the pointer is rotating, whether the
incoming machine is running too fast or too slow.
The synchroscope movement consists of a stator winding, in which a rotating field is
set up, and a soft-iron rotor which is magnetized by a fixed coil. The rotor is
supported in jewel bearings and its shaft carries the pointer. There are thus no
moving coils, contacts or control springs. When the frequencies are the same, the
pointer takes up a position showing the angular phase difference between the two
circuits, and when in synchronism the pointer is at 12 o’clock. To avoid false
indications the pointer is made to fall away from the central position as soon as the
windings are de-energized. The synchroscope should not be left in circuit for more
than 20 min as it is not continuously rated.
The operation of synchronising an alternator before paralleling with another machine

could be carried out with the type of synchroscope shown in Figure 10.1. With its use,
two phases of the incoming machine can be matched with the same two switchboard
phases.

The synchroscope is a small motor with coils on the two poles connected across red
and yellow phases of the incoming machine and the armature windings supplied from
red and yellow switchboard busbars. The latter circuit incorporates a resistance and
an inductance coil in parallel. The inductance has the effect of delaying current flow
0
through itself by 90 relative to current in the resistance. The dual currents are fed via
slip-rings to the two armature windings and produce in them a rotating magnetic field.
Fig 10.1
Polarity of the poles will alternate north/south with changes in red and yellow phases
of the incoming machine, and the rotating field will react with the poles by turning the
rotor clockwise or anticlockwise. Direction is dictated by whether the incoming is
running too fast or too slow. Normal
procedure is to adjust alternator speed
until it is running very slightly fast and the
synchroscope pointer turning slowly
clockwise. The breaker is closed just
before the pointer reaches the twelve
o’clock position, at which the incoming
machine is in phase with the switchboard
bus-bars.
Another type of synchroscope (Fig 10.2)

also uses the principle of resistance and
inductance connected in parallel across
0
two alternator phases to give a 90 lag in
current flow. The result is that a magnetic
field is produced in the coils A and B in
turn, first in one direction and then in
other. The pairs of iron sectors are
magnetized by the coils through the
spindles which act as cores.
The spindle and iron sectors magnetised

by coil A, which is supplied through the
Fig 10.2 resistance, have a magnetic field in step

with voltage and current of the incoming alternator. This is because pure resistance
does not give current a lag, as does the inductance in the circuit for coil B which
0.
makes current (and magnetic field) lag voltages by 90 The iron sector pairs, spindles
and coils A and B are separated by a non-magnetic distance piece.
The large fixed poles above and below the spindle are connected across two
switchboard bus-bars (the same phases as those in the alternator supplying the
spindle coils). When the field of coil A (and the incoming machine) is in phase with
the bus-bars, the sectors magnetised by A will be attracted – one to the top coil and
the other to the bottom – so that the pointer is vertical. This occurs regularly with the
pointer rotating clockwise when the incoming machine is running too fast; also when
the machine is too slow and the pointer revolving anticlockwise. Adjustment of
incoming alternator speed to match the switchboard supply frequency results in
slower movement of the pointer. Ideally the speed adjustment would achieve a
coincidence of phase and speed with the pointer steady at twelve o’clock. In practice,
the breaker is closed when the incoming machine is running slightly fast (pointer
turning slowly clockwise) and the pointer passing ‘five to twelve o’clock’.
Emergency synchronising lamps
The possibility of failure of the synchroscope

requires that there is a standby arrangement. A
system of lights connected to the switchboard
bus-bars and three-phase output of the incoming
alternator, shown diagrammatically in Figure
10.3, may be used.
If each pair of lamps were across the same
phase the lights would go on and off together
when the incoming machine was out of phase
with the switchboard and running machine. The
alternators would be synchronized when all of
the lights were out. Such an arrangement is not
as good as the one shown where only lamps A
are connected across the same phase. Pairs of
lamps B and C are cross-connected. At the point
when the incoming machine is synchronized,
lamp A will be unlit and lamps B and C will show
equal brightness. The lamps will give the
appearance of clockwise rotation when the
incoming machine is running too fast and
anticlockwise rotation when it is running too
slow.
EMERGENCY SYNCHRONISING LAMPS Pairs of lamps are wired in series because
Fig 10.3 voltage difference between incoming alternator
and switchboard varies between zero and twice
normal voltage.
Check synchronizers Even a skilled operator may occasionally make an error when synchronizing, and the
generators will then be subjected to undesirable stresses. This can be prevented by
using a check synchronizer. This is a static unit which, in its more comprehensive
form, monitors phase angle, voltage and frequency at both the busbars and the
incoming generator. Each of the parameters is compared and , when the differences
are within preset limits, the check relay output contacts will close. These contacts will
usually be connected in series with the closing control-switch contacts in the closing

circuit of the circuit breaker. Consequently the

operator will be allowed to close the circuit
breaker only when the conditions are correct.
With certain designs of check synchronizer an

auxiliary ‘seal-in’ relay must be used because
the check relay contacts will remain closed for
only a brief period, perhaps insufficient to
ensure closing of the circuit breaker.
Fig 10.4
It will be apparent that with such a scheme an
Connections of Synchroscope
operator could prematurely operate the circuit
and voltmeters
breaker closing control switch and hold it in that
position until the check relay provided the
closing signal. This could lead to the operator becoming lazy and unpractised in
sycnhronizing. In the event of failure of the check relay the operator would be
handicapped. This can be prevented by specifying a check relay, which does not
permit premature closing. An extra input is provided on such a relay directly from the
circuit breaker control switch closing contact. The exact instant at which the control
switch contacts close can thereby be monitored and if the phase angle is outside
preset limits at that time the check relay will not operate.
Synchronising Figure 10.5 shows the arrangement of an automatic synchronising unit. Before the
incoming generator can be connected to the live system three conditions must be
met to ensure ‘synchronisation’
1. The frequency of the incoming generator and the bus bars must be within
acceptable limits.
2. The incomer and bus bar voltages must be within acceptable limits.
3. The phase difference between the incomer voltage and the bus bar voltage
must be within acceptable limits.
When the incoming generator circuit

breaker is closed a surge of current
and power circulates to lock the
machines at the same frequency,
voltage and phase angle. To avoid
generator damage due to excessive
surge torque during synchronising it is
important that the synchronising unit is
correctly commissioned and
periodically checked. The types of
damage due to incorrect
synchronising reported to Lloyd’s
Register of Shipping include
deformation of stator windings,
movement between stator core and
frame, failure of rotor diodes on
Fig 10.5 AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONIZING UNIT brushless machines, twisted rotor
shafts, localised crushing of shaft end
keyway and broken couplings.
Figure 10.6 shows synchronising damage.

For manual synchronising, the operator should ensure that the incoming voltage is
within 5% of the bus bar voltage. Ideally, the incoming machine frequency should be

within 0.2% of the bus bar frequency, which is indicated by one revolution of the
synchroscope every ten seconds. In practice this may be impossible to achieve if the
bus bar frequency is fluctuating with load changes. It is usual to synchronize with the
incoming machine slightly fast so that the synchronising surge does not operate the
reverse power trip.
Closing the incoming machine circuit breaker when the two voltages are out of phase
will result in severe mechanical torques exerted on the rotors to bring them into
synchronism. It is essential that the circuit breaker is closed at instant the incoming
machine voltage is in phase with the bus bar voltage to limit these synchronising
torques. This condition is indicated by the 12 o’clock position on the synchroscope.
The circuit breaker is operated slightly before this position to take into account the
circuit breaker closing time. To avoid eventual damage to generators synchronising
should also be carried out with incoming machine voltage, frequency and phase
angle as close as possible to bus bar conditions. Check synchronizer units are
usually fitted to prevent faulty manual synchronising. This unit prevents the incoming
circuit breaker from closing unless the voltage, frequency and phase angle
differences are within preset limits. Check synchronisers are often provided with an
override switch for use in an emergency, this can lead to problems if the override is
left activated after the emergency.
Fig 10.6
Load sharing
After the incoming generator has been synchronised it is now
ready to take up load. It will be recalled that the generator will
have to provide two types of ac power, kW and kVAR.
The governor setting of the generators are adjusted to achieve
kW load sharing and the excitation is adjusted to achieve kVAr
load sharing.
Fig 10.7 After synchronizing GEN2 Fig 10.8 After increasing governor setting of GEN2
kW Load sharing
After synchronising, GEN1 is still supplying all the load kW while

GEN2 supplies zero kW. The governors of both machines are
producing 60Hz. This situation can be depicted graphically as in
Broken stator housing on 556kV, 440V Fig 10.7.
generator caused by rotation of stator
lamination pack. The kW of GEN1 are measured left to right and the kW of GEN2
a) End view showing key still in are measured right to left. It can be seen in Fig 10.7 that both
lamination slot jammed below the machines are producing 60 Hz, GEN1 is supplying 100% of the
next inner stiffener of the frame load kW and GEN2 is supplying 0 kW.
b) External view of damage resulting
from shell being pushed upwards GEN2 can be made to supply kW by adjusting its speed trimmer
to increase the set point of the governor as shown in fig 10.8. This
has the effect of ‘lifting’ the whole characteristic which results in
GEN2 taking load and GEN1 losing load. A problem is that the

system frequency increases.
Now the speed trimmer of GEN1 is adjusted to reduce the set point of governor (Fig
10.8). This lowers the characteristic of GEN1 allowing GEN2 to take up more of the
load and brings the frequency back to 60 Hz. This load balancing is monitored on the
kW meters of each machine.
Stability
If two generators are to share load their governor characteristics must have a definite
‘crossing point’ that is why governor ‘droop’ is necessary.
If the characteristics are flat (isochronous) as shown in Fig

10.9 then system accuracy is good because frequency stays
constant as kW load changes, but machines cannot be run in
parallel. With flat characteristics the load swings repeatedly
from one machine to the other because the characteristics
have no definite crossing point.
The amount of governor droop is a compromise between

Fig 10.9: Generator with Flat Governor accuracy and stability. If the governor droop is large then the
characteristics are unstable in parallel system is stable but the frequency will change slightly as kW
load changes as shown in Fig 10.10.
kVAr Load sharing
This is achieved automatically by the AVR units which adjust

the excitation after synchronising so that each machine shares
kVAr and generates the correct voltage.
Fig 10.10: When droop is large frequency
As with the governor, the AVR requires a ‘droop’ for stable
changes with kW load but generators are stable
in parallel parallel operation. As kVAr load changes the AVR responds to
keep the system voltage constant.
A simplified diagram of a typical ‘direct feed’ thyristor AVR is shown in Fig 10.11. The
generator voltage is stepped down by a transformer and rectifier and then applied to
the reference circuit. Any
difference between the
generator voltage and the
desired voltage produces
an error voltage. The error
voltage is amplified and
fed back to a blocking
oscillator which controls
the firing angle of the
thyristor. The magnitude
of the excitation current
depends on the time
during each cycle for
which the thyristor is
conducting. If the
generator voltage falls the
conduction time is
increased by the
increased error voltage.
FIG 10.11 TYPICAL DIRECT FIELD THYRISTOR AVR This results in increased

excitation current and rotor flux which brings the generator back to the desired value.
Short circuit excitation current transformers (CTs) are used to prevent complete
collapse of the generator excitation under short-circuit conditions. These CTs provide
all the excitation under short circuit conditions and enable a sufficiently large
generator current to be maintained to ensure circuit breaker tripping.
For parallel operation the AVR must have ‘droop’ and a quadrature current
compensation (QCC) circuit consisting of a CT and resistor is used. The CT detects
lagging load current and causes the AVR to reduce the output voltage. This is shown
in the static excitation AVR circuit.

Automatic Voltage Regulators
An a.c. generator supplied with constant excitation current produces a voltage that
exhibits a pronounced droop with the application of normal ship’s load (i.e. at power
factors between unity and zero lagging). This variation is shown in Figure 4.2. The
way in which the excitation current must be varied to maintain constant terminal
voltage is shown in Figure 4.1.
With the aid of certain simplifying assumptions it can be shown that this excitation
current is approximately proportional to the sum of two components. The first is
constant and in phase with the terminal voltage (this is the no-load excitation current).
The second component is proportional to the load current, and leads it by 90
electrical degrees. When the excitation current is obtained from a circuit that
performs this vector addition, the generator is said to be compounded.
By means of a carefully designed compounding circuit, the voltage variation may be
reduced to perhaps + 2.5% with no further control of the excitation current. However,
even this accuracy is not easy to achieve, and further improvement is rendered
impossible by a number of effects, which are neglected by the simple theory. Among
the most serious of these are magnetic saturation in the generator, and the
asymmetry between direct (polar) and quadrature (interpolar) axes in salient pole
generators and exciters. Furthermore, there is often some complication involved in
the parallel operation of compound generator, because the compounding effect will
tend to increase the excitation of the generator carrying the largest reactive load,
thereby transferring a still larger share of this load to that particular generator.
For these and other reasons, it has become almost universal practice to equip a.c.
generators with automatic voltage regulators (a.v.rs). The accuracy of voltage control
may then be improved to perhaps + 0.5% in the steady state. It also becomes
possible to incorporate other modes of control, which may sometimes be desirable,
such as constant voltage per hertz.
Component parts Although a.v.rs are usually built on one chassis, it is convenient for the purpose of
explanation in divide the circuit into a number of blocks, each of which performs a
distinct function. Following this approach, the a.v.r. maybe considered to consist of:
1. A voltage comparison circuit for the detection of any discrepancy between
the generated voltage and its required value.
2. An amplifier and conditioning circuit, which converts the information, received
from the voltage comparison circuit into a control signal suitable for actuating
the control element.
3. A control element, which varies the excitation current in the manner
demanded by the amplifier.
4. Various other circuits which, while not essential to the basis operating
principle of the a.v.r., nevertheless improve its performance.
These parts will be considered in more detail later.
Operating principles The way in which an a.v.r. controls the excitation of a generator or exciter varies from
one model to another, but all schemes fall under one of the following two description:
1. Excitation supply a.v.r. In this arrangement, the a.v.r. supplies the whole of
the required excitation current (at least under normal operating conditions).
2. Compounding control a.v.r. In this arrangement, the generator is
compounded to produce an excessive excitation current at all times. The
function of the a.v.r. is to trim the current down to the correct value.

The advantages of the former arrangement are that a particular a.v.r. can be used
with a wide range of generators, little or no adjustment being necessary to cope with
varying generator characteristics, while good sharing of reactive load is facilitated by
the absence of a current-dependent component of excitation.
The latter arrangement has the advantage that an a.v.r. with smaller current-carrying
components may be employed (provided that the compounding circuit is accurately
matched to the generator under control) and that a high forcing voltage is assured by
the characteristics of the compounding current transformers. Furthermore, if the a.v.r.
should fail to operate, the voltage will remain between limits governed by the degree
of compounding.
Both types of a.v.r. are produced by various manufacturers, and either type is
capable of giving fast voltage recovery times, good voltage stability and accurate
sharing of reactive load.
Sources of With a compounding control a.v.r., the constant part of the excitation current is
excitation supply normally taken from the generator terminals (via a transformer if it is necessary to
change the voltage), while the current-dependent part is derived from one or more
current transformers connected into the power output circuit of the generator.
With an excitation supply a.v.r., the excitation current may be:
1. Taken from the generator terminals as above.
2. Derived from a shaft-mounted pilot exciter (usually a permanent magnet a.c.
generator).
3. Taken from an entirely separate supply.
If the first method is employed, it will be necessary to arrange for a separate
excitation supply during generator short-circuit conditions. The second method entails
an increase in the length of the generator, and the third method carries the
disadvantage that the generating set becomes dependent on external supplies.
However, this is often the most satisfactory system if the generator has to operate
over an appreciable voltage range (e.g. constant voltage per hertz for a.c. propulsion
duties).
Voltage
comparison circuit The voltage reference element in all modern a.v.rs is the zener diode. This device is
described in more detail in Chapter 13. At this stage it is sufficient to say that a zener
diode is a semiconductor diode of special design which is connected into the circuit in
such a way that it is subjected to a higher reverse voltage than it can withstand. As
long as reverse current if flowing, the voltage appearing across the zener diode is
almost independent of the current flowing and of the temperature. This voltage forms
the standard with which a known fraction of the generated voltage is compared by
the a.v.r.
Arrangements will obviously differ in detail, but the circuit of Figure 6.1. illustrates the
general principle. The generator terminal voltage, transformed if necessary, is
rectified by the diode bridge rectifier D. The d.c. output is smoothed by inductor L and
capacitor C and applied to the voltage reference bridge consisting of zener diodes Z1
and Z2 and resistors R1 and R2. This bridge is arranged to be balanced when the
generator is producing its correct voltage. There is then no output signal to the
amplifier. If the generator voltage should fall, the current flowing through the arms of
the bridge will also fall, and so too
will the voltage across R1 and R2.
The voltages across Z1 and Z2 will
remain unaltered, however, and
terminal A will become negative with
respect to terminal B. A rise in

generator voltage would produce the opposite effect.
Amplifier and The error voltage produced by the voltage comparison circuit is amplified by a
conditioning circuit transistor amplifier (which may consist of a single transistor only) and converted, if
necessary, into a form suitable for the excitation control element. If this is a thyristor
the output would normally consist of a train of pulses, synchronized with the
excitation supply voltage, and bearing to it a phase relationship which is controlled by
the amplifier. If the excitation control element is a saturable reactor or transformer,
the output would consist of a direct current of variable magnitude.
Feedback is normally applied across the amplifier to prevent the possibility of

instability due to the time delays in the generator and exciter. The amount of
feedback can often be varied to give the optimum voltage response to a sudden
change in load. Too little feedback will cause the voltage to overshoot, and perhaps
to oscillate several times before settling to its steady value. Too much feedback will
cause an unnecessarily slow voltage recovery.
Amplifier designs vary from one manufacturer to another, and from model to model in
the range of a particular manufacturer, but the function is similar on all types.
Excitation control The final stage of the a.v.r. which controls the excitation current may have to handle
element a current of a few amperes if the controlled field winding is that of a rotating exciter.
Alternatively, if it controls the main generator field winding, the current may be a few
hundred amperes.
The most common control element is a thyristor (or silicon-controlled rectifier), which
is described in detail in Chapter13. Basically it blocks the flow of current in both
directions until a small current is applied to the ‘gate’ or control terminal. If this occurs
when the voltage across the thyristor is in the forward direction, the thyristor will
begin to conduct, and will continue to do so until forward current fall to a very low
value. It will then revert to the blocking state.
It can be seen that, although a thyristor is very easily turned on, it can only be turned
off by events occurring in the external circuit. The simplest application of a thyristor is
therefore producing direct current from an alternating source. As the voltage goes
into the negative half-cycle, the current dies away, and the thyristor regains its
blocking state. The magnitude of the current is controlled by varying the point in the
positive half-cycle at which the thyristor is turned on.
Alternative control elements sometimes encountered are the power transistor (see
Chapter 13) and the saturable transformer or reactor. This is an iron-cored device
carrying the normal a.c. winding and an additional control winding. The magnitude of
the direct current applied to the control winding governs the degree of saturation in
the iron core, and hence the magnitude of the alternating current
Alternator and system Protective devices are built into main alternator breakers to safeguard both the
protection individual alternator and the distribution system against certain faults. Overcurrent
protection is by relays which cut power supplies to non-essential services on a
preferential basis, as well as breaker overload current trips and instantaneous short
current tripping. A reverse power trip is fitted where alternators are intended for
parallel operation (in some vessel they are not), unless equivalent protection is
provided by other means. Parallel operation of alternators also requires an under-
voltage release for the breaker.

Overcurrent The alternator breaker has an overcurrent trip, but a major consideration is that the
protection supply of power to the switchboard must be maintained if possible. The breaker
therefore is arranged to be tripped instantly only in the event of high overcurrent such
as that associated with short circuit. When overcurrent is not so high, a delay with
inverse time characteristics allows an interval before the breaker is opened. During
this time the overload may be cleared.
Overload of an alternator may be due to increased switchboard load or to a serious

fault causing high current flow. Straight overload (apart from the brief overload due to
starting of motors) is reduced by the preference trips which are designed to shed
non-essential switchboard load. Preference trips are operated by relays set at about
110% of normal full load. They open the breakers feeding ventilation fans, air
conditioning equipment etc. The non-essential items are disconnected at timed
intervals, so reducing alternator load. A serious fault on the distribution side of the
switchboard should cause the appropriate supply breaker to open, or fuse to operate,
due to overcurrent. Disconnection of faulty equipment will reduce alternator overload.
Inverse definite minimum Accurate inverse time delay characteristics are provided by an induction type relay
time (IDMT) relay with construction similar to that of a domestic wattmeter or reverse power relay.
Current in the main winding (Figure4.2) is obtained through a current transformer

from the alternator input to the switchboard. (The main winding is tapped and the
taps brought out to a plug bridge for selection of different settings). Alternating
current in the main winding on the center leg of the upper laminated iron core
produces a magnetic field that in turn induces current in the closed winding. The
magnetic field associated with the closed winding is displaced from the magnetic field
of the main winding and the effect on the aluminium disc is to produce changing eddy
currents in it. A tendency for the disc to rotate is prevented by a helical restraining
spring when normal current is flowing. Excessive current causes rotation against the
spring and a moving contact on the spindle comes in to bridge, after a half-turn, the
two fixed contacts, so that the tripping circuit is closed.
Speed of rotation of the disc through the half-turn depends on the degree of
overcurrent. Resulting inverse time characteristics are such as shown in Figuer4.3. In
many instances of overcurrent, the IDMT will not reach the tripping position, as the
excess current will be
cleared by other means.
The characteristics obtained
by the relay is one with a
definite minimum time and
this will not decrease
regardless of the amount of
overcurrent. Minimum time,
however, can be adjusted
by changing the starting
position of the disc.
Fig: 4.2 Overload Relay

Reverse power Alternators intended for parallel operation are required to have a protective device
protection which will release the breaker and prevent motoring if a reversal of power occurs.
Such a device would prevent damage to a prime mover which had shut down
automatically due to fault such as loss of oil pressure. Reversal of current flow cannot
be detected with a alternating supply but power reversal can, and protection is
provided by a reverse power relay, unless an acceptable alternative protective device
is fitted.
The reverse power relay is similar in construction to a household electricity supply

meter (Figure 4.4). The lightweight non-magnetic aluminium disc, mounted on a
spindle which has low-friction bearings, is positioned in a gap between two
electromagnets. The upper electromagnet has a voltage coil connected through a
transformer between one phase and an artificial neutral of the alternator output. The
lower electromagnet has a current coil also supplied from the same phase through a
transformer.
The voltage coil is designed to have high inductance so that current in the coil lags
0
voltage by an angle approaching 90 . Magnetic field produced by the current
similarly lags the voltage and also lags the magnetic field of the lower electromagnet.
Both fields pass through the aluminium disc and cause eddy currents.
The effect of the eddy current is that a torque is produced in the disc. With normal
power flow, trip contacts on the disc spindle are open and the disc bears against a
stop. When power reverses, the disc rotates in other direction, away from the stop,
and the contacts are closed so that the breaker trip circuit is energised. A time delay
of 5 seconds prevents reverse power tripping due to surges at synchronising.
Reverse power settings are 2 to 6% for turbine prime movers and 8 to 15% for diesel
engine.
Fig:4.4 Reverse
power relay
Under-voltage Closure by mistake of an alternator breaker when the machine is dead is prevented
protection by an under-voltage trip. This protective measure is fitted when alternators are
arranged for parallel operation. Instantaneous operation of the trip is necessary to
prevent closure of the breaker. However, an under-voltage trip also gives protection
against loss of voltage while the machine is connected to the switchboard. Tripping in
this case must be delayed for discrimination purpose, so that if the volt drop is
caused by a fault then time is allowed for the appropriate fuse or breaker to operate
and voltage to be recovered without loss of the power supply.
A.C. earth fault lamps The sketch shows the arrangement for earth fault indicator lamps on a three-phase
a.c. system. Each lamp is connected between one phase and the common neutral

point. Closing of the test switch connects the neutral point to earth. An earth on one
phase will cause the lamp for that phase to show a dull light or go out, depending on
the severity of the fault.
Each earth lamp and the resistance in series with it provides a path for current flow to
the neutral. An earth on one phase will, when the test switch is closed, allow current
flow thorough an easier path than that through the lamp and resistance. The lamp is,
therefore, shorted –out and will show a dull light or none at all.
The great advantage of this check synchronizer is that the skill of the operator is still
required to match ferequency, volts and phase angle but error are prevented. Other,
more simple, variants of the check synchronizer are available which compare only
phase angle, not voltage and frequency.
Maintenance After a ship enters service it is exceptional for the main busbars to be made dead;
electrical supply of some sort is always needed, even if it consists only of lighting. It
therefore follows that the busbars are continuously alive practically throughout the life
of the ship as, even in dry dock, a shore supply will usually be taken.
This means that, as far as the main switchboard is concerned, routine maintenance
work on circuit breakers and other fittings must be carried out with live busbars and
some thought should be given to this in the design and layout stage. In land practice
necessary provision is sometimes made by using duplicate busbars, but space does
not permit this in ships. However, this equipment has been used in certain offshore
insulations.
On a single busbar system a limited solution can be achieved by using isolators to

sectionalize the switchboard; splitting of the lighting feeders can also help. However,
in large installations draw-out type switchgear undoubtedly offers the best solution.
Precautions must be observed not only to isolate the apparatus but to verify that it is
isolated and to ensure that it cannot inadvertently be made alive. Where interlock
circuits, pilot lights or control circuits are involved there is always a risk that although
the main circuits may be isolated these auxiliary circuits may still be energized from a
separate source. Fatalities have resulted from this cause. Where switches can be
locked ‘off’ it must be seen that this safeguard is used and the keys are removed.
Where there are main fuses in the circuit, these might be removed as an additional
precaution. Before commencing work it should be verified that the apparatus is
actually dead by using a live-line detector. This test should be conducted not only
between phases but also between phases and earth.
Portable handlamps used to facilitate the work should be fully insulated with non-
metallic guards, so that there is no risk of shock or short-circuit being caused should
they inadvertently come into contact with live parts. W hen closing any switch by
hand, whether in normal operations or when testing, it is a golden rule to do so in one
clear positive movement without hesitation.
The necessity for cleanliness of all electrical apparatus has previously been
emphasized. When apparatus is dismantled for maintenance it should therefore be
kept clean and dry. Insulation should be examined for ‘tracking’ and blistering in the
vicinity of exposed live metal. If the material is of the bonded laminated type, it should
be examined for splits along the laminae.
Overheating may be caused by loose connections, poor contact pressure (particularly

at fuse contacts), or poor alignment of contacts. On air circuit breakers the condition
and alignment of the contacts can be checked by removing the arc chutes to expose
the contact assembly. On some high voltage designs the arc chutes tilt forward to

provide access. This inspection should be made annually and the mechanism should
be lubricated at the same time. Copper contacts may be dressed by using a fine file
or fine glass paper, but emery or carborundum paper should not be used. Silver or
silver-plated contacts seldom require attention; their black appearance is caused by
oxidation, but the oxide is a good conductor. If cleaning is required metal polish may
be used.
A slight smear of petroleum jelly, particularly on contacts, which are frequently

operated, not only helps to preserve good contact but also reduces mechanical
abrasion. Excessive application must be avoided as this may cause burning pitting of
contacts.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES
THREE-PHASE, CAGE The three-phase, cage rotor induction motor is the ‘first choice’ marine motor
ROTOR INDUCTION because of its electrical and mechanical simplicity. The lack of electrical connections
MOTORS to the rotor removes the need for brushes and commutator/sliprings and lead to
simple, tough construction, reliable operation and low cost maintenance. The
limitation of the simple cage motor is its single available speed. Modern
developments, apart from constructional improvement, are mainly towards improving
the starting performance and providing some form of speed control.
Construction and There are two main components in an induction motor, the rotor and the stator. The
operating principle stator is the stationary part of the motor. It consists of a frame (yoke) which is fitted
with high quality slotted steel laminations forming a magnetic core. Insulated 3-phase
windings are located in the slots. The stator winding produces a rotating magnetic
field when it is connected to a 3-phase supply. The rotor rotates inside the stator and
is a forged steel shaft carrying a laminated steel magnetic core. The aluminium or
copper cage winding has conductor bars embedded in the surface of the core and
the ends of the bars are shorted together by end rings. The air-gap between the rotor
and stator is only 1-2mm wide. The smaller the air gap the smaller the starting surge
current and the higher the operating power factor. High precision ball or roller
bearings are required; sleeve bearings do not give the required accuracy. Most
motors are self-cooling although some large variable speed motors may have
air circulated by a fan driven by a small auxiliary motor. This prevents
overheating at low speed. On aluminium cages, integral fins are cast onto the
end rings to agitate and circulate internal air to improve heat transfer.
Figure 1 shows a stator with part of the winding removed so that the core
slots can be seen easily. Air ducts between the core and yoke assist heat
transfer to keep the motor cool.
Figure 2 shows a typical rotor with a cast aluminium cage winding. Here the
rotor core has been sectioned to show the rotor bars and ventilation holes.
Notice the integral fins on the end ring castings.
Enclosures for marine motors range from drip-proof, open ventilated (IP22),
for locations where water and dust problems are unlikely, to totally enclosed,
fan ventilated (IP54) where a greater degree of protection is required (see
Fig 1 Stator with part of the Fig 3). Deck motors (IP56) can be completely immersed for short periods. All
winding removed screws have sealing washers and there is a labyrinth seal between the shaft
and the end shields.

POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Introduction Polyphase induction motors are self-starting motors and are widely used. The
induction motor depends for its action on the induced current set up by a rotating
magnetic flux produced by a polyphase current. The current in its rotor is not drawn
from the supply but is induced by the relative motion of the rotor conductors and the
rotating flux produced by the stator current. So, it is named as the induction motor.
The stator of the induction motor is similar in construction to the stator of an

alternator. When a three-phase supply is given to the three-phase stator winding, a
rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is set up. This rotating flux cuts the
stationary rotor conductors and induces e.m.f. in them which causes the heavy
circulating current to flow due to very small resistance of rotor. The frequency of the
induced current at the time of starting is equal to the supply frequency (as the
stationary rotor is similar to the secondary of a transformer).
The rotor induced current flows in such a direction that it opposes the cause which is
inducing the current. In this case, the cause producing the rotor current is the relative
speed between the rotating magnetic field and the stationary rotor.
The working principle The essential requirement for the production of a rotating magnetic field is two or
of an induction motor. more than two phase supply. A single phase does not produce such field. In practice
the field is not rotating, but it behaves like that, because its poles are changing at a
high speed. The phenomenon is similar to that of a flickering moving light.
Suppose that a conductor A of the stationary rotor is lying under the influence of
North Pole and the field flux is rotating in clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 16.1
(a). Here the relative motion of the rotor conductor as compared to stator is
anticlockwise shown by dotted arrow in Fig. 16.1 (b). By applying Fleming’s right
hand rule, the induced current is found to be outward. If the current is allowed to
complete its path, it will produce a magnetic field around the conductor which is
anticlockwise (Fig. 16.1b) as determined by applying Cork Screw Rule. These two
field fluxes are acting in space, so the total field will be the resultant of the two and is
shown in Fig. 16.1 (c). It is noted that the field on the left hand side of the conductor
is more and on the right hand side is less. Hence, a clockwise torque will act on the
rotor causing rotation of the rotor in the same direction as that of the rotating
magnetic field.
How a Rotating Consider a 2-pole, 3-phase winding as shown in Fig. 16.2(a). When these coils are
Magnetic Flux is energised from a 3-phase supply, its current varies as shown in Fig. 16.2(b).
produced by 3-phase
Current.

Three successive positions of the rotating magnetic field at 1, 2, and 3 are shown in
Fig 16.3. At position 1, the current in phase A is positive and at its maximum value,
whereas in phase B and C the current are negative and each is half of the maximum
value. These currents flow outwards in top conductors and inwards in bottom
conductors. So, these establish a flux towards the right.
At position 2, the current is zero in phase B and 0.866 of the

0
maximum in phases A and C. These set up a flux 30
anticlockwise from position 1.
At position 3, the current in phase C has attained its maximum
negative value. The currents in phase A and B are both
positive and half the maximum value. These currents produce
0
the flux 30 anticlockwise further.
0
For every 30 time interval along the horizontal axis of current
0
waves, the magnetic flux moves 30 forward correspondingly.
So, in one cycle, the flux rotates through one revolution for a 2-
pole winding. If the winding is for P poles the magnetic flux
rotates through ½ P revolution in one cycle and therefore, we
get N=120f/P.
Assuming the flux is produced by 3-phases in each instant, the

resultant rotating flux is of uniform strength, i.e., 1.5 times the
maximum value of flux due to any one phase, and the resultant
flux rotates at synchronous speed. The direction of rotation of
flux can be reversed by interchanging the connections of any
two line leads.
Synchronous The speed of the rotating magnetic field depends on the number of poles for a
speed of A. C. constant frequency. If the number of poles is P and the frequency in f, then speed.
Motor
N = 120f when rotor is stationary.
P
The speed so calculated is called the synchronous speed.

Slip of Induction The speed available at the shaft of the motor is called the rotor speed. It is measured
Motor. by a speedometer or a tachometer and is denoted by Nr. The difference in speed of
stator magnetic field and rotor speed is called the slip. It is calculated as a
percentage and is denoted by S:
Slip = Synchronous speed – Rotor speed

Synchronous Speed
Or S= N – Nr
N
The percentage slip of induction motors varies from 4 to 5 percent in small motors
where as in big motors it varies from 1.5 to 2.5 percent.
Rotor When a rotor is at standstill, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as that of
Frequency the supply frequency. However, when the rotor is rotating, its frequency depends
upon the slip speed. Suppose at any slip speed the frequency of the rotor current is
fr, then

N – Nr = 120 fr ….(1)
P
But synchronous speed,
N = 120xf ….(2)
P
Dividing Eq. (1) by (2), we get
fr = N – Nr = S
f N
or fr = fxS
Rotor frequency fr = fxS ….(3)

Induced e.m.f. of the When the rotor is subjected to the stator field, then an e.m.f. is induced in it. In this
rotor. way the stator and rotor work as primary and secondary windings of the transformer.
Let, E1 = Stator e.m.f. per phase

E2 = Induced e.m.f. of the rotor per phase
N1 = Number of turns of the stator winding per phase
N2 = Number of turns of the rotor winding per phase
K = Turns ratio
Then E2 = N2 = K
E1 N1
If the rotor has a slip S, then the induced e.m.f. of the rotor is E2 S.
When the rotor attains the synchronous speed, then the rotor e.m.f. will be zero.
Rotor current The e.m.f. induced in the rotor winding sets up a flow of current through the
resistance and reactance of the rotor windings
Let, S = slip of the motor

Rr = rotor resistance
Xr = rotor resistance
Er = rotor e.m.f.
__________
2 2
Then impedance Zr = √Rr + (SXr)
Thus, rotor current Ir = S.Er

Zr
Or Ir = SEr ____
2 2
√ Rr + (SXr)
i.e. Rotor current = Slip x rotor e.m.f. amperes.

rotor impedance
The Relation The rotating magnetic field runs at its synchronous speed. On no load the motor runs
Between Slip and at very nearly synchronous speed.
Torque

WITH ZERO SLIP, TORQUE IS ZERO, SO ROTOR STOPS. If the rotor runs at
synchronous speed, then there is no relative velocity between the rotor speed and
the rotating magnetic field speed. It means that the rotor is running in parallel to the
stator field. The stator flux will not cut the rotor bars and so there will be no induced
e.m.f. an so no current in the rotor. The rotor will then tend to stop. But even on no
load, there are losses due to friction of bearings, air etc. This causes the rotor to slow
down from synchronous speed slightly. The current circulating in the rotor is just
sufficient to overcome the no load losses. This means that if there is no slip, there
would be no induced e.m.f. no current and so no torque.
When the motor is loaded, the rotor is pulled back, the speed falls and the slip
increases.
The rotating field flux cuts the rotor bar faster and the rotor current is increased
resulting in greater torque. The rotor now runs at a speed which enables it to develop
a torque required to meet the load. At a certain speed, the reactance of the rotor
equals the resistance of the rotor and this is the point of maximum torque. This in
brief the torque increases if the slip increases, which is so on load.
The various types Polyphase induction motors are also called “asynchronous motors” because the rotor
of polyphase does not revolve with the rotating magnetic field.
induction motors.
There are three types of induction motors which are commonly used for commerial
purpose. The stator of all these motors are exactly similar in construction to the stator
of alternator. The difference between them exists only in the method of winding the
rotor.
There are three types of rotor winding as given below.
(1) Single squirrel-cage type rotor
(2) Double-squirrel-cage type rotor
(3) Slipring type rotor or phase wound rotor.
Single Squirrel- This rotor consists of iron laminations. Copper or aluminium bars are driven into the
cage rotor. closed slots, cut near the periphery of the cores. The ends of the bars are riveted and
welded in solid metallic (usually copper) rings on either side. The arrangement
resembles a cage of a squirrel, and so is called a squirrel cage rotor. The rotor has a
simple construction and it does not require any commutator or slip rings etc. as
shown in Fig. 16.4.
1. Rotor bars
2. Shaft.
3. Ventilating holes.
The rotor is keyed to the shaft and supported

on bearing carried by end shield. The
clearance between the stator and the rotor is
kept very small and is of the order of a few
Squirrel cage single core rotor
thousandth of centimetre.
The starting torque of the rotor depends on the rotor resistance. By increasing the
rotor resistance the torque will increase, but the efficiency at the same time will

decrease. Therefore, the rotor resistance is kept at a moderate value. The squirrel
cage rotor is most widely used, because rubbing contact is negligible and so
resistance is very low.
Double squirrel The ordinary cage rotor. (HIGH TORQUE MOTOR)

cage rotor. The ordinary cage motor has low rotor resistance and so its starting torque is very
low. Some loads require large starting torque to bring the motor to full speed while
much less later on to maintain the speed. For this purpose double cage induction
motor, which is also called high torque motor, is used.
The stator is the same as that of an ordinary

induction motor but the rotor has deep slots and two
squirrel cages one inside the other as shown in Fig.
16.5. The outer cage is built up of high resistance
metal, usually of brass bars and the inner of copper
bars.
At starting, the flux does not go deep into the rotor

Double cage rotor and so induces current in the outer cage only. Due to
the high resistance of the outer cage, the torque is
high. As the motor speeds up, the flux goes deeper into the rotor and more current is
induced in the inner cage. The frequency of the rotor current decreases with speed
and so winding reactance becomes less. At full speed, rotor frequency is of the order
of one or two cycles per second. Winding impedance is almost equal to its
resistance. So, the motor current at full speed is confined mainly to the inner cage,
which provides the running torque, and the motor works like an ordinary induction
motor.
Slip-ring or Wound This type of rotor is used in slip ring induction motors. The rotor conductors form a
Rotor. polyphase winding, usually three phase. The free ends are connected through slip
rings to the external resistance. Large motors have two layer wave winding. To start
with, the slip rings are connected to a three-phase star connected starting resistance
as shown in the figure. When running normally, they are short circuited.
The effect of resistance (4) is to reduce the

starting current and also to improve the power
factor of the rotor current at starting.
Working Stator is connected to 3-phase supply. The

Principle. rotating flux produced by the stator cuts the
rotor bars and induces e.m.f. Its effect is flow

of heavy current due to the small resistance of the rotor.
Special motor enclosures are required if the motor is located in a hazardous area
where flammable atmospheres are expected, e.g. pump rooms, paint stores, battery
Tyipical motor with lockers, etc. Flameproof (Exd) and increased safety (Exe) motors are used in these
cast aluminium hazardous locations and they need maintenance and inspection procedures
cage winding according to hazardous area codes of practice.
All electrical equipment enclosures have

ingress protection specified by a two or
three digit code. Table 1 shows how this
code operates.
IP22 IP54 The third digit for mechanical protection is

often omitted for metal enclosures and is
used to indicate the strength of polycarbonate enclosures.
When a motor is idling, the rotor speed is only slightly lower than the speed of the
rotating magnetic field. The input stator current is low since there is little power
demand. As load is applied, the motor slows down and draws extra current to supply
the power demanded by the load. When the current increases with load, it raises the
temperature of the stator winding insulation. The motor current must not be allowed
to reach an excessive value, which would overheat the stator winding insulation
MOTOR RATED causing it to break down.
CURRENT
(IC OR IN) The ageing of insulation is a chemical process which is rapidly accelerated by
prolonged operation at excessive temperature. To avoid reducing the service life of a
motor it must not be run above its rated current for long periods. Short duration
overloads will have an appreciable effect on the insulation. As a rough guide, for
0
every 10 C above the maximum recommended temperature the service life of the
insulation will be halved.
Variation in motor lifespan with temprature
Insulating material classes according to IEC 34

Insulating materials are divided into different classes according to how well they can
withstand temperature. Figure 4 shows temperature limits for different classes of
insulating material. Figure 5 shows the deterioration of class E insulation as operating
temperature is increased.

Electrical Circuit Diagram Tracing & Components
INTRODUCTON In order to trace and correct faults in an electrical circuit it is first of all necessary to
understand the operation of the circuit. One of the best aid's to understanding an
electrical circuit is the Electrical Schematic Diagram. Therefore in order to
understand the circuit it is desirable that the repairer is able to read and understand
an Electrical Schematic Diagram.
Nothing is better than practice when trying to understand a drawing but there are
sorne basic rules and approaches that need to be appreciated before trying to read
that drawing.
The following paragraphs are an attempt to summaries some of these basic rules and
give the reader some assistance in getting started.
The notes are very basic and make the assumption that the reader has virtually no
background in reading electrical drawings. Those who feel they are proficient at
reading electrical drawings may decide to skip this section
THE ELECTRICAL An electrical diagram is an attempt to give the reader a logical and orderly method of
SCHEMATIC understanding the sequence of operation of the particular electrical circuit.
DIAGRAM
The diagram consists of semi-pictorial symbols depicting the various components of
the circuit joined together by lines which are representative of the wires connecting
the components together and providing the path for the flow of electric current.
One important concept to be remembered is that NOTHING OCCURS UNTIL A

CURRENT FLOWS and this current requires a completed circuit from the active (or
positive) input to the neutral (or negative) return or two different polarities.
The voltage is only present to push the electrons around the circuit but cannot do so
unless the circuit is complete.
Compare this with water flow - nothing happens unless the water moves. Pressure
(ie voltage in an electrical circuit) only provides the force, until the water is able to
move then nothing happens.
For example, applying pressure to the supply to a piston does nothing until the fluid
actually moves and moves the piston, if the piston is jammed and will not move then
there is no output regardless of the pressure applied.
The same applies to an electrical circuit, if there is a voltage present and the circuit
is complete so that the current can flow then it will flow and we will see the effect of
that flow in the form of heat, light, magnetic field etc.

If at any time the circuit is broken then the current will cease to flow and the effect of
the current flow will stop ie. the light will go out, the relay will de-energise, the
magnet will drop its load etc.
This is how a switch works, it breaks the circuit and stops the flow of current
regardless of where in the circuit the switch is installed - at the input to the circuit
(which is usual), at the end of the circuit or somewhere inbetween. All that is
necessary is for the circuit to be broken.
This is also the main reason why a circuit ceases to operate when a fault occurs.
There is a break in the circuit somewhere which is interfering with the flow of current.
Your job is to find that break and the reason it occurred.
Now lets have a look at the Schematic Diagram and how it is put together.
Suppose we have a coil, which is required to be energised from a battery via a

switch. The coil is the coil of a relay, which has contacts on it and one of the contacts,
is to be used to fight a lamp when the switch is turned 'on'.
A coil is usually shown as a picture of a coil of wire either looking down on the coil, in
which case it is a circle, or looking at the coil side-on in which case it is a square.
Both symbols are used.
Examples of
coils:- R1 R2
The above symbols are the usual symbols used for coils in electrical circuits. The
letters Rl and R2 are used to identify the particular device and also any contacts of
that device used in the circuit.
Examples of
contacts:-
As above the designation RI adjacent to the contact indicates which component it is

on. e.g. the contact RI is to be found on relay RI regardless of where it is in the
diagram.

Some of the contacts are shown open and some are shown closed. The world-wide
convention is that the contacts are shown in the condition they are in when the
power is removed from the circuit.
A contact, which is shown ‘Open’, is said to be NORMALLY OPEN and is therefore

open when there is no power applied to the circuit.
The usual convention is also to show normally open contacts with the bar above the
line and normally closed below the line. (This is not always the case, so beware).
Now let us put some of these symbols together to make a circuit.
At the moment, as the circuit stands, there is no completed circuit from the positive of
the battery to the negative and therefore there will be no current flow. However there
is voltage applied by the battery to the left hand side of the switch and this could be
measured using a voltmeter.
The circuit is broken at the switch because the switch is open.
Closing the switch will complete the circuit from the battery positive, through the
switch, through the relay and back to the negative of the battery.
At this stage there is no path for current through the lamp because the contact of
relay R1 is still open.
The lines depicting the wires are assumed to have no resistance to the flow of current
and therefore there is no voltage drop through the wires.

The current can now flow from the positive through the relay coil to the negative. As
the current passes through the coil it's magnetic properties cause the relay to operate
and operate the contacts. Any contacts of the relay which are closed will open and
those that are open will close
Looking at the circuit tells us that there is a second path for the current to flow if it is
completed and that is via the contact of R1 and the lamp.
Operating the relay will cause the contact of the relay to close thereby completing the
circuit and allowing the current to flow, lighting the lamp!
This second path for the current is said to be "in parallel' with the original path
through the relay. This means that the same voltage level is applied to the second
path that was applied to the original path -, that is, the output voltage of the battery.
The drawings in this booklet are in numerical order, not order of difficulty. This means
that the student may need to turn over a few pages until a simpler drawing is found
before making a start on learning the operational sequence.
Electrical 1. Main Contactor

Components 2. Thermal Overload Relay
3. Auxiliary Contactor
4. Plug in relay
5. Timers “ON” Delay
“OFF” Delay
Combination
6. Fuses
7. Push Buttons
8. Switches

Measuring 1. MULTIMETER
Instrument
2. MEGGR
3. CLAMPMETER

SYMBOL LIST
SYMBOL NAME SYMBOL NAME
C
∼
AC GENERATOR CROSSING ELECTRIC WIRE
CONNECTION OF ELECTRIC
ACB AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER
WIRE
DISCONECTING SWITCH TERMINAL FOR OUTSIDE

ISOLATOR WIRING
KNIFE SWITCH EARTH
MOLDED CASE CIRCUIT COUPLING WIRE (COUPLING

BREAKER SIDE)
COUPLING WIRE (COUPLING

TC TACHOMETER GENERATOR S
SIDE)
T
∼
M AC MOTOR DRAW OUT TYPE
GM GOVERNOR MOTOR “a” CONTACT (NORMALLY OPEN)
“b” CONTACT (NORMALLY

BATTERY
CLOSED)
V VOLT METER “c” CONTACT (TRANSFER)
“a” CONTACT OF TIME-LAG

W AMMETER
RELAY (ON DELAY)
“b” CONTACT OF TIME-LAG

FM FREQUENCY METER
RELAY (ON DELAY)
“a” CONTACT OF TIME-LAG

PF POWER FACTOR METER
RELAY (OFF DELAY)

“b” CONTACT OF TIME-LAG

SY SYNCHROSCOPE
RELAY (OFF DELAY)
MΩ INSULATION RESISTANCE
METER
FLICKER CONTACT
C.O.S
RHM HOUR METER (TIME COUNTOR) TRANSFER SWITCH
“a” CONTACT OF PUSH-BUTTON

PT POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
SWITCH
“b” CONTACT OF PUSH-BUTTON

T TRANSFORMER
SWITCH
“a” CONTACT FOR REMAINING

CURRENT TRNSFORMER
CT CONTACT
F “b” CONTACT FOR REMAINING

F
FUSE
CONTACT
nx COIL OF AUXILLARY RELAY

“a” CONTACT FOR RESETING
(n:NUMERICAL & ALPHABET
m CONTACT
m:NUMERICAL)
nt COIL OF TIME-LAG RELAY

“b” CONTACT FOR RESETING
(n:NUMERICAL & ALPHABET
m CONTACT
m:NUMERICAL)
“a” CONTACT OF LIMIT SWITCH

UVC UNDER VOLTAGE TRIPING COIL
AND MACHINERY SWITCH
“b” CONTACT OF LIMIT SWITCH

SHC SHUNT TRIP COIL
AND MACHINERY SWITCH
SI THERMAL RELAY CAM SWITCH
R
RESISTER TRANSFER SWITCH
SI
SILICON RECTIFIER OUTSIDE SIGNAL

D
DIODE TERMINAL NUMBER
THYRISTOR AIR CLR SEQUENCE & SKELETON BLOCK
C CAPACITOR SCR
SHUNT ZD ZENER DIODE

SH

SECTION 2 - CONTACTS WITH TWO OR THREE POSITIONS
No. Symbol Description
Make contact
07-02-01 Form 1 Note. - This symbol is also used as the general
symbol for a switch.
07-02-02 Form 2
07-02-03 Break Contact
07-02-04 Change over break before make contact
07-02-05 Two way contact with centre off position
Change-over make before break contact

07-02-06 Form 1
(bridging)
07-02-07 Form 2
07-02-08 Contact with two makes
07-02-09 Contact with two Breaks

STARTERS
Starters are essentially required for starting motors with a safe value of
stator current. Any a.c. motor can be switched on directly but incase of
very heavy motors the starting current may be so high that the source
cannot supply such a high starting current. Since the starting current of
a.c. motors may reach six to seven times of normal running current.
Hence the starters are incorporated for starting a.c. motors.
There are three types of starters available for starting these motors;
1) Full voltage starter (D.O.L. Starter)
2) Reduced voltage starters. There are two types of reduced
voltage starters: -
I. Star / Delta Starter
II. Auto transformer starter
3) Soft Starters: - These starters are used normally for starting
very large motors where thyristors / IGBT’s are used.
There are various suppliers of electrical switchgear being installed on

board ships examples, Terasaki, Telemecanique, Siemens, etc. The
electrical components supplied and fitted by these manufacturers are
identified in their circuit diagrams and installation drawings by numbers
and letters which will be indicated in the index or in the list of
components supplied by these manufacturers. In following pages the
drawings are drawn with a standard symbols accepted by IEC.

STARTER TYPES:
I FULL – VOLTAGE STARTER NON – REVERSING

II FULL – VOLTAGE STARTER, REVERSING
III FULL – VOLTAGE STARTER, TWO SPEED
IV FULL – VOLTAGE STARTER, LONG TIME
V REDUCED VOLTAGE STARTERS
VI STAR DELTA
VII AUTO TRANSFORMER
VIII STARTER, AUTOMATIC START – STOP CONTROL
6 CONTACTOR (FOR O/C RELAY – SHORT CIRCUITING)

19 TIME DELAY RELAY (CONTROLS CONTACTOR 6)
42 CONTACTOR (OR RUNNING)
51 THERMAL OVERCURRENT RELAY
52 MOLDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKER
88 CONTACTOR
89 MOLDED CASE SWITCH
6-1 CONTACTOR (FOR AUTO TRANSFORMER Y –
CONNECTION
6-2 CONTACTOR (FOR STARTING)
88F CONTACTOR FOR FORWARD OPERATION
88R CONTACTOR FOR REVERSE OPERATION
A AMMETER
Atr AUTO TRANSFORMER
BS PUSH BUTTON SWITCH
FC FUSE - CONTROL CIRCUIT
FL FUSE
L RUNNING LIGHT WITH TRANSFORMER
LF RUNNING LIGHTS FWD
LH HIGH SPEED – RUNNING LIGHTS
LL LOW SPEED – RUNNING LIGHTS
LR RUNNING LIGHTS REVERSE
M ELECTRIC MOTOR, SINGLE WINDING, 2 - SPEED
RC REMOTE CONTROL SWITCH BOX.

FULL - VOLTAGE STARTER, NON-REVERSING
51
ADVANCED ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP
88
U
R
52
INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE

S OR V
A
89 M
W
T
87
Fc
STOP
51b B S2 B S1 S TA R T
88
88
F1
L
NON-REVERSING STARTER
Rev0.0 Jan 03




STAR – DELTA STARTER


TWO – SPEED STARTER



Guide for
selection of
fuses and
wires

Motor rating at Fuse Rating (HRC)

Full load current Motor full Amps Recommended
Load Direct- Star- Size of copper
current On- delta Conductors,
kW HP
Amps. Line Starting Sq.mm
starting
0.06 0.08 0.2 2 -
0.09 0.12 0.3 2 -
0.12 0.16 0.4 2 -
0.18 0.25 0.7 2 -
0.25 0.34 0.8 2 -
1.5
0.37 0.5 1.2 4 -
0.55 0.75 1.6 4 -
0.75 1 1.8 6 -
1.1 1.5 2.6 6 -
1.5 2 3.5 10 -
2.2 3 5 15 -
3.7 5 7.5 15 -
5.5 7.5 11 25 20 2.5
7.5 10 14 30 20
11 15 21 35 25 4
15 20 28 50 35 6
18.5 25 35 60 50
22 30 40 80 50 10
30 40 55 100 60
37 50 66 125 80
25
45 60 80 160 100
55 75 100 200 100
75 100 135 200 160 35

BATTERIES
The ability of a battery to deliver electrical power instantly, together with its convenience, has
enabled the battery to become widely used as an emergency power source and to power portable
equipment.
The basic single unit in a battery is referred to as a ‘cell’. Cells are connected in a series
arrangement to form the battery. The emf of a cell is quite small, typically 1-3V. The series
connection of cells in a battery enables larger and more useful voltages to be made available.
A cell produces electrical current by chemical re-action. It consists of two electrodes (anode and
cathode) of different materials which are connected by an electrolyte; a chemical which reacts
suitably with both electrodes.
An electrochemical series shows the relative positions of possible electrode materials.
Potassium Anodic:
Sodium More corrosive end of table
Lithium
Magnesium
Zinc
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Mercury
Silver
Carbon
Sulphur Cathodic:
Oxygen More noble end of table
Any two substances in the list will form a couple in conjunctions with a suitable electrolyte. The
further apart the couple is in the list, the greater the emf developed.
In 1800, Professor Volta produced the first battery using a zinc-silver couple with a brine
electrolyte, which developed an e.m.f of 1.4V.
The electrochemical series shown is by no means a complete list of possible substances but the
series would seem to indicate the possibility of an enormous number of cell couples.
In reality, the difficulty of combining suitable electrode materials with an electrolyte that will give
stable chemical action with stable operating voltage and long life limits the number of practical
cells that are possible.
Primary cells When the chemicals within a primary cell have been used up, the cell must be discarded and
replaced.
The Leclanche cell of 1868 used a zinc carbon couple with an acidic ammonium chloride
electrolyte. This was the first cell to be used extensively commercially for A.G. Bell’s early
telephone installations in the 1880s. The same zinc carbon cell is still in widespread use today
but in its dry cell form as the tried and tested torch battery. The zinc carbon cell develops an emf
of 1.5V.

Cell Structures Alkaline cells
Alkaline cells, such as the mercury cell and the manganese cell, are familiar to in
their use in cameras and personal cassette recorders. These cells are also
widely used in commercial portable equipment, being superior to the zinc carbon
cell in terms of operational life and range of operating temperatures.
Developments in the electronics industry have stimulated the need for newer
forms of cell. As electronic components have become smaller and smaller, so
there has arisen a need for cells with much higher power to weight ratio, much
longer shelf life and even wider range of operating temperature. The small zinc
air button battery has one of the highest power to weight ratios. A range of lithium
cells appeared in the 1980s. Lithium cells have a shelf life of 10 years compared
with one or two years for zinc carbon and develop an emf of over 3 V. Lithium
has a very low relative density and lithium cells have an energy to weight ratio of
over five times that of the zinc carbon cell. Lithium cells are used in various
specialized electronic equipment where their long life allows a fit and forget policy
to be used, or where their low weight and small size is of particular advantage.
Applications include such equipment as distress beacons, portable electronic
devices such as measuring instruments, as battery back-up of the volatile
memory units in computers, smoke detectors, emergency lighting etc. Although
lithium cells for general consumer use are safe, the components not being
particularly toxic, some lithium cells do present a potential hazard to safety. The
lithium / sulphur dioxide cell (Li / SDX) contains liquid sulphur dioxide gas under
pressure. Abuse, such as a short circuit or incineration, produces sufficiently high
a) loaded acidic cell
temperatures to cause the case to tend to explode and then to release its toxic
sulphur dioxide gas. The Li / SDX cell and other lithium cells with similar
hazardous characteristics usually have a blow off vent in the case to give relief to
pressure build up and prevent explosion. As would be expected such cells are
not generally available for consumer use, but are restricted to industrial use.
Care must be taken with such cells not to tamper with associated circuit
protection components, not to short-circuit the cells, and not to dispose of these
cells, or any other cells, by incineration. Replacement of such cells and repair of
circuit protective components should be by qualified personnel and not by
untrained third parties.
The low power demand of electronic circuits and some portable appliances
makes the small and compact primary cell a most suitable power source.
However, the large power demand made on engine starting batteries and ships’
emergency lighting batteries normally requires that larger rechargeable batteries
be used.
Secondary cells
Secondary batteries are rechargeable. That is, when the chemicals have been
used up, they can be reformed to their original state and the battery recharged
with electrical energy, by passing a charging current through the battery in the
reverse direction.
b) Alkaline cell
The need for battery charging equipment to be included in the battery installation
is a matter of considerable expense and some inconvenience, but the cost of
continual replacement of an equivalent primary battery would be totally unacceptable for a
large-power installation.

Batteries on board ship intended to power emergency services, such as emergency

generator starting and emergency lighting, are generally operated in a stand-by mode, being
called upon to supply power when the main supply fails.
Services such as radio equipment, telephones, alarms circuits, etc. are commonly battery
operated, being supplied from two batteries operated in a regular charge / discharge mode.
Two types of secondary battery are in common use, the lead acid and the nickel cadmium
alkaline.
The lead acid battery develops a nominal 2V per cell demanding a 12 cell battery for the
normal 24V low voltage supply. In comparison the alkaline battery develops 1.2V per cell
demanding a 20 cell battery for the same 24V supply.
The lead acid battery is less expensive in initial cost and is more efficient, but the alkaline
battery has the longer life of up to 20 years compared with 5 to 10 years, depending upon the
construction, of the lead acid battery.
Traditionally, the alkaline battery was preferred for emergency power supplies being more
suited to long periods of idle operation on stand-by. It was also regarded as being more
reliable. The lead acid battery was preferred for the regular recycling duty of essential power
supplies operated in the charge / discharge mode.
However, many current installations have lead acid batteries specially designed for the stand-
by duty of emergency power loads and emergency generator starting.
The electrolyte of the lead acid cell is a dilute solution of sulphuric acid; that of the alkaline
cell a solution of potassium hydroxide, both aqueous solutions.
Both types of cell ‘gas’ when on charge, the alkaline line cell more or less continuously and
the lead acid cell when nearing the top of the charge. Hydrogen and oxygen gases are
evolved due to the chemical breakdown of the water content of the electrolyte. The cells are
vented to allow gases to escape and prevent internal pressure build up. Gassing presents
several problems. Hydrogen is a highly dangerous explosive gas and the evolved gases carry
with them a mist of corrosive acid or alkaline electrolyte.
Large batteries (above 2 kW) must be installed in specially prepared rooms or lockers, well
ventilated to remove the explosive hydrogen gas, illuminated by suitable explosion protected
luminaries and steel work painted to resist corrosion. In addition personnel must exercise
care not to cause sparks or produce naked flames when inspecting batteries. Notices to this
effect must be displayed.
The evolution of gas, together with evaporation causes a significant water loss from the
electrolyte and this must be made good by topping up with distilled water as necessary.
Acid batteries and alkaline batteries must not be located in the same room, to prevent danger
of battery damage caused by contamination of the alkaline battery by acid.
Battery Battery maintenance is substantially the same for both types of battery. Cell tops must be
maintenance kept clean and dry, vents clear and free of deposits, terminal connections tight, free of
corrosion and coated with petroleum jelly to prevent corrosion. Electrolyte levels should be
checked and topped up with distilled water to cover the plates.
Safety precautions necessary during these procedures include wearing suitable protective
clothing (rubber apron, rubber gloves and eye goggles), ensuring no sources of naked light
are taken into the metallic jugs and other utensils to prevent spark and short circuits.

In addition suitable first aid treatments should be available. Sulphuric acid splashes on the
skin should be washed off with fresh water and treated with a saline solution (one tablespoon
of salt to half a litre of water). Potassium hydroxide splashes should again be washed off with
fresh water but treated with boracic powder or a boracic acid solution (one teaspoon of
boracic powder to half a litre of water). Splashes in the eye are particularly dangerous. Liberal
splashing of water in the eye, followed by washing in the aforementioned neutralising
solutions is the immediate treatment. Rapid action and large quantities of water are essential,
followed by seeking qualified medical attention.
The state of charge of a cell can be checked by measuring its terminal voltage while
supplying load current; the terminal voltage of an idle cell is likely to be high giving a false
indication of a fully charged cell.
The terminal voltage of a fully charged alkaline cell is about 1.2V, falling to 1.09V when fully
discharged.
The terminal voltage of a fully charged acid cell is about 2.0V falling to 1.75V when fully
discharged.
If voltage readings are taken while the battery is on charge the end of charge is indicated
when the terminal voltage of an alkaline cell levels out at about 1.7V. For acid cells, the end
of charge is indicated at about 2.6V, measured while on charge.
Maintenance procedures include measuring the relative density (or specific gravity) of the
electrolyte. In the case of lead acid batteries, the relative density is a valuable indication of
the state of charge of a cell, varying from 1.275-1.285 (specific gravity 1275-1285) for a fully
charged cell, to about 1.1 (specific gravity 1100) when fully discharged. The relative density
readings vary with temperature and temperature corrections must be made to arrive at a
temperature corrections must be made to arrive at a meaningful value. The above values are
0
quoted for an ideal electrolyte temperature of 15 C. Actual readings should be corrected by
0 0 0 0
adding 0.007 for each 10 C above 15 C and subtracting 0.007 for each 10 C below 15 C.
In the case of alkaline batteries, the relative density does not change and gives no indication
of the state of charge of the cell. Nevertheless, the relative density should be measured
regularly falls. A new cell will have a relative density gradually falls. A new cell will have a
relative density of about 1.190. When this falls to about 1.145, indicating that chemical
deterioration has occurred, the electrolyte should be renewed or the battery replaced. This
may be necessary only after 5 to 10 years depending upon the duty cycle for which the
battery is employed. Manufacturers recommendations should be followed for renewing
electrolyte.
The relative density of the electrolyte of a cell is measured using a hydrometer of the syringe
type (Fig 38).
Batteries should be charged from suitable charging equipment according to manufacturers’

instructions. The battery capacity is rated in terms of its discharge current at the 10 hours
rate. A 250Ahrs battery can supply 25A for 10 hours. Charging current can also be based
upon the 10 hours rate but frequently is based upon shorter time rates such as 7 hours or 6
hours.
Lead acid cells should be charged until gassing freely, and charging should then continue for
a further period until the charging voltage per cell levels out at about 2.6V. Overcharging
causes overheating, distortion of cell plates and consequent dislodging of plate active
materials.

Lead acid cells suffer self-discharge; if the battery is left idle an internal discharge would
slowly dissipate the charged energy. A fully charged lead acid cell must
be maintained on a trickle charge, a low rate charge, to make up the loss
due to ‘self discharge’.
Alkaline cells should be charged at the recommended rate until gassing

freely and the charging voltage per cell rises to about 1.7V. Charging
should continue for a further two or three hours. Alkaline cells are able to
retain their full charge for a considerable period and do not suffer self-
discharge except at high temperatures. Periodically, alkaline batteries
should be given a short (two to three hours) refresher charge. Alkaline
cells are well suited to the float charge mode of operation of stand-by
power batteries. Here the battery is connected across the load supply and
is charged up to the supply voltage after which the battery merely floats
on the supply, neither supplying nor taking electrical energy.
Hydrometer and float readings The maximum recommended operating temperature of both type of
0
battery is 50 C.
The minimum operating temperature is the freezing point of the electrolyte.

0
Alkaline batteries can operate down to –40 C but lead acid batteries can operate down to –
0 0
32 C, fully charged, but only –9 C, fully discharged.
Lead acid batteries must be maintained in a fully charged condition, especially at low ambient
temperatures, otherwise freezing can cause cracked cases and the subsequent leakage of
electrolyte and corrosion of surrounding steel structures.
Trickle charger A charger used for charging batteries from time to time to compensate the losses is called a
trickle charger. It charges the battery a low current rating.
The principal components called a trickle charger. It chargers the battery a low current rating.
The principal components are:
1. Step down transformer.

2. Voltage regulator or tappings are taken from the transformer.
3. Silicon diodes or metal rectifier ( full-wave or half-wave)
4. Ammeter and voltmeter.
5. Load resistance.
6. Fuse.
A full-wave trickle charger circuit is shown in Fig.9-10. The charging current rating in this case
is in the range of 0.75 to 1.75 amperes.
9-20. What is High Rate Discharge Cell Tester?

In Fig.9-11. is shown a tester which gives the correct terminal voltage on full load of the
battery cell. In this tester there is a low value resistance which acts as load on the cell. A
center zero voltmeter is also connected to give voltage across battery terminals. It is also
marked on the same voltmeter dial, D.F.C. and H.C. denoting dead, full charge and half
charged respectively. This tester gives the reading to one cell only at a time.
While making use of it, some precautions have to be taken, which are:
1. It should not be connected across the cell terminals for a long period, because it
provides heavy load on the cell, and so the cell be discharged quickly.

2. before using, clean the terminals of the cell and the tester.
Trickle charge circuit
Short Note on This meter is used to test the specific gravity of liquids. It consists of
Hydrometer a glass made tube with a bulb. The glass bulb is fitted with mercury
and is fitted with scale on which specific gravity is marked as well as
the indication with D, F.C. and H.C. This hydrometer is kept in
another glass-made tube. A rubber bulb is fitted on one side of
this tube and on the other side a nozal (See Fig.9-12). The rubber
bulb is pressed to suck in the acid from the battery. The
electrolyte enters in the outer glass tube in which hydrometer bulb
floats and gives reading.
With dilute sulphuric acid ( H2SO4 ) the bulb sinks more in the
electrolyte, while with strong H2SO4 the bulb sinks less. In this
way it gives reading.
Reading on the hydrometer

Full charge 1280
Half charge 1260
Full discharge 1200
Or dead 1180
Is it necessary to Replace the Acid in a Car Battery?
Under normal conditions, no Hydrometer

Cell Testers It Necessary to Occasionally Recharge a Lead-acid Battery, even though it is not
being used
A lead acid battery not in use will gradually lose its charge, and if it is left in an uncharged
condition, the material on the plates will flake off and short circuit the plates, the plates,
thereby causing a shorted cell or cells.
Capacity The unit of capacity of a storage cell is ampere-hour, i.e. the ability to discharge one ampere
continuously for one hour.
Thus, a 80 ampere hour battery will give a continuous discharge of 8 amperes for ten hours.
It should give a theoretical discharge of 20 amperes for four hours, or 40 amperes for two

hours. In reality the ampere-hour capacity decreases with an increase of discharge rate. The
reason is that it is impossible to reduce all the active material by the current. The capacity,
however, increases with temperature.
Battery capacity depends on the size and number of plates, the quantity of active material
present and the quantity of electrolyte.
Example 9-3 A battery supplies 15 amperes for 10 hours. What is its ampere-hour (A.h.) capacity?
Solution. Ampere hour capacity = Ampere x hours = 15 x 10 = 150
Example 9-4 A battery has an efficiency of 90 percent when discharged at 10 A. It is charged in 8 hours at
15 A. How many hours service will the accumulator give at the stated discharge rate?
Solution. Efficiency = Discharge rate x hours discharge

Charge rate x hours charge
Therefore, Hours discharge = Efficiency x charge rate x hours charge

Discharge rate
= 0.9 x 15 x 8 = 10.8 hours.
10
Indications of a Fully The indications of a fully charged cell are:

Charged Cell (i) Gassing. When a cell is full charged, it freely gives off hydrogen at cathode and
oxygen at anode. The process is known as gassing. Gassing at both plates
indicates that the current is not doing any useful work and hence should be
switched off.
(ii) Voltage. When the cell is fully charged the voltage ceases to rises. The voltage
of a fully charged cell is variable depending upon the rate of charging, the
temperature and specific gravity of the electrolyte etc. The approximate value of
e.m.f. is 2.1 volt.
(iii) Specific gravity of electrolyte. During discharging, the density of electrolyte

decreases due to formation of water while it increases during charging due to the
absorption of water. When the cell is fully charged its density is 1.21. and when
discharged upto 1.8 V it is 1.18. Specific gravity can be measured with a suitable
hydrometer.
(iv) Colour. On full charge, the colour of the Positive plates is deep chocolate brown
and for negative plate it is slate grey.
Sulphation Lead peroxide (PbO2) and lead (Pb) loss the property of reconversion if the cell is not fully
charged and is also not charged from time to time. Lead sulphate (PbSO4) gets deposited on
the plate and it is then said to be sulphated.
The effect is to increase the internal resistance of the cell and to reduce its efficiency and
capacity.
Sealed batteries or Sealed batteries, or sealed gas recombination cells as they are more properly called, are
sealed gas commonly located within items of equipment. Vented cells, with their emission of explosive
recombination gases and corrosive mists, must be located in a ‘safe’ central battery room. Vented cells
cells contain free liquid (and spillable) corrosive electrolyte. Water loss occurs demanding topping
up.

Sealed cells, both acid and alkaline types, are specially designed and manufactured so that
Standby and
Uninterrupted gassing does not occur in normal regular service. The cells can thus be sealed without
Power Supply danger of pressure build-up, require no topping up, demand very little maintenance and are
safe for installation at sites out of bounds to the vented cells, such as within office equipment
System
and electronic equipment. Many items of equipment such as navigation lights, fire detection
and alarm systems, engine room control consoles, etc. now have their own emergency
battery located within their own cabinet and are self contained, rather then having to reply
upon a remote centralized emergency power supply unit. In case of fault and abuse, the cells
have a ‘blow-off’ vent to relieve any pressure build up caused by possible gassing.
Main Foiled
Supply Charger Main Supply
Automatic
Battery Automatic
Change-over Battery
Switch Change-over
Switch
Emergency
Load Emergency Emergency
Load Situation
An emergency battery is installed to give protection against power supply failure. A typical
installation would incorporate to reconnect the load from the main supply to the emergency
supply if a mains failure occurred.
Main
This arrangement (Fig 39), referred to as a
Foiled
Supply Main Supply stand-by power supply system, is satisfactory
for most loads such as emergency generator
Rectifier Rectifier starting and emergency lighting. However, the
Charger Charger computer and allied office equipment cannot
tolerate the loss of supply experienced during
the period of contactor changeover; even a 20
ms delay may be unacceptable.
Battery Battery
Computers are used on board ship for a wide
variety of purpose and to ensure their
Inverter Inverter uninterrupted operation during a mains power
supply failure, they should be supplied via an
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system.
A typical UPS system incorporates a battery

maintained on float charge. In the event of a
Emergency Emergency
Load Load failure of the main power supply, the battery is
immediately available to supply the load .
Normal Situation Emergency Situation
Battery on charge Battery discharging
The system (Fig 40) also incorporates circuits
to filter out mains disturbances such as
transients and spikes, which can corrupt computer operation.
Units rated up to 300 kVA are available but a typical shipboard unit would be rated about 1.5
kVA.

Chapter 14
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance is applied to equipment in an attempt to extend its useful life; to ensure that it
remains in a safe and serviceable condition. To many people, maintenance is regarded as
being merely repairs or replacement of equipment that has suffered breakdown, indeed, such
an approach is still widely applied today.
In 1969-1970 the cost and dangers involved with breakdown led to in-depth studies of the
practices used. These studies were government sponsored and the results were published by
HMSO. The report suggested that maintenance in general was in urgent need of planning
and control to improve utilization of labour, to improve care of valuable physical assets and to
reduce the national financial loss resulting from plant down time and loss of services.
The demand for improvements in maintenance was made under the name of terotechnology.
In general, maintenance philosophy can be classified under the three headings, breakdown
or failure maintenance, periodic maintenance and condition maintenance.
Breakdown or failure maintenance
This is applied because of breakdown of equipment or its inability to meet its operational
requirements. The equipment is left untouched until failure occurs. At this time the equipment
must be repaired or replaced and any other procedures carried out. On board ship, if failure
occurs, the defect is brought to the attention of the chief engineer, who then decides on the
course of action to be taken.
There are 1. A serious breakdown of equipment may cause sufficient down time to put the ship out
disadvantages with of commission until it is repaired.
failure maintenance. 2. If several breakdowns occur at about the same time, the available manpower
onboard may not be able to cope adequately, resulting in delays.
3. Some items of equipment may need the specialist services of the manufacturer to
carry out repairs and this may cause further delays.
Despite these disadvantages, it is believed that failure maintenance is still widely applied, the
responsibility for implementing maintenance being given to ship’s staff, who see failure
maintenance as a simple and logical practice.
Planned A degree of planning is required in the operation of failure maintenance in organization and
maintenance for stocking spare parts and tools. However, the term-planned maintenance is only applied to
maintenance schemes where the application f maintenance and the practices involved are
pre-planned and rigorously applied.
The object of planned maintenance is to prevent failure and breakdown of equipment and so
avoid the consequent disadvantages that are incurred. However, breakdown and failure can
still occur and emergency failure maintenance may still have to be applied.
Two systems of planned maintenance are in common use; periodic maintenance and
planned maintenance.
Periodic Periodic maintenance is the application of specified routine maintenance after a

maintenance predetermined calendar period has elapsed, or after a number of running hours for the
equipment have been recorded. A special case arises for equipment in which no inspection
or repair is possible. For such equipment life maintenance is applied. Life maintenance
means that no maintenance is carried out during the units predetermined useful life. At the

end of this period, the unit is replaced (unless, of course, breakdown occurs and emergency
unscheduled replacement maintenance applied).
Advantages of 1. There are fewer breakdowns and the consequent reduced down time produce much
periodic higher levels of operating efficiency.
maintenance.
2. Maintenance is carried out at times most favourable to the operation of plant.
3. There is more effective utilization of labour because maintenance is carried out at

times favourable to the ship’s staff.
4. Replacement equipment can be ordered in advance at opportune times.
5. Equipment is maintained in a safe condition and with reduced possible dangers.
6. When the specialist services of the manufacturer are required, they can be arranged
for opportune times.
7. Life maintenance of short life components is arranged at scheduled times.
The operation of a periodic maintenance system requires the setting up of specially designed
wall charts and documentation and is controlled, usually, by the Chief Engineer. Regular
planning meetings (weekly) where decisions on the work to be done are a feature of the
system.
The wall a) A main planning board- this being the ‘main control panel’ for the whole system (Fig 41).
charts consist A typical display would include all planning document for:
of: Three months of calendar maintenance routines;
Monthly and weekly maintenance routines;
Hours-run maintenance routines;
Unscheduled and defect notes;
Work not completed in the period;
Work to be carried out in port.
b) Planning documents for each items of equipment

(Fig 42) which detail;
The item of equipment;
The work to be carried out;
The tools and spare parts required;
The necessary safely precautions;
A record that the work has been carried out;
Notes for future reference.
c) A work allocation board-where the names of all operating staff are displayed.
Work is allocated by transferring the planning documents from the main planning board to the
work allocation board against the names of the individual staff members. The names of shore
contractors and manufacturers can also be displayed for work allocated to them.
d) Defect documents
When defects are discovered on equipment which are outside the scope of the work
scheduled in the planning documents, they are recorded and displayed on the main planning
board for future attention.
The Chief Engineer will be in charge of operating the system. Weekly meetings with all staff
and daily inspection of the main planning board will bring agreement as to the work to be
carried out, when and by whom.

The operation of the system usually follows a flow chart. Although systems, at first sight,
appear complex, they usually operate very well and do produce significant end results.
One defect of periodic maintenance is that maintenance work is carried out on equipment
whether it needs maintenance or not. It has been said that periodic maintenance is an
expensive way of opening up equipment and finding it did not need to be opened up at all. It
must be said that this comment is not altogether true as the results of experience have
shown. Nevertheless, it is this point that has promoted the development of the third system of
maintenance.
Condition The concept of condition maintenance is altogether different from the two categories of
maintenance maintenance already described. Condition maintenance has been developed to avoid routine
interference with equipment that is performing perfectly satisfactorily. The system is designed
to detect trends in the operating characteristics of equipment that indicate that deterioration is
developing and therefore that maintenance is required. The techniques involved in monitoring
the condition of the equipment are based upon periodic measurement of:
a) vibration and shock pulse to detect bearing deterioration;

b) insulation testing to detect electrical insulation deterioration;
c) performance check to detect general deterioration by measurement of current, speed,
temperature, pressure, or other prescribed quantities;
d) visual checks to detect wear, leakage, corrosion, security of mountings and the like.
Experience has shown that most failures in electrical machines are not due to electrical
faults, but, rather due to mechanical faults, the commonest of all being bearing failure. It is
obviously difficult to quote general figures for the proportion of electrical motor breakdowns,
which are directly attributable to bearing failure, but a figure of 50% seems conservative-
some operators put the figure as high as 90%. The cause of bearing failure depends to a
large degree. Upon the size of the motor and its load application and this accounts for this
wide range of figures.
Vibration measurement All machinery installations have characteristic vibrations when in operation. Recordings of
these vibration characteristics, taken when the machinery is in good
condition and operating satisfactorily, provide a standard against which to
judge the future condition of the machinery, to diagnose faults and to
decide on the maintenance required.
The vibration measuring equipment comprises a probe to be applied to

the machinery. The probe is connected to an electronic indication unit as
shown in Fig 43.
An equipment history card details how the probe is to be applied and the
readings obtained are recorded on the card.
Probe and electronic indication Although the operator must be skilled in the use of the equipment, a
unit for vibration measurements motor can be monitored in only a short time.
The machinery is regularly monitored. When measurements fall outside

predetermined limits, the vibration characteristics are analysed to identify the cause and
enable appropriate maintenance to be applied.
Shock pulse The rolling bearings of machinery, when in operation, generate shock pulse waves. These
measurement shock pulses are due to imperfections or damage to the bearing surfaces. Even new bearings

have slight imperfections and generate shock pulses. Figure 44 shows typical shock pulse
measuring equipment.
A typical development of bearing shock pulse

measurement is shown in Fig 45. The
fluctuations in the curve are caused by
variations in the extent of the damage and the
bearing rolling out of regions of existing
damage. The normal and the maximum shock
pulse limits can be calculated for every
bearing. A bearing’s normal limit may not be
reached for months or years. When the normal
limit is passed the shock pulse increases
rapidly to approach the maximum allowed
before breakdown becomes likely.
As the maximum is approached readings

should be taken more frequently so that
maintenance can be carried out in good time before failure can occur.
The shock pulse method was developed by SPM Instrument of Sweden and has gained
particular favor with users. Equipment comprises a portable indicating unit, a transducer
applied to the machinery and earphones or stethoscope. A machinery history card details
how the probe should be applied and allows records of readings to be made.
dBN
60
RISK OF BREAKDOWN
50
BEARING DAMAGE: THE PROGRESS OF THE
DAMAGE SHOULD BE FOLLOWED UP 40
30 for continuous monitoring

CAUTION
20 Max. Req value
GOOD CONDITION 10
Min. Req value
0
0 50 100
% Lifetime
Again the user must be skilled in the use of the equipment but a motor can be monitored in
less than a minute.
C IRCU IT NO. 1. COMP RESSOR INSULATION TESTING

DATE IR (M ) COMMENTS
The electrical insulation of electrical machines and cables is
5 -1 -12 17 ENGINE ROOM COLD IN DRY DOCK regularly measured using a standard ‘Megger’ type
2 -10 -02 12 WARM insulation tester. Readings are recorded on a history card
1 -5 -02 5 HOT & HUMID together with other relevant data such as ambient
15 -3 -03 2 WARM - MOTOR CLEANED AND DRIED temperature and humidity, and insulation temperature
(Fig46).
16 -3 -03 25 REPEAT TEST AFTER CLEANING

EXAMPLE OF HISTORY CARD Insulation is made of organic substances and so gradually deteriorates with age.
Although a figure of at least 1 M Ohms is generally regarded as a minimum, in
fact an acceptable value depends upon the size of the machine and its age.
When tests indicate that insulation resistance is approaching a predetermined dangerous

value then a decision regarding the need for maintenance must be made.
40 Temperature, load, visual checks
Standard checks of temperature, load

current and a visual check of cleanliness,
INSULATION security damage, corrosion and the like
RESISTANCE can be quickly carried out and give
M valuable indications of impending trouble
and the need for action.
20
Attempting to measure temperature with
MOTOR the bare hand on equipment is most
DEANED unreliable. A thermometer should be
used, the bulb covered with wadding and
attached in contact with the equipment
with a suitable compound such as
Plasticine. Many portable electronic
0 thermometers are now available with
JAN MAY SEPT JAN SEPT MAY suitable probes for such application. The
DATE readings should be compared with the
temperature rating of the equipment and
also used to estimate the temperature rise of the equipment above ambient temperature. A
method of temperature measurement using simple stick on tape devices has gained favour in
some quarters. The tape changes colour as temperature changes-a danger signal being
given when the tape change to black.
High temperature can be caused by poor ventilation, surface dirt which acts as an insulant,
overload, High cooling air temperature, or faults within the equipment.
Readings of load current of motors and other equipment can be measured using a clamp-on
ammeter. The readings should be compared with the rated current as indicated on the
equipment rating plate. High load current will cause overheating of equipment and the
consequent danger of electrical insulation failure.
The cause must be investigated-it may be due to overload, supply voltage and frequency
departing from their rated values, or other faults. Whatever the cause, the condition must be
rectified above damage arises.
A correctly operated maintenance scheme will incorporate and integrate all the type and
aspects of maintenance mentioned. Despite all correctly applied maintenance procedures,
unscheduled equipment failure will inevitably occur and emergency action will have to be
taken. The maintenance scheme must be flexible enough to handle such emergency
situations.
The mechanics of operating a maintenance system may well be perfectly understood and
carried out by the maintenance team. However, the continuing benefits of the system depend
entirely upon the good offices of the team and their outlook on their tasks. The system must
be looked on as a continually developing unit and improvements made as and when required.

Management of the system involves continual review and analysis of the system and
practices employed to improve the way jobs are carried out, to improve maintenance control
so that the ship’s performance is also improved. Frequent staff meetings should include
discussions to determine whether or not jobs can be carried out in reduced time, whether
jobs can be done less often or methods improved, whether additional aids and tools should
be provided, and whether planning could be improved so that more work would be carried out
at sea so reducing the work load and costs when carried forward to docking repair periods.
The system should also be updated when new equipment is fitted, better methods are
devised, and frequency at which jobs are done or the time to do jobs is changed.
At least one large British shipping company in the business of transporting petroleum
products successfully operates a maintenance system in this manner. The use of computers
in storing data and records has eased the management of the maintenance scheme. The
computer has particular advantages in that it can handle large quantities of feed back data
and provide management information from analysis of costs, spares, usage, downtime, etc.
The computer can be interrogated at any time for management information.
Terotechnology is the total approach to maintenance, which combines management, financial

and other functions in the maintenance of equipment and physical assets at economic life-
cycle cost. The shipboard maintenance team is the vital element.
SAFETY AND Most people have suffered electric shock of various degrees of severity. In many case it has
ELECTRIC SHOCK proved fatal. The actual effects of electric shock depend upon various factors including age,
sex, health and size of the person concerned. Many people suppose that dc is more
dangerous than ac, but in fact this is not so; dc is known to be at least twice as safe as ac,
especially at power frequencies of 50-60Hz commonly in use.
Regulations currently in force state that voltage levels up to 50V ac and 250V dc are
regarded as safe and unlikely to cause fatality.
However, data produced by the IEC suggests that even these levels may be too high as
shown in the table of safe voltages, Table 1.
When it is considered that voltages commonly in use on board ship range up to 10 kV then
the danger of electric shock is obviously very real.
At all times, and especially when carrying when carrying out maintenance on electrical
equipment, great care must be exercised in following recommended safety procedures.
Prior to any work on electrical equipment, it is important that the circuits are ‘dead’ and
switched off by means of the main switch or isolating switch. It is important that this is done
personally; do not rely on other people. The fuses should be removed and taken away. The
main switch or isolator should be locked off. Warning notice cards should be displayed at the
fuse box and the main switch.
The circuit should not now be assumed to be dead. The circuit should be checked with a
suitable voltage indicator. The voltage indicator device itself should be checked prior to use to
confirm that it is operating correctly.
Table 1 Safe voltages
Frequency Population
95% sale 100% sale
dc 120V 50V
50Hz ac 50V 25V
1000Hz ac 120V 50V

These simple steps are vital to ensure safety. When accidents do occur, they frequently
follow some rash unthinking action that the person concerned would normally never
contemplate.
In the case of high voltage systems (above 1000V) then procedures for working on such
equipment should follow a ‘permit to work’ system.
The ‘permit to work’ is a document that details the set safety procedures to render the
equipment safe to be worked on, the work to be done, when the work will be done and by
whom, and finally to recommission the equipment. A designed trained person (chief engineer)
is responsible for isolating and proving the equipment safe to be worked upon and for
recommissioning the equipment. As each set of the specified procedures and work is carried
out, the document is signed. When all work has been carried out, the ‘permit’ is cancelled and
the equipment recommissioned.

SHIPS’ SURVEY REQUIRMENTS
An overview of relevant rules and regulations appertaining to safety on board ship helps
place the importance and relevance of surveys.
Ships for registration within Great Britain must comply with the following rules and
regulations:
a) The Merchant Shipping Rules and Regulations-Department of Transport;
b) The Regulations for the Electrical and Electronic Equipment of Ship of The
Institution of Electrical Engineers-which incorporate:
• The Regulations of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS)-International Maritime Organisation;
• The British Standards Institution;
• The International Electrotechnical Commission (SI Standards).
These regulations must be satisfied when the vessel is designed, constructed and
commissioned.
The vessel must also comply with the rules and regulations of the appropriate
classification society
Classification societies include: American Bureau of Shipping (New York); Det Norske
Veritas (Oslo); Germanisher Llyod (Hamburg); Lloyd’s Register of Shipping (London);
Nippon Kyokai (Tokyo); Registro Italiano Navale (Genoa); USSR Register of Shipping,
(Moscow).
When the vessel has been commissioned, the ship-owner and his staff must thereafter
maintain the vessel and its electrical equipment to the requirements of the classification
society throughout the lifetime of the ship.
The rules regulations of the classification society require that a survey of the ship be
carried out at regular intervals. Every four years a complete engine survey is carried out
and at this time the electrical equipment aboard ship is inspected and tested.
The purpose of the electrical survey is to verify that the electrical installation is correctly
and adequately maintained according to the rules of the classification society and that the
ship is in a safe and serviceable condition.
All classification societies have their own rules and regulations which although similar, do
differ in detail. The general guide notes that follow concerning the electrical survey are
based upon the requirements of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping.
The following items in general are included in the survey of all ships: generators and their
governors; circuit breakers, switchboards and fittings; cable; insulation resistance; motors
and their starters; emergency power equipment; steering gear; navigation lights and
indicators; UMS systems; and tankers.
For tankers, gas carriers and ships transporting flammable cargo, an additional survey of
all the electrical equipment installed in hazardous areas is carried out at each docking
survey and each annual survey. In effect, electrical equipment installed in hazardous
areas is surveyed every year.

Prior to the full inspection by an electrical surveyor from a classification society, it is

recommended that the following points be checked out. It is emphasised that these are
guide notes and are not necessarily the limit of the surveyors requirements.
GENERATORS Generators should be clean and winding free of oil and moisture. Insulation should be
healthy with no damage or cracking. Insulation resistance should be measured with the
machine still hot after just being shut down. Insulation resistance should ideally be at
least 1 MW between windings and between windings and earth.
Slip rings and commutator surfaces should be smooth and display no eccentricity.
Brushes should be of the correct type and length and make contact with the slip
rings/commutator over the full contact area. Springs should be set correctly and carbon
dust should be absent.
The generators should respond to adjustments of controls correctly and operate at rated
values of voltage and frequency. When operating in parallel generators should
demonstrate their ability to maintain stable load kW and kVAr sharing and to respond
correctly to sudden load changes.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS Circuit breakers should be checked visually for cleanliness and all contacts checked for
burning and overheating, wear and erosion and misalignment.
Arc chutes and barriers should be clean, free of blackening and arc debris. All the
auxiliary wiring should be sound. All connections and fixings should be checked for
tightness. Linkages and other mechanical parts should be checked for wear, together
with springs, clip and the like.
Tests on the racking gear should demonstrate smooth correct operation with shutters and
indicators operating correctly. Closing and tripping operations should be demonstrated.
The settings of overcurrent protection devices should be checked. The operation of

protective devices may have to be demonstrated to the surveyor but this usually requires
the use of ‘injection equipment’ operated by shore specialist operators.
SWITCHBOARDS Switchboards should be clean (inside and out). All connections and fixings should be
checked for tightness. All bus bars should be checked for overheating and corrosion at
joints and connections and bus bar insulation checked for deterioration and tracking. All
auxiliary wiring should be checked for soundness. Incoming cables should be checked for
soundness and their glands inspected.
The security of bonding of the main earth should be checked together with all auxiliary
earth bonds on panel doors, instrument cases and the cases of other equipment,
instrument transformers and earth indication devices.
Switch and isolators should be checked for correct operation, wear and overheating.
Fuses also should be checked for overheating.
PROTECTION RELAYS Settings should be correct and relay operation confirmed where possible during
generator operation tests.
CABLES Cables should be subject to visual examination, particularly cables installed in locations
subject to arduous conditions such as on the open deck. Points to be checked are sign of

damage to the outer sheath and the armour particularly at glands and expansion loops
and stopper boxes.
Cable support brackets and clips should be sound. Deterioration of cables due to oil or oil
vapour should be looked for especially at cable ends.
Flexible cables of portable appliances are especially prone to abrasion damage and cuts
and require particular inspection.
Insulation resistance
Insulation resistance records for all ships’ equipment and circuits should be checked for
regular entries and acceptable values.
MOTORS AND Motors and starters should be checked for cleanliness. All connections and fixings should
STARTERS be checked for security. Slip rings and commutators should be inspected for smoothness
and even wear, and brushes for correct type, adequate length, good contact with rotating
surfaces and correct spring tension.
Starter contacts condition should be checked and all auxiliary wiring should be sound.
Motors should be run, and checked for vibration and smooth running. All start and stop
controls, local and remote should be checked and all indicating lamps should operate
correctly.
Any other points identified in the regular maintenance schedules should also be checked.
EMERGENCY POWER Emergency power supply equipment, including the generators, switchboards and circuit
SUPPLY EQUIPMENT breakers, should be inspected and checked as previously detailed. In addition, the
emergency generator must be proved to be able to start, either manually if so arranged,
or automatically by simulating a mains power failure, the starting equipment being
observed for correct operation. Also the ‘automatic start’ relays must be checked and
their operation tested. The emergency load, comprising emergency services, must be
proved to operate correctly and to be supplied at rated voltage, frequency and current.
Any interlock fitted in the system must be checked.
The emergency battery installation should be checked to ensure that safety requirements
are met and that correct battery maintenance has been regularly carried out.
Safety requirement include the display of safety notices, availability of safety clothing and
ensuring ventilation arrangements function correctly. Maintenance requirements include
ensuring that the battery is clean and dry; all electrolyte levels are correct, electrolyte
specific density is correct and all connections are tight and free from corrosion. The
‘charger’ equipment should be inspected for cleanliness, tight connections and other
evidence of general good maintenance.
TRICKLE CHARGER A charger used for charging batteries from time to time to compensate the losses is
called a trickle charger. It charges the battery a low current rating.
The principal components called a trickle charger. It chargers the battery a low current
rating. The principal component are:
1. Step down transformer.
2. Voltage regulator or tappings are taken from the transformer.
3. Silicon diodes or metal rectifier ( full-wave or half-wave)
4. Ammeter and voltmeter.
5. Load resistance.
6. Fuse.
A full-wave trickle charger circuit is shown in Fig.9-10. The charging current rating in this
case is in the range of 0.75 to 1.75 amperes.

Fuse
D C Ammeter
+
V
-
TRICKLE CHARGE CIRCUIT
HIGH RATE In the fig below (cell tester) is shown a tester, which gives the correct terminal voltage on
DISCHARGE CELL full load of the battery cell. In this tester there is a low value resistance, which acts as
TESTER load on the cell. A center zero voltmeter is also connected to give voltage across battery
terminals. It is also marked on the same voltmeter dial, D.F.C. and H.C. denoting dead,
full charge and half charged respectively. This tester gives the reading to one cell only at
a time.
While making use of it, some precautions have to be taken, which are:
1. It should not be connected across the cell terminals for a long period, because it
provides heavy load on the cell, and so the cell be discharged quickly.
2. before using, clean the terminals of the cell and the tester.
HYDROMETER This meter is used to test the specific gravity of liquids. It consists of a
glass made tube with a bulb. The glass bulb is fitted with mercury and is
fitted with scale on which specific gravity is marked as well as the
indication with D, F.C. and H.C. This hydrometer is kept in another glass-
made tube. A rubber bulb is fitted on one side of this tube and on the
other side a nozal (See Fig.9-12). The rubber bulb is pressed to suck in
the acid from the battery. The electrolyte enters in the outer glass tube in
which hydrometer bulb floats and gives reading.
With dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) the bulb sinks more in the electrolyte,
while with strong H2SO4 the bulb sinks less. In this way it gives reading.
Reading on the hydrometer

Full charge 1280
Half charge 1260
Full discharge 1200
Or dead 1180
Hydrometer
Cell Tester

• Is it necessary to Replace the Acid in a Car Battery?

Under normal conditions, no
• It is Necessary to Occasionally Recharge a Lead-acid Battery, even Though it is not

being used
A lead acid battery not in use will gradually lose its charge, and if it is left in an
uncharged condition, the material on the plates will flake off and short circuit the
plates, the plates, thereby causing a shorted cell or cells.
CAPACITY The unit of capacity of a storage cell is ampere hour, i.e. the ability to discharge one
ampere continuously for one hour.
Thus, an 80-ampere hour battery will give a continuous discharge of 8 amperes for ten
hours. It should give a theoretical discharge of 20 amperes for four hours, or 40 amperes
for two hours. In reality the ampere-hour capacity decreases with an increase of
discharge rate. The reason is that it is impossible to reduce all the active material by the
current. The capacity, however, increases with temperature.
Battery capacity depends on the size and number of plates, the quantity of active material
present and the quantity of electrolyte.
Example. A battery supplies 15 amperes for 10 hours. What is its ampere-hour (A.h.)
capacity?
Solution. Ampere hour capacity = Ampere x hours = 15 x 10 = 150
Example. A battery has an efficiency of 90 percent when discharged at 10 A. It is charged

in 8 hours at 15 A. How many hours service will the accumulator give at the stated
discharge rate?
Solution. Efficiency = Discharge rate x hours discharge

Charge rate x hours charge
Therefore Hours discharge = Efficiency x charge rate x hours charge

Discharge rate
= 0.9 x 15 x 8 = 10.8 hours.

10
Indications of a Fully Charged Cell

The indications of a fully charged cell are:
(i) Gassing. When a cell is full charged, it freely gives off hydrogen at cathode
and oxygen at anode. The process is known as gassing. Gassing at both
plates indicates that the current is not doing any useful work and hence
should be switched off.
(ii) Voltage. When the cell is fully charged the voltage ceases to rises. The
voltage of a fully charged cell is variable depending upon the rate of
charging, the temperature and specific gravity of the electrolyte etc. The
approximate value of e.m.f. is 2.1 volt.
(iii) Specific gravity of electrolyte. During discharging, the density of electrolyte

decreases due to formation of water while it increases during charging due to

the absorption of water. When the cell is fully charged its density is 1.21. and
when discharged upto 1.8 V it is 1.18. Specific gravity can be measured with
a suitable hydrometer.
(iv) Colour. On full charge, the colour of the Positive plates is deep chocolate
brown and for negative plate it is slate grey.
SULPHATION Lead peroxide (PbO2) and lead (Pb) loss the property of reconversion if the cell is not
fully charged and is also not charged from time to time. Lead sulphate (PbSO4) gets
deposited on the plate and it is then said to be sulphated. The effect is to increase the
internal resistance of the cell and to reduce its efficiency and capacity.

SEMICONDUCTORS
The most exciting and important electronic components are made from crystals called
Semiconductors. Depending on certain conditions, a semiconductor can act like a
conductor or an insulator.
SILICON There are many different semiconducting materials, but silicon, the main ingredient of
sand, is the most popular.
A silicon atom has but four

electrons in its outer shell,
but it would like to have
eight. Therefore, a silicon
atom will link up with four of
its neighbour to Share
electrons:
A cluster of silicon atoms sharing outer electrons forms a regular

arrangement called a crystal.
← This is a magnified view of a silicon crystal. To keep things simple,

only the outer electrons of the outer electrons of each atom are shown.
Silicon forms 27.7% of the earth’s crust ! Only oxygen is more common. It’s never found
in the pure state. When purified, it’s dark gray in colour.
Silicon and diamond share the same crystal structure and other properties. But silicon is
not transparent.
Silicon can be grown into big crystal. It’s cut into wafers for making
electronic parts.

SILICON
RECIPIES Pure silicon isn’t very useful that’ why
silicon makers spice up their silicon
recipes with a dash of phosphorus,
boron or other goodies. This is called
Doping. The silicon when grown into
crystals, doped silicon has very useful
electronic properties!
P AND N SPICED Boron, phosphorus and certain other atoms can join with silicon atoms to form crystals.
SILICON LOAF Here’s the catch: A boron atom has only three electron in its outer shell and a
phosphorus atom has five electrons in its outer shell. Silicon with extra phosphorus
electrons is called N-Type silicon ( N = Negative). Silicon with electron deficient boron
atoms is called P-Type silicon (p = Positive).
P – TYPE SILICON A boron atom in a cluster of silicon atoms leaves a vacant electron opening called a hole.
It’s possible for an electron from a nearby atom to
“fall” into the hole. Therefore, the hole has moved
to a new location. Remember, holes can move
through silicon (just as bubbles move though
water).
BORON ATOM
HOLE
N – TYPE SILICON
A phosphorus atom in a cluster of silicon atoms

donates an extra electron this extra electron. This
extra electron can move through the crystal with
comparative ease. In other words, N – type silicon
can carry an electrical current. But so can P – type
PHOSPHOROUS silicon holes “carry” the current.
ATOM
EXTRA
ELECTRON

THE DIODE
Both P – type and N – type silicon conduct electricity. The resistance of both types is
determined by the proportion of holes or surplus electrons. Therefore both types can
function as resistors and they will conduct electricity in any direction.
By forming some P – type silicon in a chip of N – type silicon, electrons will flow through
the silicon in only one direction. This is the principle of the diode. The P –N interface is
called the PN junction.
HOW THE DIODE Here’s a simplified explanation of how a diode conducts electricity in one direction
WORKS (forward) while blocking the flow of current in the opposite direction (reverse).
F O R WA R D B I A S REVERSE BIAS
+ - + -
P N N P
ELECTRON FLOW NO CURRENT FLOW

HOLE FLOW
Here the charge from the battery repels Here the charge from the battery
holes and electrons toward the attracts holes and electrons away from
junction. If the voltage exceeds 0.6 – the junction. Therefore, no current can
volt (silicon), then electrons will cross flow.
the junction and combine with holes, a
current then flows.
A TYPICAL DIODE Diodes are commonly enclosed in small glass cylinders. A dark band marks the cathode
terminal. The opposite terminal is the anode.
SYMBOL
CURRENT FLOWS WHEN ANODE IS MORE
POSITIVE THAN CATHODE.
ANODE

TYPES OF DIODES Many different kinds of diodes are available. Here are some of the major types:
SMALL SIGNAL Small signal diodes are used to transform low current ac to dc, detect (demodulate) radio
signals, multiply voltage, perform logic, absorb voltage spikes, etc.
POWER RECTIFIER Functionally identical to small signal diodes, power rectifiers can handle much more
current. They are installed in large metal packages that soak up excess heat and transfer
it to a metal heat sink. Used mainly in power supplies.
ZENER The zener diode is designed to have a specific reverse breakdown (conduction) voltage.
This means zener diodes can function like a voltage sensitive switch. Zener diodes
having breakdown voltages (VZ) of from about 2 –volts to 200 – volts are available.
33
47
1N
LIGHT – All diodes emit some electromagnetic radiation when forward biased. Diodes made from
EMITTING certain semiconductors (like gallium arsenide phosphide) emit considerably more
radiation than silicon diodes. They’re called light – emitting diodes (LEDs).
PHOTODIODE All diodes respond to some degree when illuminated by light. Diodes designed
specifically to detect light are called photodiodes. They include a glass or plastic window
through which the light enters. Often they have a large, exposed junction region. Silicon
makes good photodiodes.
HOW DIODES In chapter 9 you’ll see how various type of diodes are used in many applications. For now
ARE USED here are two of the most important roles for small signal diodes and rectifiers:
SINGLE – WAVE + + An undulating

RECTIFIER (ac) signal (or
voltage) is
- - rectified into a
AC IN DC OUT single polarity
HALF OF SIGNAL
IS BLO CK ED
(dc) signal (or
voltage).

FULL – WAVE This 4 – diode

RECTIFIER + + “network” (or
bridge rectifier)
rectifies both
- - DC OUT halves of an ac
AC IN signal.
MORE ABOUT THE An electrical current is the movement of electrons through a conductor or semiconductor.
DIRECTION OF Since electrons move from a negatively charged to a positively charged region, why does
CURRENT FLOW the arrowhead in a diode symbol point in the opposite direction? There are two reasons:
1. Beginning with Benjamin Franklin, it was traditionally assumed electricity flows

from a positively charged to a negatively charged region. The discovery of the
electron corrected that. (But most electrical circuit diagrams today still follow the
old tradition in which the positive power supply connection is placed above. The
negative connection as if gravity somehow influences the flow of a current).
2. In a semiconductor, as shown on page 44, holes flow in the direction opposite

that of electron flow. It’s therefore common to refer to positive current flow in
semiconductors.
For accuracy, in this book “current flow” refers to electron flow. But we’re stuck with
symbols that indicate hole flow.
THE
LO
TRANSISTOR PRES W
SURE
AM
P
A L LIFIE
ITT R
C LE S LE Transistors are semiconductor devices with
F T
BI G ONTR ORCE
GE O three leads. A very small current or voltage at
RF LA
OR
CE one lead can control a much larger current
flowing through the outer two leads. This means
transistors can be used as amplifiers and
switches. There are two main families of
transistors: Bipolar and Field – Effect.
BIPOLAR BASE
Add a second junction to a PN junction diode and you
TRANSISTORS
get a 3 – layer silicon sandwich. The sandwich can be
N P N
either NPN or PNP. Either way, the middle layer acts
like a faucet or gate that controls the current moving
EM ITT ER BASE COLLECTOR through the three layers.
P N P
BIPOLAR The three layer of a bipolar transistor are the emitter, base and collector. The base is
TRANSISTOR very thin and has fewer doping atoms than the emitter and collector. Therefore a very
OPERATION small emitter – base current will cause a much larger emitter – collector current to flow.

RESISTORS
N AMPLIFIED
OUTPUT
N
P BASE CURRENT
INPUT
CURRENT N EMITTER BASE P CURRENT
The resistors protect the FLOW
OUTPUT
INPUT ELECTRON transistor from too much
+ FLOW + N
ELECTRON current (which can cause
FLOW
excessive heat).
- -
EMITTER
FIELD – EFFECT Field – effect transistors (or FETs) have become more important than bipolar transistors.
TRANSISTORS. They are easy to make and require less silicon. There are two major FET families,
junction and metal – oxide – semiconductor. In both kinds an output current is controlled
by a small input voltage and practically no input current .
JUNCTION FETs The two main kinds of FETs are N – G ATE

channel and P – channel. The channel
is like a silicon resistor that conducts
current moving from the source to the P
drain. A voltage at the gate increases N - CHANNEL
P
the channel resistance and reduces the
drain – source current. Therefore, the D R A IN
FET can be used as an amplifier or a SO U RC E
G ATE
switch.
P - CHANNEL
JUNCTION FET – The arrangement below shows how an N – channel FET works. A negative gate
OPERATION voltage creates two high resistance regions (the field) in the channel adjacent to the P –
type silicon, more gate voltage will cause the fields to merge together and completely
block the current. The gate – channel resistance is very high.
MAXIMUM SOME NO
CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT
DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN

N N N
0 VOLTS
- 0.5 VOLT - 1 VOLT
GATE GATE GATE
GROUND SOURCE SOURCE SOURCE

INSULATOR
METAL – OXIDE – METAL
DRAIN
The metal – oxide – semiconductor FET (or
SEMICONDUCTOR FETs MOSFET) has become the most important SOURCE
GATE
DRAIN
transistor. Most microcomputer and memory

integrated circuits are arrays of thousands of
MOSFETs on a small sliver of silicon. Why? N N
MOSFETs are easy to make, they can be very P
small, and some MOSFET circuits consume N - MOSFET
negligible power. New kinds of power MOSFETs are
INSULATOR
also very useful. METAL
DRAIN
GATE
SOURCE DRAIN
MOSFET OPERATION All MOSFETs are N – type or P – type unlike the P P

junction FET, the gate of a MOSFET has no N
electrical contact with the source and drain. A glass P - MOSFET
like layer of silicon – dioxide (an insulator) separates
the gate’s metal contact from the rest of the transistor.
0 VOLTS (GATE)
SILICON-OXIDE
ALUMINUM
I N S U L ATO R
G AT E C O N TA C T
SOURCE DRAIN
NO
N N CURRENT
N P N
P
SILICON
A positive gate voltage attracts

SOURCE DRAIN SOME
electrons to the region below the CURRENT
gate. This creates a thin N – type N N
channel in the P – type silicon P
between the source and drain.

Current can then flow through the
channel. The gate voltage
+ 1 VOLT (GATE)
determines the resistance of the
channel.
SOURCE DRAIN
MAXIMUM
CURRENT
N N
P
GROUND

SMALL
THE THYRISTOR Thyristors are CURRENT
semiconductor device
with three leads. A small OFF
current at one lead will
allow a much larger
current to flow through
the other two leads. The
controlled current is
either on or off.
Therefore thyristors do
not amplify fluctuating LARGE
signals like transistors CURRENT
do instead they are solid ON
– state switches. There
are two families of
thyristors, silicon
controlled rectifiers
(SCRs) and TRIACs.
SCRs switch direct
current and TRIACs
switch alternating current.
SILICON – CONTROLLED The SCR is similar to a bipolar transistor with a fourth layer and
RECTIFIERS (SCRs) therefore three PN junctions. It is sometimes called a 4 – layer
PNPN diode since it passes a current in only one direction. P
N
SCR OPERATION If the anode of an SCR is made more positive than the cathode the
two outermost PN junctions are forward biased. The middle PN P
junction, however, is reverse biased and current cannot flow a
small gate current forward biases the middle PN junction and N
allows a much larger current to flow through the device. The SCR
stay on even if the gate current is removed. (untill power is
disconnected).

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Electronic circuits can be made by
simultaneously forming individual
transistors, diodes and resistors on a
small chip of silicon. The components
are connected to one another with
aluminum “wires” deposited on the
surface of the chip. The result is an
integrated circuit. Integrated circuits (or
IC’s) can contain as few as several to as
many as hundreds of thousands of
transistors. They have made possible video games, digital watches, affordable computers
and many other very sophisticated products. Here’s a simplified and highly magnified
view of a section of a bipolar integrated circuit:
SILICON DIOXIDE * CONNECTION LEAD

ALUMINUM
“WIRING”
P P N
P
N N N
SILICON
*SILICON DIOXIDE:
IS A GLASS LIKE
INSULATING
SUBSTANCE
RESISTOR – A small DIODE – A PN junction TRANSISTOR – A pair of

section of P –type silicon forms a diode. PN junctions forms an
forms a resistor. NPN transistor.
Of course the conventional components shown below the highly magnified section of the
IC are not drawn to the same scale for example, one kind of IC includes 262, 144
transistors on a silicon chip only about ¼ incn square.

KINDS OF Integrated circuits are grouped into two major categories:

INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS 1. Analog (or linear) IC’s produce, amplify or respond to variable voltages. Analog
IC’s include many kinds of amplifier, timers, oscillators and voltage regulators.
2. Digital (or logic) IC’s respond to or produce signals having only two voltage
levels. Digital IC’s include microprocessors, memories, microcomputers and
many kinds of simpler chips.
Some IC’s combine analog and digital functions on a single chip, for example, a digital
chip may include a built – in analog voltage regulator section and an analog timer chip
may include an on – chip digital counter to give much longer time delays than possible
with the timer alone.
VOLTAGE
INTO OR
OUT OF
CHIP (NOT
POWER
SUPPLY
VOLTAGE).
TIME TIME
ANALOG IC ’s DIGITAL IC ’s
KINDS OF IC chips are supplied in many different packages. By far the most common are variations
INTEGRATED of the dial in – line package (or dip). The dip is made from plastic (cheap) or ceramic
CIRCUIT (more robust). Most dips have 14 or 16 pins, but the pin count can range from 4 to 64.
PACKAGES Here’s a typical dip:
INDEX MARKER
(INDICATES PIN1)
14 13 12 11 10 9 8
M
MANUFACTURES PART NUMBER
MC14021B
LOGO (MOTOROLA)
CP8314 DATE CODE
83 = 1983
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 = 14th WEEK
PIN NUMBERS
METAL CAN
Another IC package is the to-5 metal can though very sturdy, it’s being
replaced in many cases by cheaper plastic dips.
LEADS

DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
No matter how complicated, all digital integrated circuits are made from simple building
blocks called gates. Gates are like electronically controlled switches. They are either on
or off how do gates works? Let’s start with the basics….
MECHANICAL SWITCH The three simplest gates can be demonstrated with some pushbutton switches, a battery
GATES
and a lamp.
SWITCH “AND” GATE The lamp glows only when switches a and b are closed. The table summarizes the gate’s
operation it’s called a truth table.
A B OUT
Open switch = off
A B Off Off Off
Closed switch = off Off On Off
On Off Off
NORMALLY OPEN On On On
PUSH BUTTON
SWITCHES All possible on – off
LAMP combination
(OFF)
SWITCH “OR” GATE The lamp glows only when switch A or switch B or both switches A and B are closed.
Here’s the truth table:
A B OUT
NORMALLY OPEN
A PUSH BUTTON The switches are the Off Off Off
SWITCHES Off On On
gate’s inputs. The lead On Off On
without switches is the On On On
Common or Ground lead.

B
LAMP
(OFF)
SWITCH “NOT” GATE The lamp normally glows. Only when the switch is opened is the lamp off in other
words, the “not” gate reverse (inverts) the usual action of a switch. Here’s the truth
table:
IN
IN OUT
The “not” gate is usually
OFF On
NORMALLY CLOSED called the inverter. On Off
PUSH BUTTON
SWITCHES
LAMP
(ON)

THE BINARY
It’s possible to substitute the digits 0 and 1 for the odd and on state of a switch the truth
CONNECTION
tables for the gates on the previous page then become:
“AND” GATE “OR” GATE “NOT” GATE
A B OUT A B OUT IN OUT
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
The 0 and 1 input ( A & B) combinations from numbers in the two digit ( or bit ) binary
number system in digital electronics, binary numbers serve as codes that represent
decimal numbers, letters of the alphabet, voltages and many other kinds of information.
Binary – Coded
Decimal Binary
Decimal (BCD)
BINARY FACTS
0 0 0000 0000
1 1 0000 0010
2 10 0000 0010
3 11 0000 0011
4 100 0000 0100 A binary 0 or 1 is a bit. A pattern of 4 bits is a nibble. A pattern of 8
5 101 0000 0101 bits is a byte.
6 110 0000 0110
7 111 0000 0111 BCD – Each decimal digit is assigned its binary equivalent. Note
8 1000 0000 1000
9 1001 0000 1001 that leading zeros are shown in digital electronics all bit locations
10 1010 0001 0000 are occupied. 12 13 14 15
11 1011 0001 0001
12 1100 0001 0010
13 1101 0001 0011
1 1 1 1
14 1110 0001 0100
15 1111 0001 0101
PARALLEL 1 1 1 1
Binary numbers can be sent through
wires (buses) all at once (parallel) or a (FAST)
bit at a time (serial) shown here are
0 0 1 1
serial and parallel transmission of
15….14….13….12.
SERIAL
(SLOW) 0 1 0 1
12 13 14 15
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

GATE SYMBOLS Before moving on to digital integrated circuits, let’s look at the symbols for the various
kinds of gates this is also a good place to introduce several gates we’ve not yet
encountered.
“AND” GATE A B OUT “NAND” GATE A B OUT

L L L L L H
A L H L A L H H
OUT H L L OUT H L H
B H H H B H H L
“OR” GATE A B OUT “NOR” GATE A B OUT

L L L L L H
A L H H A L H L
OUT H L H OUT H L L
B H H H B H H L
“EXCLUSIVE OR” GATE A B OUT “EXCLUSIVE NOR” GATE A B OUT

L L L L L H
A L H H A L H L
OUT H L H OUT H L L
B H H L B H H H
LOGIC GATES WITH The gate shown above are called logic circuits because they make logical dicisions. Logic
MORE THAN TWO
gates often have more than two inputs. Additional inputs increase the dicision making
INPUTS
power of a gate. They also increase the number of ways gates can be connected to one
another to form advanced digital logic circuits. Here are two examples;
3-INPUT “AND” 3-INPUT “NAND”

GATE GATE
A B C OUT A B C OUT
L L L L L L L H
A L L H L A L L H H
B L H L L B L H L H
C L H H L C L H H H
H L L L H L L H
H L H L H L H H
H H L L H H L H
H H H H H H H L

DIGITAL TC FAMILIES
There are more than a dozen

major families of bipolar and MOS
integrated circuits. Each IC (or “chip”)
contains a specific logic network or
assortment of various logic functions. Here
are some of the major digital IC families:
BIPOLAR DIGITAL IC’S
1. TRANSISTOR – Transistor logic z(TTL or T2L). The largest and formerly popular
digital IC family can change states more than 20,000,000 times per second very
inexpensive drawbacks: must be powered by 5 – volt supply uses lots of power.
(individual gate require 3 or milliamperes) most widely used is the 7400 series.
The 7404, for example, contains four inverters.
2. LOW – POWER SCHOTTKY TTL (LS). A newer kind of TTL that consumes only
20% as much power drawback: More expensive than standard TTL. Most widely
used is the 741500 series.
MOSFET DIGITAL IC’S
1. P – and N – channel MOS (PMOS and NMOS) contain more gates per chip than
TTL. Many special purpose chip (microprocessors, memories, etc.). Drawback:
Few counterparts to popular TTL chips. Slower than TTL. May require two or
more supply voltages. May be damaged by static electrical discharge.
2. Complementary MOS (CMOS). Fastest growing and most versatile digital IC

family. There are CMOS versions of most popular TTL chips. One series uses
the same designation numbers. The 74C04, for example, is the CMOS
equivalent of the TTL 7404. New high – speed CMOS just as fast as TTL. Most
CMOS has a wide supply voltage range (typically +3 to + 18 volts). Uses less
power than any other digital IC family. (individual gate require 0.1 milliampere).
Drawback: May be damaged by static electrical discharge. Most widely used are
74C00 and 4000 series.

COM MON CI RC UIT SYMBOL

PASSIVE COMP ONE NTS
FIXED
FI X E D C A PA C IT O R VA R IA BL E FIXED VA R IA B L E TRANSFORMER
C A PAC IT O R (POLARIZED ) C A PA C IT O R R ES I S T O R R ES I S T O R
DIODES AND THYRISTORS

A1 G N
A C A C A C +
A2 N
G
RECTIF IER ZENER SCR TRIAC TRIGGER BRI DGE
DIODE DIODE DIODE RECTIFIER
TRANSISTORS
C E D D D D
B B G G
G G
E C S S S S
PHOTONIC COMPONENTS
C
A C A C B + - A C
G
E
LED LASCR PHOTO-
RESISTOR
LOGIC GATES

Regulation 37 At least two independent means shall be provided for communicating order from the
Communication navigating bridge to the position in the machinery space or in the control room from which
between navigating the engines are normally controlled: one of these shall be an engine – room telegraph
bridge and machinery which provides visual indication of the order and responses both in the machinery space
space and on the navigating bridge. Appropriate means of communication shall be provided to
any other positions from which the engines may be controlled.
Regulation 38 An engineers’ alarm shall be provided to be operated from the engine control room or at
Engineers’ alarm the Manoeuvring platform as appropriate, and shall be clearly audible in the engineers’
accommodation.
Regulation 39 Emergency sources of electrical power, fire pumps, bilge pumps except those specifically
Location of emergency serving the spaces forward of the collision bulkhead, any fixed fire-extinguishing system
installations in required by chapter II-2 and other emergency installations which are essential for the
passenger ships safety of the ship, except anchor windlasses, shall not be installed forward of the collision
bulkhead.

Part D
Electrical Installations
(Except where expressly provided otherwise part D applies to
passenger ships and cargo ships)
Regulation 40
General 1. Electrical installations shall be such that:
i) all electrical auxiliary services necessary for maintaining the ship in

normal operational and habitable conditions will be ensured without
recourse to the emergency source of electrical power:
ii) electrical services essential for safety will be ensured under various
emergency conditions; and
iii) the safety of passengers, crew and ship from electrical hazards will
be ensured.
2. The Administration shall take appropriate steps to ensure uniformity in the

implementation and application of the provisions of this part in respect of
electrical installations. *
Regulation 41 1.1 A main source of electrical power of sufficient capacity to supply all those
Main source of services mentioned in regulation 40.1.1 shall be provided. This main source of
electrical power and electrical power shall consist of at least two generating sets.
lighting systems 1.2 The capacity of these generating sets shall be such that in the event of any one
generating set being stopped it will still be possible to supply those services
necessary to provide normal operational Conditions of propulsion and safety.
Minimum comfortable conditions of habitability shall also be ensured which
include at least adequate service for cooking, heating, domestic refrigeration,
mechanical ventilation, sanitary and fresh water.
1.3 The arrangements of the ship’s main source of electrical power shall be such
that the services referred to in regulation40.1.1 can be maintained regardless of
the speed and direction of rotation of the propulsion machinery or shafting.
* refer to the recommendations published by the International Electrotechnical

Commission and , in particular, Publication 92 – Electrical Installations in Ships.

1.4 In addition, the generating sets shall be such as to ensure that with any one
generator or its primary source of power out of operation, the remaining generating
sets shall be capable of providing the electrical service necessary to start the main
propulsion plant from a dead ship condition. The emergency source of electrical
power may be used for the purpose of starting from a dead ship condition if its
capability either alone or combined with that of any other source of electrical power is
sufficient by regulation 42.2.1 to 42.2.3 or 43.2.1 to 43.2.4.
1.5 Where transformers constitute an essential part of the electrical supply system
required by this paragraph, the system shall be so arranged as to ensure the same
continuity of the supply as is stated in this paragraph.
2.1 A main electric lighting system which shall provide illumination throughout those parts
of the ship normally accessible to and used by passengers or crew shall be supplied
from the main source of electrical power.
2.2 The arrangement of the main electric lighting system shall be such that a fire or other
casualty in spaces containing the main source of electrical power, associated
transforming equipment, if any, the main switchboard and the main lighting
switchboard, will not render the emergency electric lighting system required by
regulations 42.2.1 and 42.2.2 or 43.2.1, 43.2.2 and 43.2.3 inoperative.
2.3 The arrangement of the emergency electric lighting system shall be such that a fire or
other casualty in spaces containing the emergency source of electrical power,
associated transforming equipment, if any, the emergency switchboard and the
emergency lighting switchboard will not render the main electric lighting system
required by this regulation inoperative.
3 The main switchboard shall be so placed relative to one main generating station
that, as far as is practicable, the integrity of the normal electrical supply may be
affected only by a fire or other casualty in one space. An environmental enclosure
for the main switchboard, such as may be provided by a machinery control room
situated within the main boundaries of the space, is not to be considered as
separating the switchboards from the generators.

4 Where the total installed electrical power of the main generating sets is in excess of
3 MW, the main busbars shall be subdivided into at least two parts which shall
normally be connected by removable links or other approved means; so far as is
practicable, the connection of generating sets and any other duplicated equipment
shall be equally divided between the parts. Equivalent arrangements may be
permitted to the satisfaction of the Administration.
Regulation 42 (Paragraph 2.6.1 and 4.2 of this regulation apply to ships constructed on or
Emergency source after 1 February 1992)

of electrical power in
passenger ships 1.1 A self – contained emergency source of electrical power shall be provided.
1.2 The emergency source of electrical power, associated transforming equipment, if

any, transitional source of emergency power, emergency switchboard and
emergency lighting switchboard shall be located above the uppermost continuous
deck and shall be forward of the collision bulkhead.
1.3 The location of the emergency source of electrical power and associated
transforming equipment, if any, the transitional source of emergency power, the
emergency switchboard and the emergency electric lighting switchboards in
relation to the main source of electrical power, associated transforming equipment,
if any, and the main switchboard shall be such as to ensure to the satisfaction of
the Administration that a fire or other casualty in spaces containing the main source
of electrical power, associated transforming equipment, if any, and the main
switchboard or in any machinery space of category A will not interfere with the
supply, control and distribution of emergency electrical power. As far as
practicable, the space containing the emergency source of electrical power,
associated transforming equipment, if any , the transitional source of emergency
electrical power and the emergency switchboard shall not be contiguous to the
boundaries of machinery spaces of category A or those spaces containing the main
source of electrical power, associated transforming equipment, if any, or the main
switchboard.
4 The transitional source of emergency electrical power required by paragraph 3.1.3

shall consist of an accumulator battery suitably located for use in an emergency
which shall operate without recharging while maintaining the voltage of the battery
throughout the discharge period within 12% above or below its nominal voltage and
be of sufficient capacity and so arranged as to supply automatically in the event of

failure of either the main or emergency source of electrical power at least the
following services, if they depend upon an electrical source for their operation:
4.1 For half an hour:

1. the lighting required by paragraphs 2.1 and 2.1.1;
2. all services required by paragraphs 2.3.1, 2.3.3 and 2.3.4 unless such services
have an independent supply for the period specified from an accumulator battery
suitably located for use in an emergency.
4.2 Power to operate the watertight doors, as required by regulation 15.7.3.3, but not
necessarily all of them simultaneously, unless an independent temporary source of
stored energy is provided. Power to the control, indication and alarm circuits as
required by regulation 15.7.2 for half an hour.
5.1 The emergency switchboard shall be installed as near as is practicable to the
emergency source of electrical power.
5.2 Where the emergency source of electrical power is a generator, the emergency
switchboard shall be located in the same space unless the operation of the
emergency switchboard would thereby be impaired.
5.3 No accumulator battery fitted in accordance with this regulation shall be installed in
the same space as the emergency switchboard. An indicator shall be mounted in a
suitable place on the main switchboard or in the machinery control room to indicate
when the batteries constituting either the emergency source of electrical power or the
transitional source of emergency electrical power referred to in paragraph 3.1.3 or 4
are being discharged.
5.4 The emergency switchboard shall be supplied during normal operation from the main
switchboard by an interconnector feeder which is to be adequately protected at the
main switchboard against overload and short circuit and which is to be disconnected
automatically at the emergency switchboard upon failure of the main source of
electrical power. Where the system is arranged for feedback operation, the
interconnector feeder is also to be protected at the emergency switchboard at least
against short circuit.
2.7 In a ship engaged regularly on voyages of short duration, the Administration if

satisfied that an adequate standard of safety would be attained may accept a lesser
period than the 36 h period specified in paragraphs 2.1 to 2.5 but not less than 12 h.

3 The emergency source of electrical power may be either a generator or an

accumulator battery, which shall comply with the following:
3.1 Where the emergency source of electrical power is a generator, it shall be:
1 driven by a suitable prime mover with an independent supply of fuel having a

flashpoint (closed cup test) of hot less than 43deg C;
2 started automatically upon failure of the electrical supply from the main source
of electrical power and shall be automatically connected to the emergency
switchboard; those services referred to in paragraph 4 shall then be transferred
automatically to the emergency generating set. The automatic starting system
and the characteristic of the prime mover shall be such as to permit the
emergency generator to carry its full rated load as quickly as is safe and
practicable, subject to a maximum of 45 s; unless a second independent
means of starting the emergency generating set is provided, the single source
of stored energy shall be protected to preclude its complete depletion by the
automatic starting system; and
3 provided with a transitional source of emergency electrical power according to

paragraph 4.
3.2 Where the emergency source of electrical power is an accumulator battery, it shall be
capable of;
1 carrying the emergency electrical load without recharging while maintaining the
voltage of the battery throughout the discharge period within 12% above or
below its nominal voltage;
2 automatically connecting to the emergency switchboard in the event of failure

of the main source of electrical power; and
3 immediately supplying at least those services specified in paragraph 4.
1.4 Provide that suitable measures are taken for safeguarding independent emergency
operation under all circumstances, the emergency generator may be used
exceptionally, and for short periods, to supply non-emergency circuits.
2 The electrical power available shall be sufficient to supply all those services that are
essential for safety in an emergency, due regard being paid to such services as may
have to be operated simultaneously. The emergency source of electrical power shall
be capable, having regard to starting currents and the transitory nature of certain
loads, of supplying simultaneously at least the following services for the periods
specified hereinafter, if they depends upon an electrical source for their operation:

2.1 For a period of 36 h, emergency lighting:
1 at every muster and embarkation station and over the sides as required by
regulations III/11.4 and III/15.7;
2 in alleyways, stairways and exits giving access to the muster and embarkation
stations, as required by regulation III/11.5;
3 in all service and accommodation alleyways, stairways and exits, personnel lift
cars;
4 in the machinery spaces and main generating stations including their control
positions;
5 in all control station, machinery control rooms, and at each main and
emergency switchboard;
6 at all stowage positions for firemen’s outfits;
7 at the steering gear; and
8 at the fire pump, the sprinkler pump and the emergency bilge pump referred to
in paragraph 2.4 and at the starting position of their motors.
2.2 For a period of 36 h:
1 the navigation lights and other lights required by the International Regulations
for Preventing Collisions at Sea in force; and
2 on ships constructed on or after 1 February 1995, the VHF radio installation

required by regulation IV/ 7.1.1 and IV/7.1.2; and, if applicable:
.2.1 the MF radio installation required by regulations IV/9.1.1, IV/9.1.2,
IV/10.1.2 and IV/10.1.3;
.2.2 the ship earth station required by regulation IV/10.1.1; and
.2.3 the MF/HF radio installation required by regulations IV/10.2.1, IV/10.2.2
and IV/11.1.
1 all internal communication equipment required in an emergency:

2 the shipborne navigational equipment as required by regulation V/12; where
such provision is unreasonable or impracticable the Administration may waive
this requirement for ships of less than 5,000 tons gross tonnage;
3 the fire detection and fire alarm system, and the fire door holding and release
system; and

4 for intermittent operation of the daylight signaling lamp, the ship’s whistle, the
manually operated call points, and all internal signal that are required in an
emergency:
unless such service have an independent supply for the period of 36 h from an
accumulator battery suitably located for use in an emergency.
1 one of the fire pumps required by regulation II-2/4.3.1 and 4.3.3;

2 the automatic sprinkler pump, if any; and
3 the emergency bilge pump and all the equipment essential for the operation of
electrically powered remote controlled bilge valves.
2.5 For the period of time required by regulation 29.14 the steering gear if required to be
so supplied by that regulation.
2.6 For a period of half an hour:
1 any watertight door required by regulation 15 to be power-operated together

with their indicators and warning signals;
2 the emergency arrangements to bring the lift cars to deck level for the escape
of persons. The passenger lift cars may be brought to deck level sequentially in
an emergency.
5.5 In order to ensure ready availability of the emergency source of electrical power,
arrangements shall be made where necessary to disconnect automatically non-
emergency circuits from the emergency switchboard to ensure that power shall be
available to the emergency circuits.
6 The emergency generator and its prime mover and any emergency accumulator
battery shall be so designed and arranged as to ensure that they will function at full
rated power when the ship is upright and when inclined at any angle of list up to
o 0
22.5 or when inclined up to 10 either in the fore or aft direction, or is in any
combination of angles within those limits.
7 Provision shall be made for the periodic testing of the complete emergency system
and shall include the testing of automatic starting arrangements.

Regulation 42-1
Supplementary emergency lighting for ro-ro passenger ships
(This regulation applies to all passenger ships with ro-ro cargo spaces or special
category spaces as defined in regulation II-2/3, except that for ships constructed before
22 October 1989, this regulation shall apply not later than 22 October 1990)
1 In addition to the emergency lighting required by regulation 42.2, on every passenger

ship with ro-ro spaces or special category spaces as defined in regulation II-2/3:
i) all passenger public spaces and alleyways shall be provided with supplementary
electric lighting that can operate for at least three hours when all other sources of
electrical power have failed and under any condition of heel. The illumination
provided shall be such that the approach to the means of escape can be readily
seen .The source of power for the supplementary lighting shall consist of
accumulator batteries located within the lighting units that are continuously
charged, where practicable, from the emergency switchboard. Alternatively, any
other means of lighting, which is at least as effective, may be accepted by the
Administration. The supplementary lighting shall be such that any failure of the
lamp will be immediately apparent. Any accumulator battery provided shall be
replaced at intervals having regard to the specified service life in the ambient
conditions that they are subject to in service; and
ii) a portable rechargeable battery operated lamp shall be provided in every crew
space alleyway, recreational space and every working space which is normally
occupied unless supplementary emergency lighting, as required by
subparagraph, 1, is provided
Regulation 43
Emergency source of electrical power in cargo ships
1.1 A self-contained emergency source of electrical power shall be provided.
1.2 The emergency source of electrical power, associated transforming equipment, if

any, transitional source of emergency power, emergency switchboard and
emergency lighting switchboard shall be located above the uppermost continuous
deck and shall be readily accessible from the open deck. They shall not be located
forward of the collision bulkhead, except where permitted by the Administration in
exceptional circumstances.

1.3 The location of the emergency source of electrical power, associated transforming
equipment, if any, the transitional source of emergency power, the emergency
switchboard and the emergency lighting switchboard in relation to the main source of
electrical power, associated transforming equipment, if any, and the main
switchboard shall be such as to ensure to the satisfaction of the Administration that a
fire or other casualty in the space containing the main source of electrical power,
associated transforming equipment, if any, and the main switchboard, or in any
machinery space of category A will not interfere with the supply, control and
distribution of emergency electrical power. As far as practicable the space containing
the emergency source of electrical power, associated transforming equipment, if any,
the transitional source of emergency electrical power and the emergency
switchboard shall not be contiguous to the boundaries of machinery spaces of
category A or those containing the main source of electrical power, associated
transforming equipment, if any, and the main switchboard.
1.4 Provided that suitable measures are taken for safeguarding independent emergency
operation under all circumstances, the emergency generator may be used,
exceptionally, and for short periods, to supply non-emergency circuits.
2 The electrical power available shall be sufficient to supply all those services that are
essential for safety in an emergency, due regard being paid to such services as may
have to be operated simultaneously.
The emergency source of electrical power shall be capable, having regard to starting
currents and the transitory nature of certain loads, of supplying simultaneously at
least the following services for the periods specified hereinafter, if they depend upon
an electrical source for their operation:
2.1 For a period of 3 h, emergency lighting at every muster and embarkation station and
over the sides as required by regulations III/11.4 and III/15.7.
2.2 For a period of 18 h, emergency lighting:

1 in all service and accommodation alleyways, stairways and exits, personnel lift
cars and personnel lift trunks;
2 in the machinery spaces and main generating stations including their control
positions;
3 in all control stations, machinery control rooms, and at each main and emergency
switchboard;
4 at all stowage positions for fireman’ s outfits;
5 at the steering gear; and

6 at the fire pump referred to in paragraph 2.5, at the sprinkler pump, if any , and at
the emergency bilge pump, if any, and at the starting positions of their motors.

1 the navigation light and other lights required by the International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea in force;
2 on ships constructed on or after 1 February 1995 the VHF radio installation
required by regulation IV/7.1.1 and IV/7.1.2; and, if applicable:
.2.1 the MF radio installation required by regulations IV/9.1.1, IV/9.1.2,
IV/10.1.2 and IV/10.1.3;
.2.2 the ship earth station required by regulation IV/10.1.1; and
.2.3 the MF/HF radio installation required by regulations IV/10.2.1, IV/10.2.2
and IV/11.1.

1 all internal communication equipment as required in an emergency;
2 the shipboard navigational equipment as required by regulation V/12; where
such provision is unreasonable or impracticable the Administration may waive
this requirement for ships of less than 5,000 tons gross tonnage;
3 the fire detection and fire alarm system; and
4 intermittent operation of the daylight signaling lamp, the ship’s whistle the
manually operated call points and all internal signals that are required in an
emergency;
unless such services have an independent supply for the period of 18 h from an
2.5 For a period of 18 h one of the fire pumps required by regulation II-2/4.3.1 and 4.3.3 if
dependent upon the emergency generator for its source of power.
2.6.1 For the period of time required by regulation 29.14 the steering gear where it is
required to be so supplied by that regulation.
2.6.2 In a ship engaged regularly in voyages of short duration, the Administration if

satisfied that an adequate standard of safety would be attained may accept a lesser
period than the 18 h period specified in paragraph 2.2 to 2.5 but not less than 12 h.
3 The emergency source of electrical power may be either a generator or an accumulator

battery, which shall comply with the following:

3.1 Where the emergency source of electrical power is a generator, it shall be:
1 driven by a suitable prime mover with an independent supply of fuel, having a
flashpoint (closed cup test) of not less than 43deg C;
2 started automatically upon failure of the main source of electrical power supply
unless a transitional source of emergency electrical power in accordance with
paragraph 3.1.3 is provided; where the emergency generator is automatically
started, it shall be automatically connected to the emergency switchboard; those
services referred to in paragraph 4 shall then be connected automatically to the
emergency generator; and unless a second independent means of starting the
emergency generator is provide the single source of stored energy shall be
protected to preclude its complete depletion by the automatic starting system;
3 provided with a transitional source of emergency electrical power as specified in
paragraph 4 unless an emergency generator is provided capable both of supplying
the services mentioned in that paragraph and of being automatically started and
supplying the required load as quickly as is safe and practicable subject to a
maximum of 45 s.
3.2 Where the emergency source of electrical power is an accumulator battery it shall be
capable of;
1 carrying the emergency electrical load without recharging while maintaining the
voltage of the battery throughout the discharge period within 12% above or below
its nominal voltage;
2 automatically connecting to the emergency switchboard in the event of failure of
the main source of electrical power; and
3 immediately supplying at least those services specified in paragraph 4.
4 The transitional source of emergency electrical power where required by
paragraph 3.1.3 shall consist of an accumulator battery suitably located for use in
an emergency which shall operate without recharging while maintaining the
voltage of the battery throughout the discharge period within 12% above or below
its nominal voltage and be of sufficient capacity and shall be so arranged as to
supply automatically in the event of failure of either the main or the emergency
source of electrical power for half an hour at least the following services if they
depend upon an electrical source for their operation:
1 the lighting required by paragraphs 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3.1. For this transitional
phase, the required emergency electric lighting, in respect of the machinery
space and accommodation and service spaces may be provided by
permanently fixed, individual, automatically charged, relay operated
accumulator lamps; and

2 all services required by paragraphs 2.4.1, 2.4.3 and 2.4.4 unless such
services have an independent supply for the period specified from an
5.1 The emergency switchboard shall be installed as near as is practicable to the

emergency source of electrical power.
5.2 Where the emergency source of electrical power is a generator, the emergency
switchboard shall be located in the same space unless the operation of the
emergency switchboard would thereby be impaired.
5.3 No accumulator battery fitted in accordance with this regulation shall be installed in
the same space as the emergency switchboard. An indicator shall be mounted in a
suitable place on the main switchboard or in the machinery control room to indicate
when the batteries constituting either the emergency source of electrical power or the
transitional source of electrical power referred to in paragraph 3.2 or 4 are being
discharged.
5.4 The emergency switchboard shall be supplied during normal operation from the main
switchboard by an interconnector feeder which is to be adequately protected at the
main switchboard against overload and short circuit and which is to be disconnected
automatically at the emergency switchboard upon failure of the main source of
electrical power. Where the system is arranged for feedback operation, the
interconnector feeder is also to be protected at the emergency switchboard at least
against short circuit.
5.5 In order to ensure ready availability of the emergency source of electrical power,
arrangements shall be made where necessary to disconnect automatically non-
emergency circuits from the emergency switchboard to ensure that electrical power
shall be available automatically to the emergency circuits.
6 The emergency generator and its prime mover and any emergency accumulator
battery shall be so designed and arranged as to ensure that they will function at full
o
rated power when the ship is upright and when inclined at any angle of list up to 22.5
0
or when inclined up to 10 either in the fore or aft direction, or is in any combination of
angles within those limits.
7 Provision shall be made for the periodic testing of the complete emergency system
and shall include the testing of automatic starting arrangements.

Regulation 44
Starting arrangements for emergency generating sets
1 Emergency generating sets shall be capable of being readily started in their cold
0
condition at a temperature of 0 C. If this is impracticable, or if lower temperature are
likely to be encountered, provision acceptable to the Administration shall be made for
the maintenance of heating arrangements, to ensure ready starting of the generating
sets.
2 Each emergency generating set arranged to be automatically started shall be

equipped with starting devices approved by the Administration with a stored energy
capability of at least three consecutive starts. A second source of energy shall be
provided for an additional three starts within 30 min unless manual starting can be
demonstrated to be effective.
3 The stored energy shall be maintained at all times, as follows:
1 electrical and hydraulic starting systems shall be maintained from the emergency
switchboard;
2 compressed air starting systems may be maintained by the main or auxiliary

compressed air receivers through a suitable nonreturn valve or by an emergency
air compressor which, if electrically driven, is supplied from the emergency
switchboard;
3 all of these starting, charging and energy storing devices shall be located in the
emergency generator space; these devices are not to be used for nay purpose
other than the operation of the emergency set. This does not preclude the supply
to the air receiver of the emergency generating set from the main or auxiliary
compressed air system through the nonreturn valve fitted in the emergency
generator space.
4.1 Where automatic starting is not required, manual starting is permissible, such as
manual cranking, inertia starter, manually charged hydraulic accumulators, or powder
charge cartridges, where they can be demonstrated as being effective.
4.2 When manual starting is not practicable, the requirements of paragraphs 2 and 3
shall be complied with except that starting may be manually initiated.

Regulation 45
Precautions against shock, fire and other hazards of electrical origin
1.1 Exposed metal parts of electrical machines or equipment which are not intended to
be live but which are liable under fault conditions to become live shall be earthed
unless the machines or equipment are:
1 supplied at a voltage not exceeding 55 V direct current or 55 V, root mean
square between conductors; autotransformers shall not be used for the purpose
of achieving this voltage; or
2 supplied at a voltage not exceeding 250 V by safety isolating transforming
device: or
3 constructed in accordance with the principle of double insulation.
1.2 The Administration may require additional precautions for portable electrical
equipment for use in confined or exceptionally damp spaces where particular risks
due to conductivity may exist.
1.3 All electrical apparatus shall be so constructed and so installed as not to cause injury
when handled or touched in the normal manner.
2 Main and emergency switchboard shall be so arranged as to give easy access as

may be needed to apparatus and equipment, without danger to personnel. The sides
and the rear and, where necessary, the front of switchboards shall be suitably
guarded. Exposed live parts having voltages to earth exceeding a voltage to be
specified by the Administration shall not be installed on the front of such
switchboards. Where necessary, nonconducting mats or gratings shall be provided at
the front and rear of the switchboard.
3.1 the hull return system of distribution shall not be used for any purpose in a tanker, or
for power, heating, or lighting in any other ship of 1,600 tons gross tonnage and
upwards.
3.2 The requirement of paragraph 3.1 does not preclude under conditions approved by
the Administration the use of:
1 Impressed current cathode protective systems;
2 limited and locally earthed systems; or
3 insulation level monitoring devices provided the circulation current does not
exceed 30 mA under the most unfavourable conditions.
3.3 Where the hull return system is used, all final subcircuits, i.e. all circuits fitted after
the last protective device, shall be two-wire and special precautions shall be taken to
the satisfaction of the Administration.

4.1 Earthed distribution systems shall not be used in a tanker. The Administration may
exceptionally permit in a tanker the earthing of the neutral for alternating current
power networks for 3,000 V (line to line) and over, provided that any possible
resulting current does not flow directly through any of the dangerous spaces.
7 Lighting fittings shall be so arranged as to prevent temperature rises which could
damage the cable and wiring, and to prevent surrounding material from becoming
excessively hot.
8 All lighting and power circuits terminating in a bunker or cargo space shall be
provided with a multiple-pole switch outside the space for disconnecting such circuits.
9.1 Accumulator batteries shall be suitably housed, and compartments used primarily for
their accommodation shall be properly constructed and efficiently ventilated.
9.2 Electrical or other equipment which may constitute a source of ignition of flammable
vapours shall not be permitted in these compartments except as permitted in
paragraph 10.
9.3 Accumulator batteries shall not be located in sleeping quarters except where
hermetically sealed to the satisfaction of the Administration.
10 No electrical equipment shall be installed in any space where flammable mixtures are
liable to collect including those on board tankers or in compartments assigned
principally to accumulator batteries, in paint lockers, acetylene stores or similar
spaces, unless the Administration is satisfied that such equipment is;
1 essential for operational purpose;
2 of a type which will not ignite the mixture concerned;
3 appropriate to the space concerned; and 4 appropriately certified for safe usage
in the dusts, vapours or gases likely to be encountered.
11 In a passenger ship, distribution systems shall be so arranged that fire in any main
vertical zone as is defined in regulation II-2/3.9 will not interfere with services
essential for safety in any other such zone. This requirement will be met if main and
emergency feeders passing through any such zone are separated both vertically and
horizontally as widely as is practicable.

Part E
Additional requirement for periodically unattended machinery spaces
(Part E applies to cargo ships except that regulation 54 refers to passenger ships)
Regulation 50 A reliable means of vocal communication shall be provided between the main machinery
Communication control room or the propulsion machinery control position as appropriate, the navigating
bridge and the engineer officers’ accommodation
Regulation 51 1 An alarm system shall be provided indicating any fault requiring attention and shall;
Alarm system 1 be capable of sounding an audible alarm in the main machinery control room or
at the propulsion machinery control position, and indicate visually each separate
alarm function at a suitable position;
2 have a connection to the engineers’ public rooms and to each of the engineers’
cabins through a selector switch, to ensure connection to at least one of those
cabins. Administrations may permit equivalent arrangements;
3 activate an audible and visual alarm on the navigating bridge for any situation,
which requires action by, or attention of the officer on watch;
4 as far as is practicable be designed on the fail-to-safety principal; and
5 activate the engineers’ alarm required by regulation 38 if an alarm function has
not received attention locally within a limited time.
2.1 The alarm system shall be continuously powered and shall have an automatic
change-over to a stand-by-power supply in case of loss of normal supply.
2.2 Failure of the normal power supply of the alarm system shall be indicated by an
alarm.
3.1 The alarm system shall be able to indicate at the same time more than one fault and
the acceptance of any alarm shall not inhibit another alarm.
3.2 Acceptance at he position referred to in paragraph 1 of any alarm condition shall be

indicated at the positions where it was shown. Alarms shall be maintained until they
are accepted and the visual indications of individual alarms shall remain until the fault
has been corrected, when the alarm system shall automatically reset to the normal
operating condition.
Regulation 52 A safety shall be provided to ensure that serious malfunction in machinery or boiler
Safety systems operations, which present an immediate danger, shall initiate the automatic shutdown of
that part of the plant and that an alarm shall be given. Shutdown of the propulsion system
shall not be automatically activated except in cases, which could lead to serious damage,
complete breakdown, or explosion. Where arrangements for overriding the shutdown of
the main propelling machinery are fitted, these shall be such as to preclude inadvertent
operation. Visual means shall be provided to indicate when the override has been
activated.

Regulation 53 1 The special requirements for the machinery, boiler and electrical installation shall be
Special requirements to the satisfaction of the Administration and shall include at least the requirements of
for machinery, boiler this regulation.
and electrical
installations
2 The main source of electrical power shall comply with the following;
2.1 Where the electrical power can normally be supplied by one generator, suitable load-
shedding arrangements shall be provided to ensure the integrity of supplies to
services required for propulsion and steering as well as the safety of the ship. In case
of loss of the generator in operation, adequate provision shall be made for automatic
starting and connecting to the main switchboard of a stand-by generator of sufficient
capacity to permit propulsion and steering and to ensure the safety of the ship with
automatic restarting of the essential auxiliaries including, where necessary,
sequential operations. The Administration may dispense with this requirement for a
ship of less than 1,600 tons gross tonnage, if it is considered impracticable.
2.2 If the electrical power is normally supplied by more than one generator
simultaneously in parallel operation, provision shall be made, for instance buy load
shedding, to ensure that , in case of loss of one of these generating sets, the
remaining ones are kept in operation without overload to permit propulsion and
steering, and to ensure the safety of the ship.
3 Where stand-by machines are required for other auxiliary machinery essential to
propulsion, automatic change-over devices shall be provided.
4 Automatic control and alarm system
4.1 The control system shall be such that the services needed for the operation of the
main propulsion machinery and its auxiliaries are ensured through the necessary
automatic arrangements.
4.2 An alarm shall be given on the automatic change-over.
4.3 An alarm system complying with regulation 51 shall be provided for all important
pressures, temperatures and fluid levels and other essential parameters.
4.4 A centralized control position shall be arranged with the necessary alarm panels and
instrumentation indicating any alarm.
5 Means shall be provided to keep the starting air pressure at the required level where
internal combustion engines are used for main propulsion.
Regulation 54 Passenger ships shall be specially considered by the Administration as to whether or not
Special consideration their machinery spaces may be periodically unattended and if so whether additional
in respect of requirement to those stipulated in these regulations are necessary to achieve equivalent
passenger ships safety to that of normally attended machinery spaces.

Annex
Amendments to the 1974 SOLAS Convention
CHAPTER II-1
Construction – Subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical installations
Access to spaces in the cargo area of oil tankers
Regulation 2 1 Add the following after paragraph 11:

Definitions “12 An oil tanker is the oil tanker defined in regulation 1 of Annex I of the protocol of
1978 relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships, 1973”.
2 Add a new regulation 12-2:
Regulation 12-2 1 This regulation applies to oil tankers constructed on or after 1 October 1994.
Access to spaces in the
cargo area of oil tankers 2 Access to cofferdams, ballast tanks, cargo tanks and other spaces in the cargo area
shall be direct from the open deck and such as to ensure their complete inspection.
Access to double bottom spaces may be through a cargo pump-room, pump-room,
deep cofferdam, pipe tunnel or similar compartments, subject to consideration of
ventilation aspects.
3 For access through horizontal openings, hatches or manholes, the dimensions shall
be sufficient to allow a person wearing a self-contained air-breathing apparatus and
protective equipment to ascend or descend any ladder without obstruction and also
to provide a clear opening to facilitate the hoisting of an injured person from the
bottom of the space. The minimum clear opening should be not less than 600 mm x
600mm.
4 For access through vertical openings, or manholes providing passage through the
length and breath of the space, the minimum clear opening should be not less than
600 mm x 800 mm at a height of not more than 600 mm from the bottom shell plating
unless gratings or other footholds are provided.
5 For oil tankers of less than 5,999 tonnes deadweight smaller dimensions may be
approved by the Administration in special circumstances, if the ability to traverse
such openings or to remove an injured person can be proved to the satisfaction of
the Administration.”
Regulation 37 3 Number the present paragraph as paragraph 1 and add the following:
Communication
between navigating “2 For ships constructed on or after-1 October 1994 the following requirements apply in
bridge and lieu of the provisions of paragraph 1:
machinery space At least two independent means shall be provided for communicating orders from the
navigating bridge to the position in the machinery space or in the control room from
which the speed and direction of thrust of the propellers are normally controlled; one
of these shall be an engine-room telegraph which provides visual indication of the
orders and responses both in the machinery spaces and on the navigating bridge.

Appropriate means of communication shall be provided from the navigating bridge

and the engine-room to any other position from which the speed or direction of thrust
of the propellers may be controlled.”
Regulation 42 4 insert the following paragraph after paragraph 3.2:

Emergency source
of electrical power in “3.3 The following provision in paragraph 3.1.2 shall not apply to ships constructed on or
passenger ships after 1 October 1994;
Unless a second independent means of starting the emergency generating set is

provided, the single source of stored energy shall be protected to preclude its
complete depletion by the automatic starting system.”
Regulation43 5 Insert the following paragraph after paragraph 3.2;

Emergency source of
electrical power in “3.3 The following provision in paragraph 3.1.2 shall not apply to ships constructed on or
cargo ships after 1 October 1994:
Unless a second independent means of starting the emergency generating set is

provided the single source of stored energy shall be protected to preclude its
complete depletion by the automatic starting system.”
Regulation 44 6 Insert the following paragraph after paragraph 2:

Starting
arrangements for “2.1 Ships constructed on or after 1 October 1994, in lieu of the provision of second
emergency sentence of paragraph 2, shall comply with the following requirements:
generating sets
The source of stored energy shall be protected to preclude critical depletion by the
automatic starting system, unless a second independent means of starting is
provided. In addition, a second source of energy shall be provided for an additional
three starts within 30 min unless manual starting can be demonstrated to be
effective.”
Regulation 45 7 Insert the following after paragraph 3.2:

Precautions against
shock, fire and other “3.2-1 For ship constructed on or after 1 October 1994, the requirement of paragraph
hazards of electrical 3.1 does not preclude the use of limited and locally earthed systems, provided
origin
that any possible resulting current does not flow directly through any dangerous
spaces.”
8 Insert the following after paragraph 4.2:
“4.3 Ships constructed on or after 1 October 1994, in lieu of the provisions of paragraph
4.1 shall comply with the following requirements:
1 Except as permitted by paragraph 4.3.2, earthed distribution system shall not be
used in a tanker.

2 The requirement of paragraph 4.3.1 does not preclude the use of earthed
intrinsically safe circuits and in addition, under conditions approved by the
Administration, the use of the following earthed systems:
2.1 power-supplied control circuits and instrumentation circuits where technical or safety
reasons preclude the use of a system with no connection to earth, provided the
current in the hull is limited to not more than 5 A in both normal and fault conditions;
or
2.2 limited and locally earthed systems, provided that any possible resulting current does
not flow directly through any of the dangerous spaces; or
2.3 alternating current power network of 1,000 V root mean square (line to line) and over,
provided that any possible resulting current does not flow directly through any of the
dangerous spaces.”
2.6 An excessive charging rate causes acid mist to be carried out of the vents onto
adjacent surfaces. This should be cleaned off with diluted ammonia water or soda
solution, and affected areas then dried.
3 Alkaline 3.1 The general safety precautions with this type of battery are the same as for the lead-
batteries acid batteries with the following exceptions.
3.2 The electrolyte in these batteries is alkaline but is similarly corrosive. It should not be
allowed to come into contact with the skin or clothing. In the case of contact with the
skin, the affected parts should be washed with copious quantities of clean fresh
water, but if burns ensure, boracic powder or a saturated solution of boracic powder
should be applied. Eyes should be washed out thoroughly with plenty of clean fresh
water followed immediately with a solution of boracic powder (at the rate of one
teaspoonful to ½ litre or 1 pint of water). This solution should be always readily
accessible when the electrolyte is handled.
3.3 Unlike lead-acid batteries, metal cases of alkaline batteries remain live at all times
and care should be taken not to touch them or to allow metal tools to come into
contact with them.
1.17 Alkaline and lead –acid batteries should be kept in separate compartments. Where
both lead-acid and alkaline batteries are in use, great care should be exercised to
keep apart the materials and tools used in servicing each type, as contamination of
the electrolyte may cause deterioration of battery performance and mixing of the
two electrolytes produces a vigorous chemical reaction which could be very
dangerous.
1.18 Both acid and alkaline electrolytes are highly corrosive. Immediate remedial action
should be taken to wash off any accidental splashes on the person or on
equipment. Hands should always be washed as soon as the work has finished.
1.19 Batteries should always be transported in the upright position to avoid spillage of
electrolyte. A sufficient number of men should be employed since the batteries are
heavy and painful strains or injury can otherwise easily result (see Chapter 11).

2 Lead-acid 2.1 When the electrolyte is being prepared, the concentrated sulphuric acid should be
batteries added slowly to the water, if water is added to the acid, the heat generated may
cause an explosion of steam, spattering acid over the person handling it.
2.2 Goggles, rubber gloves and protective apron should be worn when acid is handled.
2.3 To neutralize acid on skin or clothes, copious quantities of clean fresh water should
be used.
2.4 An eyewash bottle should be to hand in the compartment for immediate use on the
eyes in case of accident. This bottle should be clearly distinguishable by touch from
acid or other containers, so that it may be easily located by a person who is
temporarily blinded.
2.5 The corrosion products which from round the terminals of batteries are injurious to
skin and eyes. They should be removed by brushing, away from the body.
Terminals should be protected with petroleum jelly.
2.6 Modern equipment often embodies a master crystal enclosed in an oven; the
supply to the oven is taken from an independent source and is not disconnected
when the transmitter is switched off and the mains switch is off. Mains voltage will
be present inside the transmitter, and care should be taken.
2.7 Before work is begun in the EHT section of a transmitter or other HT apparatus,
with the mains switched off, all HT capacitors should be discharged using an
insulated jumper, inserting a resistor in the circuit to slow the rate of discharge.
This precaution should be taken even where the capacitors have permanent
discharge resistors fitted.
2.8 An electrolytic capacitor that is suspect, or shows blistering, should be replaced,

since it is liable to explode when electrical supply is on. There is a similar risk when
an electrolytic capacitor is discharged by a short circuit.
2.9 Work at or near live equipment should be avoided if possible but where it is
essential for the safety of the ship or for testing purpose then the additional
precautions described in Chapter22, section 9.6-12 should be taken.
3 Valves and semi- 3.1 Valves being removed from equipment which has recently been operating should
conductor devices be grasped with a heat resistant cloth; in case of large valves, eg power amplifier,
OP and modulators, which reach a high temperature in operation, cooling down
time should be allowed before they are removed. Severe burns can result if they
touch bare skin.
3.2 Cathode ray tubes and large thermionic valves should be handled with care;
although they implode when broken, there is still a risk of severe cuts from sharp-
edged glass fragments. Some special purpose devices contain vapour or gas at
high pressure, for example Trigatron, but these are usually covered with a
protective fibre network to contain the glass should they explode.

3.3 Beryllia (beryllium oxide) dust is very dangerous if inhaled or if it penetrates the
skin through a cut or abrasion. It may be present in some electronic components.
Cathode ray tubes, power transistors, diodes and thyristors containing it will be
usually identified by the manufacturers’ information provided, but lack of such
information should not be taken as a positive indication of its absence. Those heat
sink washers which contain it are highly polished and look like dark brass. These
items should be carefully stored in their original packing until required.
3.4 Physical damage to components of this kind whether they are new or defective is
likely to produce dangerous dust; abrasion should be avoided, they should not be
worked by tool and encapsulations should be left intact. Excessive heat can be
dangerous, but normal soldering with thermal shunt is safe. Damaged or broken
parts should be separately and securely packed, following the manufacturers’
instructions for return or disposal.
3.5 Persons handling parts containing beryllia should wear protective clothing,
including gloves, to prevent beryllia coming into contact with the skin. Tweezers
should be used where practicable. If the skin does become contained with the dust,
affected parts, particularly any cuts, should be cleaned without delay.
4 Work on 4.1 Chassis on extension runners should be firmly fixed, either by self-locking devices
apparatus on or by use of chocks, before any work is done.
extension
runners or on 4.2 Where units are awkward or heavy for one person to handle easily, assistance
the bench should be sought (see Chapter 11). Strain, rupture or a slipped disc can result from
a lone effort.
4.3 Any chassis on the bench should be firmly wedged or otherwise secured to prevent
it overbalancing or moving. Should a live chassis overbalance, no attempt should
be made to grab it.
4.4 Sharp edges and tag connectors on a chassis can cause cuts. Should the tag be
alive and the skin is pierced, the shock experienced will be out of proportion to the
voltage.
4.5 Temporary connections should be soundly made. Flexible extension cables should
have good insulation and adequate current carrying capacity.

Storage batteries
1 General 1.1 When a battery is being charged it ‘gases’, giving off both hydrogen and oxygen.
Because hydrogen is easily ignited in concentrations ranging from 4 per cent in air,
battery containers and compartments should be kept adequately ventilated to
prevent an accumulation of dangerous gas.
1.2 Smoking and any type of open flame should be prohibited in a battery
compartment. A conspicuous notice to this effect should be displayed at the
entrance to the compartment.
1.3 Lighting fittings in battery compartments should be properly maintained at all times,
with protective glasses in position and properly tightened. If cracked or broken
glasses cannot be replaced immediately, the electric circuit should be isolated until
replacements are obtained.
1.4 No unauthorized modifications or additions should be made to electrical equipment

(including lighting fittings) in battery compartments.
1.5 Portable electric lamps and tools, and other portable power tools which might give
rise to sparks should not be used in battery compartments.
1.6 The battery compartment should not be used as a store for any material or gear not
associated with the batteries.
1.7 A short circuit of even one cell may produce an arc or sparks which may cause an
explosion of any hydrogen present. Additionally, the very heavy current which can
flow in the short circuiting wire or tool may cause burns due to rapid overheating of
the metal.
1.8 Insulation and/or guarding of cables in battery compartments should be maintained

in good condition.
1.9 All battery connections should be kept clean and tight to avoid sparking and
overheating. Temporary clip-on connections should never be used as they may
work loose due to vibration and cause a spark or short circuit.
1.10 Metal tools, such as wrenches and spanners, should never be placed on top of
batteries as they may cause sparks or short circuits. The use of insulated tools is
recommended.

1.11 Jewellery, watches and rings etc should be removed when working on batteries. A
short circuit through any of these items will heat it rapidly and may cause a severe
skin burn. If rings cannot be removed, they should be heavily taped in insulating
material.
1,12 All circuits fed by the battery should be switched off when leads are being
connected or disconnected. If a battery is in sections, it may be possible to reduce
the voltage between cells in the work area, and hence the severity of an accident
short circuit or electric shock, by removing the jumper leads between sections
before work is begun. It should be appreciated that whilst individual cell voltage
may not be present a shock risk, dangerous voltages can exist where numbers of
cells are connected together in series. A lethal shock needs a current of only a few
tens of milliamps and particular care should be exercised where the voltage
exceeds 50 V.
1.13 Battery cell vent plugs should be screwed tight while connections are being made
or broken.
1.14 The ventilation tubes of battery boxes should be examined regularly to ensure that
they are free from obstruction.
1.15 Lids of battery boxes should be fastened while open for servicing and properly
secured again when the work is finished.
1.16 Batteries should be kept battened in position to prevent shifting in rough weather.

Servicing radio and associated electronic equipment
General 1.1 Exposure to dangerous levels of microwave radiation should be avoided by strict
adherence to instructions about special precautions contained in manufacturers’
handbooks. Radar sets should not be operated with wave guides disconnected
unless it is necessary for servicing purposes, when special precautions should be
taken.
1.2 Work should not be undertaken within the marked safety radius of Satellite
Terminal Antennae unless its transmitter has been rendered inoperative.
1.3 Eyes are particularly vulnerable to microwave and ultraviolet radiation. Care should
be taken to avoid looking directly into a radar aerial or wave guide while it is in
operation or where arcing or sparking is likely to occur.
1.4 Exposure to dangerous levels of X-ray radiation may occur in the vicinity of faulty
high voltage valves. Care should be exercised when fault tracing in the modulator
circuits of radar equipment. A open circuited heater of such valves can lead to X-
ray radiation where the anode voltage is in excess of 5000 V.
1.5 Vapours of some solvents used for degreasing are toxic, particularly carbon
tetrachloride which should never be used. Great care should be exercised when
using solvents particularly in confined spaces; there should be no smoking.
Manufacturers’ instructions should be followed.
1.6 Some dry recorder papers used in echo sounders and facsimile recorders give off
toxic fumes in use. The equipment should be well-ventilated to avoid inhalation of
the fumes.
1.7 Radio transmitters and radar equipment should not be operated when men are
working in the vicinity of aerials; the equipment should be isolated from mains
supply and radio transmitters earthed. When equipment has been isolated, warning
notices should be placed on transmitting and radar equipment and at the mains
supply point, to prevent apparatus being switched on until clearance has been
received from those concerned that they have finished the outside work.
1.8 Aerials should be rigged out of reach of persons standing at normal deck level or
mounting easily accessible parts of the superstructure. If that is impracticable,
safety screens should be erected.
1.9 Notices warning of the danger of high voltage should be displayed near radio
transmitter aerials and lead-through insulators.

2 Electrical 2.1 Conditions on board ship often create greater than normal risks of electric shock
hazards (see Chapter 22, section 9). It should also be borne in mind that cuts and abrasions
significantly reduce skin resistance.
2.2 Fuse should be removed from equipment before work is begun, and retained while
the work is proceeding.
2.3 Where accumulators are used they should be disconnected at source; otherwise
precautions should be taken to avoid short circuiting the accumulator terminals with
consequent risk of burns.
2.4 Live chassis connected to one side of the mains are usually marked appropriately
and should be handled with caution, Where the mains are AC and a transformer is
interposed, the chassis is usually connected to the earth side of the supply, but this
should be verified using an appropriate mater.
2.5 When some types of equipment are switched off the mains switches are left on,
some parts may remain live; power should always be cut off at the mains

Chapter seven: Electrical survey requirements
Classification Societies 7/1

Main Electrical Survey Items 7/2
Generators and Governors 7/2
Circuit-Breakers 7/3
Switchboard and Fittings 7/4
Cables 7/5
Insulation Resistance 7/6
Motors and Starters 7/6
Emergency Power and Associated Equipment 7/6
Parts of Steering Gear 7/7
Navigation Light Indicators 7/7
UMS Operation 7/8
Tankers 7/8
The electrical equipment aboard ship is inspected and tested during the complete engine
survey, which occurs every four years. Such a survey is prescribed under the Rules and
Regulations for the Classification of the Ship.
The electrical survey guidance given in this chapter is based on the periodical survey
regulations of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, London. Other classification societies have
their own rules which, although similar to Lloyd’s, should be consulted prior to an
electrical survey.
Classification American Bureau of Shipping, New York.

societies Bureau Veritas, Paris.
Germanischer Lloyd, Hamburg.
Nippon Kaiji Kyokai, Tokyo.
Det Norske Veritas, Oslo.
Registro Italiano Navale, Genoa.
USSR Register of Shipping, Moscow.

Electrical equipment and service aboard ship must also meet the minimum standards
specified by various national and international organisations. For British registered ships
in particular it is necessary to comply with:
(a) Regulations for the Electrical and Electronic Equipment of Ships – Institution of
Electrical Engineers.
(b) The Merchant Shipping Rules – Dept of Transport
(c) Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) – IMO
(d) British Standards (BS)
(e) International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
The standard specified by the above organisations are met when the ship is designed,
built, approved and classified. It is for the ship owner and his staff to maintain the vessel
and its electrical installation to the requirements of the Classification Society throughout
the ship’s lifetime. The periodical electrical survey is, therefore, to check that the
installation is maintained to the Rules of the Classification Society.
Main electrical The following survey items apply in general to all ships:
survey items
Generators and Governors
Circuit-Breakers
Switchboard and Fittings
Cables
Insulation resistance
Motors and Starters
Emergency Power
Euipment
Parts of Steering Gear
Navigation Light
Indicators
UMS TANKERS

For Ums operation, a survey of the associated alarms, controls and fire detection is
required.
For tankers/gas carriers and other ships transporting flammable cargo, an additional
survey of all electrical equipment in hazardous areas is carried out during each docking
survey and annual survey. This means that hazardous area electrical equipment is
surveyed every year.
Generators and Governors
DIOD E
WHEELS
DIODE
FLEXIBLE
LEADS
The surveyor will require that main and emergency generators are clean, respond
correctly to controls and load changes, and slow stable operation when required to run in
parallel with other generators.

Generator windings on stator and rotor must be free of dust, oil and moisture. A visual
check will be made for any obvious deterioration, abrasion or cracking of the insulation
around the end winding coils on the stator. An insulation test to earth and between stator
phase windings (if the neutral point can be disconnected at the terminal box) should be
carried out while the machine is still hot after running on load.
QUESTION Would an IR reading of 0.5 MΩ to earth be acceptable?
ANSWER Although a minimum of 1 MΩ is generally specified for new equipment. Lloyd’s rules
suggest that 0.1MΩ is acceptable. However, most surveyors would insist on at least 1
kΩ/volt, i.e.440kΩ, say, 0.5MΩ as a reasonable minimum value for a 440V generator.
Remember to disconnect all AVR equipment, instrument connections and generator

heater supplies when testing for IP.
The rotor circuits must also be tested for insulation value taking care to short out the
rotating shaft diodes of a ‘brushless’ excitation system if the diodes have a low PIV (Peak
Inverse Voltage) rating.
Special attention to the contact surface of any commutator or slip-rings is required. The
contact surfaces must be smooth and concentric without any sign of pitting or deep
grooves. Carbon brushes must be of adequate length, maintained at the correct spring
pressure and properly contoured onto its rotating commutator or slip-ring. Be sure to
remove any excess carbon dust in the vicinity of the brush gear and around rotor coils.
Generator running tests, on load, should confirm the proper operation of governor and
AVR controls with correct voltage, frequency and current values indicated on the
generator control panel. Governor droop (typically 4%) and its response to sudden load
changes must be within the declared specification for the prime mover/generator
combination. Stability of load sharing of kW and kVAr (or load current/power factor)
between two or more generators running in parallel must be demonstrated.
Circuit-breakers A visual examination of circuit-breakers in main, emergency and section boards will
usually precede operational tests. The surveyor will particularly check the condition of
main, arcing and auxiliary contacts for signs or wear, misalignment and overheating. A
similar inspection of fixed and moving isolator contacts at the rear of a circuit- breaker will
be made. Arc chutes must be clean, free of arc debris and correctly aligned. All internal
wiring should be in good condition and its end connections must be tight. All mechanical
linkages will be checked for any signs of wear or stress.

Tests on a circuit-breaker will include ‘close’ and ‘trip’ operations while in its ‘isolated’
position (i.e. not connected in circuit). The racking mechanism for moving the breaker
from the service to the ‘isolated’ position must be demonstrated to be free moving and
the local main terminals must be seen to be shuttered off when the breaker is withdrawn.
Emergency hand charging (if fitted) of the closing spring will be tested. Correct operation
of the mechanical indicators to show whether the breaker is ‘open’, ‘closed’ or isolated, is
required. The undervoltage release mechanism and overcurrent trip settings for level and
time delay may have to be demonstrated to the surveyor’s satisfaction. Overcurrent trips
are typically set for 125% of full load current with a typical time delay of 20 secs, but this
can vary to suit the thermal capacity of the generator. Although the overcurrent and time
delay settings on the breaker can be seen to be correctly adjusted to the desired values,
only a proper current injection test will prove these settings. In this test the circuit-breaker
is isolated from the bus-bar and suitable currents from a current injection set are fed
directly through the closed circuit-breaker (primary injection) or through the overcurrent
relay (secondary injection).
This is usually a specialist job.
Circuit-breaker time delay mechanisms with oil dash pots must have the pots filled to the
correct level with clean oil of a type recommended by the manufacturer.
Switchboards An obvious survey requirement for any switchboard, section board or distribution board is
and fittings that they are clean. This includes all internal surface as well as the external panel
surface, instrument faces and control switches. A thorough cleaning job on the inside of
the main switchboard can only be safely carried out when the board is completely ‘dead’
(all generators stopped and prime mover locked OFF). All the main bus-bar and auxiliary
connections throughout the boards should be checked for tightness during the ‘dead’
period of a major internal clean up. Overheating signs at a connection junction are
probably due to a loose joint. Bus-bar supports will be examined for surface tracking and
damage to the insulation material. All internal wiring within the switchboard panels must
be securely fixed. Cable entries at the bottom of the switchboard should be sealed with a
non-flammable material to exclude dirt and act as a fire stop.
The main switchboard earth bar must be securely bonded to both the frame of the board
and, of course, to the ship’s hull. One secondary terminal of each current transformer
(CT) and the metal cases of instruments and relays should be wired to the main earth
bar. Hinged panel doors should be bonded with an earth strap to the main switchboard
frame.

QUESTION What is the point of earthing one end of a current transformer secondary winding?
ANSWER Should the insulation between primary and secondary break down, the secondary circuit
can be raised to full primary voltage; e.g. 440V above earth which could damage the
secondary insulation with a serious risk to personnel. By earthing one end of the CT, the
circuit is ‘anchored’ to zero volts. As a bonus, the earth connection will allow such a fault
to be detected on the earth fault monitor.
Feeder isolator blades and fuse holder contacts must be checked for any mechanical
wear or damage due to overheating or acting at the contacts. A slight smear of a
proprietary electrical contact lubricant on such moving contacts is usually recommended.
Operational tests on a main switchboard under this heading will focus on the
synchronising controls and generator protection relays such as reverse power and
preferential load shedding trips. Typical reverse power trip settings may be 10-15% of the
generator power rating, with a time delay of 3-5 secs for a diesel drive. Equivalent setting
for a turbo alternator may be 2-5% and 5 secs. Such time delay settings must allow for
the operating practice on the ship. For example, cargo winches and cranes may, at times,
feed power back into the supply network. Under light load conditions such regenerative
feedback may cause a generator to trip on reverse power if its time delay was set to
short.
Cables Apart from a megger test on main cable run (e.g. along the flying bridge of a tanker) the
survey of cables and their installation is largely based on a close visual examination.
Inspection would search for any external damage of a cable’s outer sheath and wire
or basket weaves armouring (if fitted). The cable must, of course, be adequately
supported along horizontal and vertical runs by suitable cable clips or ties.
Where cable runs along an open deck have expansion loops, these must be
examined for abrasion and wear.
Where cables pass though fire check bulkheads they must be correctly glanded or
pass through stopper boxes, which prevent the passage of fire between
compartments.
Probably the most common ship-board cable insulations used are EPR (ethylene
propylene rubber) or butyl rubber which is sheathed with either PCP
(polychloroprene) or CSP (chlorosulphonated polyethelene).
QUESTION What are the functions of EPR or butyl and PCP or CSP?
ANSWER EPR or butyl rubber are good electrical insulators but are not mechanically strong or
resistant to oil. This why a sheath of PCP or CSP which is stronger and has greater oil
and fire resistance is fitted around the inner insulation.

Where EPR/butyl cable terminations may be subjected to oil vapour it is usual to tape or
sleeve the cable ends to prevent deterioration of the insulation. Check that such taping is
secure.
Flexible cables to light fittings, power tools, etc., should be inspected for mechanical
damage. In normal operation a flexible cable may be repeatedly dragged and chafed so
reducing its safety. If in doubt replace flexible cables.
A copper strap or flexible earthing braid/wire is used to bond the steel frame of all
electrical motors and other equipment to the ship’s hull.
QUESTION Why?
ANSWER Without an earth strap, a loose internal wire may touch the frame causing it to become
‘live’ at mains voltage with obvious danger to operators. The earth strap electrically
‘anchors’ the frame to the hull (zero volts) to eliminate the shock hazard.
Insulation The surveyor will require a list, which shows the results of recent insulation tests on all
resistance main 440V and 220v circuits. Such a list should also indicate the test date(s), weather
conditions (hot, humid, etc.) together with any comments relevant to the test conditions
(e.g. machine hot or cold). For essential items such as generators and main motors, the
surveyor will be more interested in the IR trend, so a set past result showing the
insulation history of such machines may be requested.
Motors and After checking through the IR test results list, a surveyor may ask to witness a repeat test
starters on selected motors. A visual examination of a motor frame and terminal box will reveal
any damaged or missing parts. General neglect will be suspected if the motor is covered
with dirt, oil or dust.
Totally enclosed fan ventilated (TEFV) induction motors require little attention as their
windings are protected against the external atmosphere. The surveyor will be more likely
to concentrate on motor with ‘Drip proof’. Weatherproof and ‘Deck-watertight’ enclosures.
It may be necessary to open up such motors to check for ingress of oil and water, which
could damage insulation and cause internal corrosion. Special machines such as dc
commutator or ac slip ring types used, for example, on an electric windlass, must have
their rotary contacts and brush gear checked.
Cargo cranes and winches are not strictly part of a survey as they are not considered
essential to safety of the ship.
A running test on a motor will reveal any vibration problems, undue noise and worn out
bearings. On-load, the motor running current (shown on the starter ammeter) should be
checked against the value indicated on the motor rating plate.
With starters and associated control gear such as remote stop/start buttons, regulating
resistors etc., an inspection will check mainly for badly burned and misaligned contacts.
The general condition of starter equipment will be examined. This would include an
inspection for loose connections, worn ‘pigtails’ on moving contacts, badly carbonized
arc-chutes and signs of overheating on coils, transformers and resistors. Dust and
weather sealing features on a starter must be in place and in a serviceable condition.
Functional checks will test the normal operation of the starter from its normal, remote and
emergency control (if applicable) positions. Signal status lamps showing the motor/starter
condition, e.g. ‘running’, off ‘tripped’, etc, must be demonstrated as working correctly.

Over current trip settings should be compared with the motor full-load current rating.
Motor starter back-up fuse size and type may be checked against the
ship’s/manufacturer’s drawings and the motor rating.
Emergency power This section surveys the operation of the emergency generator and or battery power
and associated equipment (Inspection of the emergency generator itself is covered under the heading of
equipment Generators and Governors)
The emergency generator must be started, manually or automatically, while the initiation
sequence and operation of starting equipment is observed. Electrical supplies taken from
the emergency switchboard should be checked as receiving their proper voltage, current
and frequency when powered from the emergency generator. Emergency lighting, fire
pump and other emergency electrical equipment must be functioning correctly. Electrical
interlocking arrangements between main and emergency switchboard must be checked.
Auto start initiation relays, whether voltage or frequency operated, will be examined and
tested.
The ship’s emergency battery installation and its charging rectifier will be examined. In
particular the battery environment must be dry and well ventilated. The battery tops must
be clean with non-corroded terminal posts and connections. Grease all connections with
petroleum jelly. Battery electrolyte should be at its proper level and have the correct value
of specific gravity as checked on a hydrometer. Safety notices and personnel safety
clothes (gloves, apron and goggles) should be available adjacent to the batteries. The
ventilation arrangements for the battery locker will be checked.
Battery charging equipment should be given the normal checks for dirt, overheating,
loose connections and correct functioning of indicators, instruments and alarms.
Parts of steering An electrohydraulic steering gear system can be envisaged from the surveyor’ viewpoint
gear as being in three parts:
POWER UNIT
INDICATIONS AND
STEERING CONTROL ALARMS
The power unit comprises duplicate electric motors and starters supplied from either side
of the main switchboard. On some ship one steering gear motor will be supplied via the
emergency switchboard as recommended by the SOLAS requirements for certain vessel
types, e.g. passenger liners and ferries. The motors, starters and any changeover supply
switch units will be inspected under the same criteria outlined earlier in the section on
Motors and Starters.
Rudder control from the bridge position may be via an hydraulic telemotor or via an
electric controller or both. Main and alternative electric supplies, including any
changeover facilities for the electric control from the steering wheel and for the auto pilot,

must be tested. The steering gear and its control must be functionally tested for its
response. This is generally specified to be that the rudder must be swung from 32deg
Port to 32deg Starboard in 28 secs. Note, a fully loaded response can only be obtained
when the ship is loaded and under way at sea. Steering gear status indications must be
operating correctly in the steering flat, main control room and on the bridge. The rudder
position indicators on the bridge may be checked during the functional testing of the
steering gear. The bridge indication should be compared with the direct mechanical
indicator on the rudder stock in the steering flat.
Motor overcurrent alarms can be initiated by simulating the action of the overcurrent
relay. Remember that a steering gear motor does not have overcurrent trip protection; the
only main circuit protection being from the back-up fuses which are essential for short-
circuit protection. Hydraulic fluid low level alarms, if fitted, must be checked for correct
initiation by the oil level sensors.
Navigation light Essentially, the surveyor will except to prove that the navigation light indicator operates
indicators correctly and give the appropriate alarms. A broken wire or lamp can be simulated by
pulling the appropriate fuse. The power supply for the navigation lights must be
duplicated (usually the alternative supply being derived from the emergency switchboard)
and the changeover facilities must be checked. Although the actual light fittings for
navigation are part of the Safety Equipment Survey, the electrical survey will naturally
include a check on the supply cables to the lights.
UMS Operation If your ship is classified for Unattended Machinery Space (UMS) operation, the electrical
survey will be extended to include all the alarms, fire detection, controls and fail-safe
features of such an installation.
All alarms associated with the main engine, auxiliary machines, lubrication and cooling
are to tested for correct operation. Testing of the electrical circuits from the various
sensors is relatively straightforward. This can be achieved by operating the sensor switch
by hand or by simulating the switch action under the expected alarms condition. To prove
that the overall sensor (pressurestat, flow switch, level switch, temperature switch, etc.) is
functioning correctly is obviously more involved. Often, specialist contractors may be
called upon to service and calibrate the sensors and alarm annunciators.
Particular attention will be paid to the main engine and auxiliary generators in respect of
their alarms for lubrication and cooling. Initiation and action of auto shut-down features
will be tested. Essential drives for lubrication, cooling and fuel supply are duplicated and
arranged so that one pump can be selected on a duty/standby basis. Loss of pressure at
the duty pump should automatically start up the standby unit.
Automatic start-up of the emergency generator must be demonstrated. The initiation of

the undervoltage or under-frequency relay can usually be accomplished by pulling the
fuses in the detection unit. The emergency generator should then run up to speed and
supply power to the emergency switchboard.
UMS requirement demand that a standby main generator is started automatically on loss
of the duty generator. The standby generator is to start and close onto the bus-bar within
45 secs. This is followed by automatic sequential re-starting of essential auxiliaries for
lubrication, cooling, fuel and steering. The correct functioning of the system will be tested.
The duplicate bilge level alarms together with automatic bilge pumping must be proven to
the surveyor’s satisfaction.
The main and standby electric power supplies to the overall alarm monitoring system
must be inspected and tested. The standby power arrangement usually includes battery

back-up. It will be necessary to inspect the general condition of the battery and its trickle-
charger. Tests are made on the UMS alarms system to verify:
(i) that alarms displayed on the main console in the engine control room are
relayed to the smaller group alarm panel on the bridge;
(ii) that the duty engineer call system is operating in the accommodation areas,
i.e. in the cabin of the selected duty engineer and in the duty mess and
lounges;
(iii) that the selected duty engineer is allowed 2-3 mins to respond to a
machinery alarms. If he has not reached the control room and accepted the
alarm within this time, a ‘dead man’s’ alarm should be sounded generally in
the alleyways adjacent to the engineer’s accommodation.
A complete inspection and test of the fire detection apparatus must be performed. All
smoke, heat and flame sensors must function correctly to initiate the appropriate audible
and visual alarms on the bridge, in the main control room and in the accommodation.
Hand operated fire-alarm switches of the ‘break glass’ type must also be examined and
tested to be in proper working order.
Main engine controls must function correctly and will be tested from the bridge position,
local position (main control room) and at the emergency position alongside the engine.
The operational features of the electrical equipment for main engine control and
indication will be best demonstrated during a full engine test during an engine survey.
Such electrical equipment and connections associated with engine control will be
examined as usual for wear and tear, insulation level, cleanliness, loose connections and
overheating.
Tankers Electrical equipment in the hazardous areas of oil/gas carries and other ships carrying
potentially dangerous cargo will be surveyed during the normal engine survey (every four
years) and during docking and annual surveys. Consequently, the hazardous area
electrical equipment is effectively surveyed every year.
The most common form of hazardous area electrical equipment is the flameproof
enclosure type. (Marked Exd on the equipment certification label). This type of enclosure
will be found on light fittings, motors, starters, push-buttons and alarm bells within the
hazardous zones.
The flameproof enclosure will be inspected for surface cleanliness (which affects the
surface temperature), corrosion and secure mountings. On lighting fittings the cement
that bounds the lamp glass to its frame must be closely inspected for cracks or
indentations. All bolts must be in place, evenly torqued up and to the correct type. The
edges of flamepath flange joints must not be painted over or impended in any way.
Exposed flameproof equipment on deck must be adjudged weatherproof with the correct
(approved) gaskets or ‘O’ rings in place. An Exd fitting may be opened up to check the
condition of its flamepath surfaces for corrosion, pitting or scratch marks. The Ex
Certification label and equipment rating label must not be painted over. Remember that
no alternations to the Exd equipment are allowed without permission from the
Certification Authority. This applies also to the lamp size and its rating for a particular light
fitting – it must have the correct lamp fitted.
Some pump rooms have pressurized light fittings (marked Exp on the Certification label).

Here it is necessary to confirm that the fittings are purged and pressurized before the
light is allowed to be switched on. Similarly the lights should automatically be switched off
if the air pressure drops below its set value.
Electrical instrumentation and communication equipment used in hazardous areas must

be intrinsically safe (marked Exi on the Certification label). In some cases, zener batteries
are connected in series with intrinsically safe circuits and are fitted in a ‘safe’ area just
outside the hazardous area.
TAK E CARE
The surveyor cannot easily test zener barriers in situ as this would involve special
equipment and it is generally accepted that such protection equipment will function
correctly when circuit fault condition arise. This is no different to accepting that a fuse will
blow when a short-circuit occurs. However, the surveyor will inspect the zener barrier
installation. The barriers must have secure connections and be properly bolted to an
earth strap, which, in turn, must be solidly bonded to the ship’s hull.

Rev0.0 Jan 03
DIAGNOSTICS SIGNS OF UNCONSCIOUSNESS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Fainting Concusssion Brain Epllepsy Stroke Alcohol Opium and Barbiturate Uraemic Sunstroke and Electric
compres- morphine (sedative coma heat-stroke shock
sion (p.191) tablets) (p.205)
(p.199) (p.74) (p.74) (p.195) (p.231) (p.164) (p.57) (p.236) (p.19)
Onset sudden
Mental unconscious
condition ness
Pulse fast and
feeble
173
Respiration shallow and
may cease
Skin pale, may be
burnt
Pupils eyes may
squint
INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE

Paralysis may be
ADVANCED ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP
present
Convulsions present in
some cases
Breath -
Special muscular
points spasm often
causes tight
gripping of
the
electrified
object
Unconscious The immediate threat to life may be:

casualty Breathing obstructed by the tongue falling back
and blocking the throat;
Stopped heart.
Check for Look for movements of the chest and abdomen;

breathing at once-
Look/Listen/Feel Feel for air on your cheek
Listen for breathing with your ear over the mouth
and nose (Figure 1.25);
Not the colour of face and lips-normal or blue/grey tinge?
If breathing: Place the casualty in the unconscious or recovery

position (Figure 1.26);
NOTE: no pillows should be used under the head;
Pull up the leg and the arm on the side to which
the head is facing, pull up the chin;
Stretch other arm out as pictured
For subsequent treatment of an unconscious patient see Chapter 3.
Not breathing: With the casualty lying flat on his back, open the
airway by making sure that the head is tilted back
whilst lifting the chin upwards and forwards
(Figure 1.27), which will move the tongue forward
and clear the airway.
Open the mouth and mop out any obvious
obstructions such as blood, vomit or secretions. If
dentures are worn only remove them if they are
broken or displaced. Use your fingers, a
handkerchief or a clean piece of cloth.
These actions may relieve the obstruction to
breathing. The casualty may gasp and start to breathe
naturally. If so, place in the unconscious position.
Still not Begin artificial respiration at once-seconds court.

breathing:
Open the airway by making sure that the head is
tilted back whilst lifting the chin upwards and
forwards.
Work from the side in a convenient position;
Pinch the casualty’s nose with your index finger and thumb. After taking a full breath,
seal your lips about the patient’s mouth and blow into his mouth until you see the
chest rise. This should take about 2 seconds for full inflation. (Figure 1.28).
Give two effective inflations quickly, then note if the colour of the face and lips is
improving.

If there is Continue the artificial respiration, maintaining a rate

improvement: of about a dozen inflations each minute. It may help
your timing to count to five, slowly, between
inflations;
See section above on ‘if breathing’.
If there is no improvement:
Listen for heart sounds (Figure 1.29);
Feel the pulse at the neck (Figure 1.29);
If no heart beat is felt, the heart has stopped. A

trained first-aider must begin chest compression at
once. Unless circulation is restored, the brain will
be without oxygen and the person will be dead in
four to six minutes:
The casualty must be lying on his back on a hard

surface, e.g. deck, otherwise the compression will
be lost;
Place your hands together as shown in Figure 1.30;
Press (1/2 second duration, 100 times a minute)
firmly and rapidly on the middle of the lower half of
the breast bone sufficient to produce a downward
movement of about 4 cm (Figure 1.31);
Artificial respiration (Figure 1.30) must also be
carried out when giving heart compression since
breathing stops when the heart stops. It can be
given by one person, alternately compressing 15
times and then filling the lungs with air twice or,
ideally, by two people-one giving heart compression
and the other giving artificial respiration, at a ratio of
5 chest compressions to 1 lung inflation;
If the heart starts to beat the colour of the face and
lips will improve and the eye pupils will get smaller;
Listen again for heart sounds and feel for a neck
pulse. If they are heard, stop heart compression but
continue with artificial respiration until natural
breathing is restored.
When you are satisfied that the heart is beating and

unassisted breathing is restored, transfer the casualty
by stretcher, in the unconscious position, to the ship’
hospital or a cabin for further treatment, see Chapter 3
for continued nursing care.
Unfortunately these measure are not always successful. Failure to restart the heart after
cardiac arrest is common even in the best environment, such as a fully equipped hospital.
It may be necessary to decide to stop artificial respiration and chest compression. If in
doubt SEEK RADIO MEDICAL ADVICE.

Burns and scalds Clothing on fire

By far the best way to put out a fire on a person is to use a dry powder fire
extinguisher at once;
If a dry powder extinguisher is not available, then lay the person down and smother
the flames by wrapping him in any available material (not made of man-made fibre),
or throw buckets of water over him, or use a hose;
Make sure all smouldering clothing is extinguished.
NOTE: The powder from a fire extinguisher will not cause much, if any, eye damage.
Most people shut their eyes tightly if prayed with powder. Any powder which gets in the
eye should be washed out immediately after the fire has been extinguished and while
cooling is being undertaken.
Heat burns All heat burns should be cooled as quickly as possible with running cold water (see or
and scalds fresh) for at least ten minutes, or by immersing in cold water and keeping the injured
part in motion; cooling of extensive burns (>15%) should be avoided as hypothermia
will result.
If it is not possible to cool the burn on the spot, the casualty should be taken to where
cooling can be carried out;
Try to remove clothing gently but do not tear off any which adhere to the skin;
Then cover the burned areas with a dry, non-fluffy, dressing which is larger than the
burns and bandage in place;
Further treatment as in Chapter4.
Electrical burns and Make sure you do not become the next casualty when approaching any person who
electrocution is in contact with electricity;
If possible, switch off the current;
Otherwise, insulate yourself. Remove your watch and rings, wear rubber boots or
stand on an insulating mat, thick DRY newspaper or wood;
Alternatively, pull the casualty from the source of supply with an insulated flex or
push him away with a strong non-conductor, such as a piece of DRY wood;
Check immediately for breathing and heartbeat;
If not breathing, give artificial respiration;
If heart is stopped, give chest compression and artificial respiration;
Send for help;
When the casualty is breathing, cool any burned areas and apply a clean, dry, non-
fluffy covering to the burned area.
Chemical Remove contaminated clothing. Drench with water to wash the chemical away;
splashes Carry on washing for at least ten minutes. If you are in any doubt that the chemical
has been completely cleared from the skin, repeat the washing for a further ten
minutes;
Give priority to washing the eyes if affected, as they are particularly vulnerable to
chemical splashes. If only one eye is affected, incline the head to that side to prevent
the chemical from running across into the other eye.

CATHODIC PROTECTION
In the hull, electrons flow from anode to cathode leaving positively
charged iron ions at the anodic area. At the cathode the effect of
the arrival of electrons is to produce negatively charged hydroxyl
ions (OH) by electrolysis of sea water. These negative ions flow
through the sea to the anodic area where they combine with the
positive iron ions to form ferrous hydroxide Fe (OH)2. This ferrous
hydroxide is further oxidized by dissolved oxygen to form ferric
hydroxide Fe (OH)3 which is rust. Thus the anodic area is
gradually corroded away whilst no corrosion takes place at the
cathodic area.
This corrosive action be overcome if the complete hull is made

cathodic, i.e. electrons are allowed to arrive at the hull surface and
produce negative hydroxyl ions but no electrons leave the hull to
produce positive iron ions. This is achieved by fitting insulated lead anodes to the hull
and applying a positive dc potential to them with respect to the hull.
The negatively charged hydroxyl ions (OH) now pass to the insulated lead anodes
causing the lead surface to change to lead peroxide PdO2.
The potential is of such a value that it just overcomes the original corrosion current and
gives rise to an impressed protection current which flows in the complete circuit. The
value of protection current must be critically controlled to just prevent corrosion, as
beyond this value the increase in the rate of release of hydroxyl ions will cause
sponginess and flaking of the anti-fouling paint.
Initially the electrolytic action will form lead peroxide

(PdO2) on the surface of the anodes and when this
skin is formed the action reduces. The anodes take on
a rich brown appearance (positive lead acid battery
plate) and in service are ex pected to last 7-10 years.
The correct value of protection current can be

determined by reference electrodes. These are either
of zinc or silver attached to the hull, but insulated from
it, below the waterline. The voltage measured between
hull and reference electrodes of an unprotected ship
is:
Zinc – 450mV negative to hull With sea water as an electrolyte.

Silver – 600mV positive to hull

When satisfactorily protected, the protection current will make the hull 200mV more
negative, i.e. a zinc reference electrode will register 250mV negative to hull and silver
800mV positive to hull The reference electrode voltage may, therefore, be used to
monitor the protection, but more important, is used as the signal source to control
automatically the value of protection current.
Cathodic protection systems fitted in ships consists of a number of anodes (lead or

platinised titanium) fitted to the hull at selected places below the waterline, and control
equipment which automatically regulates the anode current to the required value. Direct
current is supplied to the anodes, after transformation and rectification, from the ship’s
440V 60Hz 3-phase distribution system. The control equipment comprises reference
electrodes, an amplifier assembly and one or more transformer rectifier units.
The anode current control may be obtained by electronic thyristor amplifiers or magnetic
amplifiers. The schematic diagram below outlines a typical scheme.
The control equipment automatically monitors the size of anode current required which
will vary with the ship’s
speed, water temperature
and salinity, condition of
paint work etc. Typical
anode current densities
2
range from 10mA/m to
2
40mA/m for protection of
painted surfaces and 100
to 150 mA/m2 for bare
surfaces. The total
controller current for a hull
in good condition may be
as low as 20A. Maximum
controller outputs may be
up to about 600A at 8V.
Cathodic protection does
not appear to deter
molluscular growth on the
ship’s hull, so a topcoat of
anti-foul (poisonous) paint
is still necessary.

SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FORMULAS

2 2
01. (a) V=P/I (b) V= I*R (c) P = V*I = I *R = V /R
where V= Voltage in volts; I= Current in Amps; R= Resistance in ohms;

P= power in watts
02. In a series circuit,

(a) Voltage V= V1+ V2 + V3 + V4 …….. volts
(b) Resistance R= R1 + R2 + R3 …….. ohms
03. In a parallel circuit

(a) Current I = I1 + I2 + I3 …….. Amps
(b) Voltage V = V1= V2 = V3 = V4 …….. volts
(c) Resistance R= 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ….. Ohms
04. Effective resistance of two parallel resistance R1 and R2
R = R1 x R2
R1 + R2
05. Q = C*V coulombs where C = capacitance in Faradays,

V = voltage in volts
06. For capacitors in parallel

(a) C = C1 + C2 + C3
For capacitors in series

(b) 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
07. Force on a current carrying conductor

F = B*L*I Newtons
Where B = flux in Telsa, L = length of the conductor in meters and I is the

current in Amps.
08. Induced EMF

E = B*L*U where E = volts, L = length of the conductor in meters and
U = velocity / sec
09. Magnetic flux is created by Magneto Motive Force

F = N*I (also known as A.T. Ampere Turns)
10. Induced EMF in an inductance at any instant

(a) e=L, di volts where L = inductance in Henry
dt
(b) Time constant of L.R circuit
T = L/R seconds

11. Average value of an A.C. over a half cycle (For an equidistant mid coordinates)
(a) Iav = i1+i2+i3…… in
n
and r.m.s. or effective value
(b) Ir.m.s.= √ (i12+i22+i32…… in2)
therefore for sinusoidal waves
(c) Av.Value = 0.637 x Maximum value ie,
Iav = 0.637 * Imax
And r.m.s. or effective value
(d) I = 0.707 I max OR
I = 1/√2
12. Simple A.C. series circuit Where

(a) For a series resistive circuit. V = I*R V = Voltage in volt
I = Current in Amps
(b) For a purely inductive circuit R = Resistance in ohms
V = I * XL = 2πfL x I XL = Inductive reactance
in ohms
(c) For a purely capacitive circuit
XC = Capacitive reactance
V = I * XC = 1/2πfC x I in ohms
(d) For R and L in series Z = Impedance in ohms
V = IZ
(e) Z = (R2 + XL2)½
(f) For R – XC series circuit
2 ½
Z = (R2 + XC )
(g) For R - L – C in series
.
Z = √ R + (XL – XC)
2 2
13. Simple A.C. parallel circuit

(a) For R and L in parallel
I = IR + IL
(b) For R and C in parallel
I = IR + IC
14. Power in A.C circuit for general circuit

(a) Active Power P = VI CosΦ watts
(b) Reactive power Q = VI SinΦ watts
(c) Apparent Power S – VI volts – amps
(d) Power factor CosΦ = P/S
2 2 2
(e) S =P+Q

ELECTROMECHANICAL
ALL-OR-NOTHING RELAYS
SECTION 15 – OPERATING DEVICES
Form 1 Operating device, general symbol
07-15-01
Form 2 Note: Operating devices with several windings

may be indicated by inclusion of the appropriate
07-15-02 number of inclined strokes or by repeating
symbol 07-15-01 or 07-15-02
Form 1 Examples:
Operating device with two separate windings,
07-15-03 assemble representation
Form 2
07-15-04
Form 1 Operating Device with two separate windings,

detached representation
07-15-05
Form 2
07-15-06
Relay coil of slow-releasing relay

07-15-07
Relay coil of slow-operating relay

07-15-08
Relay coil of slow-releasing and slow-operating

07-15-09 relay
Relay coil of a high speed relay (fast operating

07-15-10 and fast releasing)

PROTECTIVE DEVICES
SECTION 21 – FUSES AND FUSE-SWITCHES
Fuse, general symbol
07-21-01
Fuse with supply side indicated by a thick

line
07-21-02
Fuse with mechanical linkage (striker

fuse)
07-21-03
Fuse with alarm contact, three terminals

07-21-04
Fuse separate alarm circuit

07-21-05
Three-phase switch with automatic

release by any one of the striker fuses
07-21-06

Guide for selection of fuses and wires
Motor rating at full load Fuse Rating (HRC)

Recommended
current Motor full load Amps.
size of copper
current
Direct online Star-Delta conductors,
kW HP Amps.
starting starting sq. mm
0.06 0.08 0.2 2 -

0.09 0.12 0.3 2 -
0.12 0.16 0.4 2 -
0.18 0.25 0.7 2 - 1.5
0.25 0.34 0.8 2 -
0.37 0.5 1.2 4 -
0.55 0.75 1.6 4 -
0.75 1 1.8 6 -
1.1 1.5 2.6 6 -
1.5 2 3.5 10 -
2.2 3 5 15 - 2.5
3.7 4 7.5 15 -
5.5 7.5 11 25 20
7.5 10 14 30 20
11 15 21 35 25 4
15 20 28 50 35 6
18.5 25 35 60 50
10
22 30 40 80 50
30 40 55 100 60
37 50 66 125 80 25
45 60 80 160 100
55 75 100 200 100
35
75 100 135 200 160

Digit Colour
0 Black
1 Brown
2 Red
3 Orange
4 Yellow
5 Green
6 Blue
7 Violet
8 Grey
9 White
(A) Tolerance Colour
5% Gold
10% Silver
20% No colour band
(B) Example:
A resistor is marked
Variable resistors.
(A) Wire-wound; 1st band Brown
nd
(B) mains ‘dropper’ resistor 2 band Black
with fixed tappings; cement rd
3 band Orange
coated on a ceramic former
No other band
What is its resistance and between what values does it lie?
Brown (1) = 1 first unit

Black (0) = 0 second unit
Orange (3) = 000 number of zeros
10000 = 10 kΩ
Since no further band is given the tolerance is + 20 per cent. The resistance lies between
10000 + 2000 and 10000 – 2000 i.e, 12 kΩ and 8kΩ

NOTES

ADVANCED ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP Rev0.0 July 04
Types of Ex Protection
Various method of protection is prevalent & is suitable for use in hazardous

location depending on extent of hazard. They are as under:
Explosion proof or flameproof (Ex d)

Increased Safety (Ex e)
Intrinsically Safe (Ex i)
Purge Protected (Ex p)
Encapsulated (Ex m)
Non-sparking (Ex n)
Oil filled (Ex 0)
Sand filled (Ex q)
Special protection (Ex s)
Note: Refer to enclosed table for various international codes & other relevant
information for above type of protections.
The concept of protection primarily uses following four techniques:

Allow the explosion to occur inside enclosure but prevent its spread
outside.
Eliminate arc, spark & hot surfaces so that source of ignition is not
present.
Limit energy of spark so that it is incapable of ignition.
Keep the flammable media out of enclosure.
Type Explosion proof or Flameproof (Ex d)
Performance requirements
These enclosures allow explosion to take place inside the enclosure but
do not allow explosion to permeate to surrounding hazardous area.
They are capable of withstanding the internal explosion & their
mechanical integrity remains unaffected.
The surface temperature of enclosures does not exceed auto ignition
temperature of surrounding flammable gases.
Construction features
Flame path (length & clearance) is ensured as per code requirement
Openings & entries are as per code requirements
Material of construction is chosen to avoid frictional sparks
Applications
Equipments such as Control & Power panels etc. having arcing devices
such as fuses and switchgears etc.

Type Increased Safety (Ex e)
Explosion inside enclosure is prevented by ensuring that ignition of
flammable gases do not take place by eliminating all contributory factors
like arc, spark and hot surfaces.
The surface temperature of enclosures or components mounted inside
does not exceed auto ignition temperature of surrounding flammable
gases.
These enclosures are not capable of withstanding explosion inside the
enclosure.
These enclosures should have minimum ingress protection of IP 54
No arcing devices such as fuse & switchgears are used.
Ignition is prevented by use of non-sparking & components with thermal
rating with higher safety margins to prevent sparks & rise in temperature.
High impact resistant materials like FRP or GRP not holding static charge
or metals are used
Clearance and creepage distances are maintained as per code
requirement.
Anti -loosening & vibration proof terminals are used.
Applications
Terminal housing, luminaries and motors.
Type Intrinsically Safe (Ex i)
Explosion is prevented by ensuring that sufficient energy for ignition of
flammable gases is not available.
gases.
Intrinsically safe circuits can be mounted in enclosures having minimum
ingress protection of IP 20 for Group II gases.
These equipments are primarily low energy electronic devices.
To eliminate risk of explosion these devices operate at lower voltage &
amperage to ensure that during fault condition sufficient energy is not
available for ignition.
All the components / PCS track / wire cross section are chosen with high
safety margins to prevent temperature rise under fault condition thus
preventing ignition.
In addition with many devices safety barriers are used to isolate field
devices under fault condition.

Application
Various Instruments, communication equipments etc.
Type Purge Protection (Ex p)
Explosion inside enclosure is prevented by purging flammable media and
ensuring non-ingress of flammable media by keeping positive pressure of
uncontaminated purge media.
The surface temperature of enclosures does not exceed auto ignition
temperature of surrounding flammable gases
enclosure.
Under this type of protection component & devices are installed inside a
purge panel. A positive pressure of uncontaminated air or other neutral
gas is maintained inside panel so as to exclude surrounding flammable
media thus eliminating risk of explosion.
Normally two types of purge panels are used. In first type purge media
does not vent during normal operation, it vents only during initial purge
cycle i.e. at initiation of process cycle.
In other type of panel, purge media vents through out the normal
operation at desired rate to prevent ingress of surrounding flammable
gases. The rate of venting is much lower in comparison to high venting
rate for initial purge cycle.
Flammable media is purged from the panels and then only these are
energized.
In case of failure of overpressure in purge panel, the alarm is initiated and
in critical condition the apparatus is de-energized.
Applications
Electrical equipment, whose normal operation involves, sparks, arcing or
hot components and complex assemblies like large motors, switchgear
and control cabinets and analysis devices.
Type Encapsulated (Ex m)
Encapsulation prevents explosion by excluding flammable substance from
coming in contact with source of ignition.
gases.
Potting with resin with without external enclosure achieves encapsulation.
By Encapsulation ingress of surrounding ambient is prevented.

As generally potting material has very good insulating & weather resistant
properties, it also provides excellent Ingress Protection & Electrical
Insulation.
This is prevalent for small devices & electronic components.
Applications
Static coils in ballast, solenoid valves or motors, relays and other control
gear of limited power and complete PCBs with electronic circuits.
Control Components like indicating lamps, push button elements and
control switches etc.
Type Non-Sparking (Ex n)
Explosion inside enclosure is prevented by ensuring that ignition of
flammable gases do not take place by eliminating all contributory factors
like arc, spark and hot surfaces.
gases.
enclosure.
In these types of equipments, only such components or assemblies are

used, which are incapable of producing sparks thus eliminating source of
ignition.
Application
Motors, luminaries, terminal housing etc
Type Oil Filled (Ex o)
Ensuring exclusion of flammable substance coming in contact with source
of ignition by submerging arcing or sparking components in oil prevents
explosion.
gases due to cooling by oil.
Oil having high dielectric strength & good thermal conductivity is very
good media for spark/arc quenching.
They are in use since very long in High Rating Power Electrical
equipments like Circuit Breakers.
They are also in use in transformers for cooling.
However they have negative aspect of flammability & forming carbon
particle during arc quenching.

In spite of this negative aspect they remain a good source for arc
quenching & thus used to exclude source of ignition in Hazardous area in
Oil quenched equipments
Applications
Large transformers, switchgear, starting resistors and complete starting
controllers.
Type Sand Filled (Ex q)
Performance requirements & construction features

Quartz grade sand is a very good media to suppress arc/ sparks & is
used in sand filled equipments to prevent explosion hazard by isolating
spark from surrounding hazardous gases.
Applications
HRC Fuses, Capacitors, electronic sub-assemblies or transformers etc
Special Protection (Ex s)
Performance requirements & construction features

This category comprises all such methods not covered under other types
of protection discussed but may be used. The criteria being that either the
source of ignition be eliminated or contained or excluded from
surrounding hazardous ambient.

Types of Ex Protection
Q1: What are various types of Ex Protection?
Q2: What are the various techniques used for concept of Ex Protection?
Q3: List out performance requirements, construction features & applications for
type of protection Explosion proof or Flameproof (Ex d).
type of protection Increased Safety (Ex e).
type of protection intrinsically Safe (Ex i).
type of protection Purge (Ex p).
type of protection Encapsulated (Ex m).
type of protection Non-Sparking (Ex n).
type of protection Oil filled (Ex o).
type of protection Sand Filled (Ex q).
Q11: List out performance requirements & construction features for type of
protection Special Protection (Ex s).

Intrinsic Safety
Intrinsic safety prevents instruments and low voltage circuits in hazardous
areas from releasing sufficient energy to ignite volatile gases.
All intrinsically safe circuits have three components: the field device,
referred to as the intrinsically safe apparatus; the energy-limiting device,
also known as a barrier or intrinsically safe associated apparatus; and the
field wiring.
Intrinsically safe apparatus are classified as simple or complex.
Simple apparatus, which do not need to be approved, are non-energy
storing devices such as contacts, thermocouples, RTDs, LEDs and
resistors.
Complex apparatus such as transmitters, solenoids, relays and
transducers may store excess energy and need to be approved by a third
party.
Contacts, transmitters and temperature sensors are the most commonly
used field devices in intrinsically safe applications.
The intrinsically safe barrier limits the current with a resistor and the
voltage with a zener diode.
Intrinsically safe circuits are designed so that they operate properly under
normal conditions, but keep the energy levels below the ignition curves
when a fault condition occurs.
Field Device
When designing an intrinsically safe circuit, begin the analysis with the
field device. This will determine the type of barrier that can be used so
that the circuit functions properly under normal operating conditions but
still is safe under fault conditions.
Simple apparatus is defined as any device which will neither generate nor
store more than 1.2 volts, 0.1 amps, 25 mW or 20 FJ. These simple
devices do not need to be approved as intrinsically safe. If they are
connected to an approved intrinsically safe associated apparatus
(barrier), the circuit is considered intrinsically safe.
A non simple device can create or store levels of energy that exceed
those listed above. When these devices are approved as intrinsically safe,
under the entity concept, they have the following entity parameters: Vmax
(maximum voltage allowed); Imax (maximum current allowed); Ci (internal
capacitance); and Li (internal inductance).
The Vmax and Imax values are straightforward. Under a fault condition,
excess voltage or current could be transferred to the intrinsically safe
apparatus (field device). If the voltage or current exceeds the apparatus=
Vmax or Imax, the device can heat up or spark and ignite the gases in the
hazardous area. The Ci and Li values describe the device's ability to store
energy in the form of internal capacitance and internal inductance.
Limiting energy to the field device

To protect the intrinsically safe apparatus in a hazardous area, an energy-
limiting device must be installed. This is commonly referred to as an intrinsically
safe associated apparatus or barrier. Under normal conditions, the device is
passive and allows the intrinsically safe apparatus to function properly. Under
fault conditions, it protects the field circuit by preventing excess voltage and

current from reaching the hazardous area. The basic circuit diagram for an
intrinsically safe barrier is shown in Fig. 1.
Figure 1. Barrier Circuit.

There are three components to a barrier that limit current and voltage: a resistor,
at least two zener diodes, and a fuse. The resistor limits the current to a specific
value known as the short circuit current, Isc. The zener diode limits the voltage
to a value referred to as open circuit voltage, Voc. The fuse will blow when the
diode conducts. This interrupts the circuit, which prevents the diode from burning
and allowing excess voltage to reach the hazardous area. There always are at
least two zener diodes in parallel in each intrinsically safe barrier. If one diode
should fail, the other will operate providing complete protection.
When conducting the safety analysis of the circuit, it is important to compare the
entity values of the intrinsically safe apparatus against the associated apparatus.
These parameters usually are found on the product or in the control wiring
diagram from the manufacturer.
Will The Circuit Work?
It also is important to make sure that the intrinsically safe circuit will work under
normal conditions. With the current-limiting resistor, a voltage drop will occur
between the input and output of the barrier. This has to be accounted for in your
circuit design.
Determining Safe Energy Levels
Is the thermocouple which is installed in a hazardous are (Fig. 2) intrinsically
safe?
Figure 2. Thermocouple installed in a hazardous area.

The answer is no, because a fault could occur on the recorder which could
cause excess energy to reach the hazardous area, as seen in Fig. 3.

Figure 3. Thermocouple with fault.

To make sure that the circuit remains intrinsically safe, a barrier to limit the
energy must be inserted (Fig. 4).
Figure 4. Thermocouple with barrier.

Thermocouples & RTDs
All thermocouples and RTDs are simple devices and do not need
approvals.
One intrinsically safe barrier can be used to make all thermocouples
and RTDs intrinsically safe.
Isolated temperature converters accept signals from temperature
sensors and convert them to a mA signal which is intrinsically safe.
3-wire RTDs provide better signals than 2-wire RTDs.
Use of consistent wiring on thermocouples will provide more accurate
signals.
One type of barrier can be selected to make all thermocouples and
RTDs intrinsically safe so that polarity problems are avoided and
calculations are not necessary.

Figure 5. Typical values of barrier in thermocouple circuit.
Isolated temperature converters:

These universal devices measure temperature in hazardous areas, but at a
higher cost. Isolated temperature converters accept a low-level DC signal from a
thermocouple or 3-wire RTD and convert it into a proportional 4-20 mA signal in
the safe area. They also are available with set points that trip an on-off signal to
the safe side when the temperature reaches a designated level. These units
must be approved as intrinsically safe.
Advantages of isolated temperature converters as compared to grounded safety
barriers include:
• Good signal response
• No ground required for safety
• More versatile application
• One product for all applications
Disadvantages include:
• Larger in size
• Requires calibration
• More expensive
• May not work with all thermocouples and RTDs
Grounded safety barriers:
These are passive devices that prevent all excess energy from a fault occurring
on the safe side from reaching the hazardous area. Under normal conditions the
barriers allow the circuit to function properly by allowing signals to pass between
the field device and the control room. In a fault condition, the barriers limit
voltage and current to levels that are not sufficient enough to ignite gases.
Advantages of grounded safety barriers as compared to isolated temperature
converters include:
• Less expensive
• Precise signal response
• Very small (less than 1/2 in. wide)

• Simple application
• One barrier for all types of thermocouples and RTDs
Disadvantages include:
• Requires ground
• Requires some engineering
Analog Inputs - 4-20mA Transmitters
Transmitters, commonly referred to as analog inputs, convert a physical
measurement such as temperature or pressure into an electrical current
signal (mA) that can be sent over a relatively long distance.
Most analog inputs can be made intrinsically safe with the use of one
signal-and-return intrinsically safe barrier. When these barriers are used,
care must be taken to calculate the voltage drops across the barrier,
transmitter and conversion resistor. This barrier requires a ground but is
smaller, less expensive and gives more precise signals than transformer-
isolated units.
If additional devices such as loop powered indicators are used,
transformer-isolated barriers which do not require a ground may be a
better choice. Other options include increasing the supply voltage or
reducing the impedance on the conversion resistor.
Transmitters convert a physical signal to a 4-20 mA electrical signal for
transmission to the distributed control system (DCS).
The 80/20 Rule is actually five rules that govern the construction of
intrinsically safe analog inputs circuits and the selection of barriers.
1. Most analog inputs circuits are protected by grounded intrinsically
safe barriers because of lower costs.
2. The conversion resistor is commonly 250 ohms and installed on
the negative return.
3. Analog input circuits are normally powered by 24 VDC.
4. One signal-and-return intrinsically safe barrier will solve most
transmitter applications.
5. Most hazardous locations are classified as Groups C-G.
Transformer isolated barriers offer a simple solution at a higher cost.
Improper selection of intrinsically safe barriers in loops with 4-20 mA
transmitters can introduce too much impedance on the circuit and cause
the transmitters to function improperly at the high end near the 20 mA
reading.
Figure 6. 4-20 mA 2-wire transmitter.

Temperature -> Converted to x multiplied by = converted to a
mA signal ohm resistor voltage reading

0C (min) -> 4 mA (0.004 A) x 250 =1V
100C (max) -> 20 mA (0.020 A) x 250 =5V

Table 1. Conversion of physical measurement to electrical signals
There are three types of barriers for intrinsically safe transmitter applications:
ungrounded repeaters, grounded repeaters, or grounded safety barriers. Each
has its advantages and disadvantages (Table 2).
Advantages Disadvantages
Grounded Least expensive Requires grounding
Safety Precise signal response Requires engineering
Barrier Very small size
(< 1/2 in. wide)
Grounded One product can be used More expensive
Repeater Can use transmitters with Requires ground
higher operating voltage Larger in size
Consumes more power
Ungrounded One product can be used Most expensive
Repeater No ground required Larger in size (1 in. wide)
Can use transmitters with Possible radio frequency
higher operating voltage interference
Isolation, if good ground May not be compatible with
not available smart transmitters
Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of grounded safety barriers,
grounded and ungrounded repeaters.
Complex devices. Because transmitters can store energy, they are considered
complex devices, and must be approved as intrinsically safe. If they are third-
party approved, they have entity parameters such as Vmax, Imax, Ci, and Li.
Selection of safety barriers. The proper barrier must be selected by two
separate evaluations: one to determine that the analog circuit functions properly
at 20 mA, and one to determine that the circuit is safe under fault conditions.
Functional parameters: Type of safety barrier, voltage input (Vn), and internal
resistance (Ri). The type of safety barrier is largely determined by the placement
of the conversion resistor. If the resistor is placed on the supply leg of the circuit,
a simple DC positive barrier can be used (Fig. 7).
Figure 7. Positive DC barrier.

The supply channel is constructed like the positive DC barrier; it prevents a fault
on the safe side from transferring excess energy to the transmitter. The return
channel has two diodes in series which allow the signal to pass only in one
direction back to the DCS, and prevent any excess fault energy from being
transferred to the transmitter. These diodes and the supply channel have voltage
drops which must be accounted for in the analog circuit (Fig. 8).

Figure 8. Supply and return barrier.

Digital Inputs - Switching Circuits
Digital inputs are simple switching operations where a switch or contact is
operated in a hazardous area and the on/off signal is sent back to the
distributed control system (DCS).
Switches are simple devices and do not need to be approved.
The most common method of protecting switches is with an isolated,
intrinsically safe relay, commonly referred to as switch amplifier. These
can drive inputs back to a DCS or motor starters and pumps which
require heavier contact ratings.
Switching through safety barriers is also possible when the input is taken
back to a DCS. The same barriers used for analog inputs can also be
used for digital inputs.
Digital inputs include: contacts, mechanical, reed, limit, float and proximity
switches.
All digital inputs can be made safe with an isolated intrinsically safe relay,
commonly referred to as a switch amplifier, which can drive DCS inputs or
other electrical devices requiring more power.
NAMUR style, 2-wire proximity switches are most commonly used for
intrinsically safe applications.
Switch Amplifiers
- Simple application - Needs power supply
- No ground required - Larger in size
- No internal resistance
- LEDs to indicate power and
monitor operations
- Sensistive to detect closed
contacts in corrosive areas
Safety Barriers
- Smaller in size - Requires grounding
- Does not require power supply - Has internal resistance
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of switch amplifiers and safety
barriers.
Intrinsically Safe Outputs
The most common intrinsically safe digital outputs are solenoid valves
and LEDs.

Analog outputs are I/P transducers.

Except for the LEDs, these devices must be approved to be used in an
intrinsically safe circuit.
The same barriers that are used for analog and digital inputs can be used
to make all solenoid valves intrinsically safe. An isolated solenoid driver
can also be used.
Analog outputs for I/P transducers always use the same barrier.
LEDs require a simple voltage drop calculation to select the proper
barrier.
Digital outputs refer to solenoid valves and LEDs; analog outputs refer to
I/P transducers.
All solenoid valves use one barrier which is the same one used for analog
and digital inputs.
All I/P transducers use 12 volt, 150 ohm barriers.
A simple voltage drop calculation is required to select the proper barrier
for LEDs.
Installation of Intrinsically Safe Apparatus:
Intrinsically safe circuits use normal wiring practices, but care must be
taken to separate and identify these circuits.
A proper grounding system will have only one grounding point.
Explosion proof seals are not required.
Intrinsically safe seals must prevent the transmission of gases.
No special maintenance is required.
Troubleshooting the system includes: checking that the wiring is
installed correctly, the circuit is powered, the barrier resistance is not
too high and the fuse is not blown.
Wiring
Intrinsically safe circuits may be wired in the same manner as comparable
circuits installed for unclassified locations with two exceptions
summarized as separation and identification.
These wiring practices are simple and clear; however, they often are
overlooked and are the source of potential problems.
The intrinsically safe conductors must be separated from all other wiring
by placing them in separate conduits or through separate cables.
Within an enclosure the conductors can be separated by a grounded
metal or insulated partition.
Intrinsically safe wiring may be light blue when no other conductors
colored light blue are used.
The raceways, cable trays, open wiring, and terminal boxes must be
labeled Intrinsically Safe Wiring to prevent unintentional interference with
the circuits.
Barrier Installation
The barriers normally are installed in a dust- and moisture-free IP54
enclosure located in the non hazardous area.
Only the barrier outputs are intrinsically safe.
The enclosure should be as close as possible to the hazardous area to
minimize cable runs and increased capacitance of the circuit.
If they are installed in a hazardous area, they must be in the proper
enclosure suited for that area.

Grounding
First determine if the intrinsically safe barriers used in the system are
grounded or isolated.
The isolated barriers normally are larger, more expensive, and do not
require a ground for safety.
The grounded safety barriers are smaller and less expensive, but require
a ground to divert the excess energy.
The main rules of grounding intrinsically safe systems are:
• The ground path must have less then 1 ohm of resistance from the
furthest barrier to the main grounding electrode.
• The grounding conductor must be a minimum 12 AWG.
• All ground path connections must be secure, permanent, visible, and
accessible for routine inspection.
• A separate isolated ground conductor normally is required since the
normal protective ground conductor (green or yellow/green wire) may not
be at the same ground potential because of the voltage drop from fault
currents in other equipment.
A poor grounding system can influence the function of the system by
creating noise on the circuit or modifying the signals.
The numerous grounding points create ground loops which can modify
the signals and induce stray voltages into the intrinsically safe circuits.
The correct method of grounding is where all the grounds are tied
together at one single point in the system.
Sealing
Seals are required to prevent the transmission of gases and vapors from
the hazardous area to the non hazardous area, not to prevent passage of
flames from explosions.
Explosion-proof seals are not required as long as there is some other
mechanical means of preventing the passage of gases such as positive
pressure in the control room and/or application of approved mastic at
cable terminations and between the cable and raceway.
Many experts generally agree that a commercially available silicon caulk
is suitable mastic which would minimize the passage of gases. This must,
however, be acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction.
When barriers are installed in explosion-proof enclosures, which are
located in the hazardous area, explosion-proof seals are required on the
enclosure.
Since other conduits containing non intrinsically safe conductors between
the hazardous and non hazardous areas require explosion-proof seals, it
is good practice to maintain consistency and install explosion-proof seals
on the conduits containing intrinsically safe conductors also. The
exception to this would be where multi conductor shielded cable is used.
This cable may be difficult to seal in some explosion-proof fittings.
However, it will be necessary to seal both the cable terminations and
between the cable and raceway to minimize the passage of gases,
vapors, or dust.

Maintenance
No special maintenance of intrinsically safe systems is required.
Once a year the barriers should be checked to ensure that the
connections are tight, the ground wiring has less then one ohm of
resistance, and the barriers are free from moisture and dirt.
Check the panel and conduits for separation and identification of the
intrinsically safe wiring.
Never test the barrier with an ohmmeter or other test instrument while it is
connected in the circuit. This bypasses the barrier and could induce
voltages into the intrinsically safe wiring.
Troubleshooting
If the intrinsic safety circuit does not operate properly once it is completed and
energized, follow these troubleshooting guidelines:
Make sure the connections are tight.
Check the wiring to the appropriate terminals against the control wiring
diagram provided by the manufacturer.
Make sure the circuit is powered.
Check to see if the resistance in the barrier is too high for the circuit.
As stated in the previous articles in this series, circuits are analyzed
for the proper loop resistance (barrier and cable) and supply voltages.
If the circuit does not operate properly, check the circuit against the
design in the control wiring diagram.
Check for a blown barrier fuse. This is accomplished by disconnecting
the barrier from the circuit and measuring the end-to-end resistance of
the barrier. If the ohmmeter registers an infinite resistance, the fuse in
the barrier is blown. The fuse has opened because of a fault in the
circuit, so reevaluate the entire circuit before reinstalling a new barrier.
Barrier Replacement
If the barrier's fuse has opened, it usually is the result of excessive
voltage being applied to the barrier. This causes the diode to conduct,
which results in high current in the fuse.
After determining the cause of the excess voltage, the barrier must be
replaced.
The procedure is to disconnect the wiring from the safety barriers in the
proper order of non hazardous terminal first, hazardous terminals next,
and the ground last. Cover the bare wire ends with tape, replace the
barrier, and then reverse the procedure to mount the new barrier.
Always install the ground first and disconnect the ground last.

Intrinsic Safety
Q1: What is general usage of Intrinsic Safety & how it works?

Q2: What are simple & complex apparatus?
Q3: How energy to the field device is limited?
Q4: Highlight features of Thermocouples & RTDs?
Q5: Give a brief write of isolated temperature converters. How they compare
with grounded safety barrier?
Q6: Give a brief write of grounded safety barrier. How they compare with
isolated temperature converters?
Q7: Give a brief write up of analog inputs in IS system.

Q8: What are types of barriers used with transmitters? State their comparative
advantage & disadvantages.
Q9: Why transmitters are reffered as complex devices?
Q10: How safety barriers are selected for transmitters?
Q11: Give a brief write up of digital inputs in IS system.
Q12: Give a brief write up of intrinsically safe outputs in IS system.
Q13: State points to be kept in view during installation of intrinsically safe
apparatus.
Q14: State points to be kept in view during wiring of IS system.
Q15: Describe procedure for installation of IS Barriers.
Q16: Describe procedure for grounding of IS system.
Q17: Describe procedure for sealing to prevent passage of gases & vapour in IS
system.
Q18: How IS system is maintained?
Q19: How to trouble shoot, when IS system is not functioning?
Q20: How to replace the IS Barriers?

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Marine Electrical Engineering and Practice – By H.D. Mc Georg.

2. Practical Marine Electrical Knowledge – By Dennis T. Hall.
3. Electrical Technology – By Hawards & Hues.
4. Basic Electronics – By Bernhard Grobb.
5. Running of Marine Electrical Machines – By H. Cawley.

Course - Advanced Electrical Workshop

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ADVANCED ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP Rev0.

2. CAPACITANCE & CAPACITORS ............................................................. 7-11

3. ELECTROMAGNETISM .......................................................................... 12-14

4. INDUCTANCE IN DC CIRCUIT ............................................................... 15-16

5. ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ........................................... 17-19

6. SINGLE-PHASE SERIES CIRCUITS....................................................... 20-27

7. POWER IN AC CIRCUITS ....................................................................... 28-33

8. MULTIPHASE SYSTEMS ........................................................................ 34-40

9. AC GENERATOR & SWITCHBOARD ..................................................... 41-53

10. SYNCHRONIZING ................................................................................... 54-67

11. ELECTRICAL MACHINES ....................................................................... 68-75

12. ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM TRACING & COMPONENTS........... 76-98

13. BATTERIES ............................................................................................. 99-106

14. MAINTENANCE ....................................................................................... 107-113

15. SHIP'S SURVEY REQUIREMENTS ........................................................ 114-119

16. SEMICONDUCTORS............................................................................... 120-135

17. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS .............................................................. 136-161

18. ELECTRICAL SURVEY REQUIREMENTS ............................................. 162-173

19. FIRST AID FOR ELECTRICAL SHOCKS ................................................ 174-176

20. CATHODIC PROTECTION...................................................................... 177-185

21. TYPES OF EX PROTECTION ................................................................. 186-191

22. INTRINSIC SAFETY ................................................................................ 192-202

International Maritime Training Centre 1

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 1

may be either passive or active. A p.d. is passive whenever it has no tendency to

Unless it is otherwise stated, it is usual to consider the transmission system of a

Certain conventions of representing the e. m. f. and p.d. in a circuit diagram should

Electromotive force Symbol : E Unit : volt (V)

The principal sources of e.m.f. are as follows :

1. The electrodes of dissimilar materials immersed in an electrolyte, as in

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 2

Relation [1.1] is the mathematical expression of what is termed Ohm’s law.

Resistance A resistor is a device which provides resistance in an electrical circuit. The

This classification is rather over-simplified because no material completely stops the

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 3

Table 2.2 - Typical Conductors Insulators

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 4

Series circuit Parallel network

R = R1 + R2 + R3 1/R = 1/R1 – 1/R2 –1/R3

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 5

Example Calculate VAB for the network shown in fig. 1.5

Fig 1.5 Circuit

For branch A, let VAC be the voltage at A with respect to C:

VAC = __R3 .V = 15 x 20 = 7.5 V

VBC = __R4 .V = 10 x 20 = 4.0 V

Applying Krichhoff’s second law to loop ABC:

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 6

It follows from the definition of the farad that

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 7

For equation [2.1]

C1 is Q, coulombs and that on C2 is Q2 coulombs, where

Fig 2.3 Capacitors in C = C1 + C2 farads [2.1]

V1 = Q/C1 and V2 = Q/C2

If we were to replace C1 and C2 by a single capacitor of capacitance C farads such

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 8

(a) Paper capacitors

(b) Electrolytic capacitors

(c) Mica capacitors

(d) Polyester capacitors

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 9

(e) Ceramic capacitors

(f) Tantalum electrolytic capacitors

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 11