Ward Leonard Method of Speed Control

Under Electrical Motor

Ward Leonard control system is introduced by Henry Ward Leonard in 1891. Ward Leonard
method of speed control is used for controlling the speed of a DC motor. It is a basic armature
control method. This control system is consisting of a dc motor M_1 and powered by a DC
generator G. In this method the speed of the dc motor (M_1) is controlled by applying variable
voltage across its armature. This variable voltage is obtained using a motor-generator set which
consists of a motor M_2(either ac or dc motor) directly coupled with the generator G. It is a very
widely used method of speed control of DC motor.

Principle of Ward Leonard Method

Basic connection diagram of the Ward Leonard speed control system is shown in the figure
below.

The speed of motor M1 is to be controlled which is powered by the generator G. The shunt field
of the motor M1 is connected across the dc supply lines. Now, generator G is driven by the motor
M2. The speed of the motor M2 is constant. When the output voltage of the generator is fed to the
motor M1 then the motor starts to rotate. When the output voltage of the generator varies then the
speed of the motor also varies. Now controlling the output voltage of the generator the speed of
motor can also be controlled. For this purpose of controlling the output voltage, a field regulator
is connected across the generator with the dc supply lines to control the field excitation. The
direction of rotation of the motor M1 can be reversed by excitation current of the generator and it
can be done with the help of the reversing switch R.S. But the motor-generator set must run in
the same direction.

Advantages of Ward Leonard System

1. It is a very smooth speed control system over a very wide range (from zero to normal
speed of the motor).
2. The speed can be controlled in both the direction of rotation of the motor easily.
3. The motor can run with a uniform acceleration.
4. Speed regulation of DC motor in this ward Leonard system is very good.

Disadvantages of Ward Leonard System

1. The system is very costly because two extra machines (motor-generator set) are required.
2. Overall efficiency of the system is not sufficient especially it is lightly loaded.

Application of Ward Leonard System

This Ward Leonard method of speed control system is used where a very wide and very sensitive
speed control is of a DC motor in both the direction of rotation is required. This speed control
system is mainly used in colliery winders, cranes, electric excavators, mine hoists, elevators,
steel rolling mills and paper machines etc.

Why Single Phase Induction Motor is not Self Starting?

But what about single phase. It will be having only one phase still it makes the rotor to rotate, so it is
quite interesting. Before that we need to know why single phase induction motor is not a self starting
motor and how the problem is overcome. We know that the ac supply is a sinusoidal wave and it
produces pulsating magnetic field in uniformly distributed stator winding. Since pulsating magnetic field
can be assumed as two oppositely rotating magnetic fields, there will be no resultant torque produced
at the starting and due to this the motor does not run. After giving the supply, if the rotor is made to
rotate in either direction by external force, then the motor will start to run. This problem has been
solved by making the stator winding into two winding, one is main winding and another is auxiliary
winding and a capacitor is fixed in series with the auxiliary winding. This will make a phase difference
when current will flow through the both coils. When there will be phase difference, the rotor will
generate a starting torque and it will start to rotate. Practically we can see that the fan does not rotate
when the capacitor is disconnected from the motor but if we rotate with hand it will start to rotate. So
this is the reason of using capacitor in the single phase induction motor. There are several advantages of
induction motor which makes this motor to have wider application. It is having good efficiency up to
97%. But the speed of the motor varies with the load given to the motor which is an disadvantage of this
motor. The direction of rotation of induction motor can easily be changed by changing the sequence of
three phase supply, i.e. if RYB is in forward direction, the RBY will make the motor to rotate in reverse
direction. This is in the case of three phase motor but in single phase motor, the direction can be
reversed by reversing the capacitor terminals in the winding.

An electrical motor is such an electromechanical device which converts electrical energy into a
mechanical energy. In case of three phase AC operation, most widely used motor is Three phase
induction motor as this type of motor does not require any starting device or we can say they are self
starting induction motor.

For better understanding the principle of three phase induction motor, the basic constructional
feature of this motor must be known to us. This Motor consists of two major parts:

Stator: Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of numbers of slots to construct a 3
phase winding circuit which is connected to 3 phase AC source. The three phase winding are
arranged in such a manner in the slots that they produce a rotating magnetic field after AC is
given to them.

Rotor: Rotor of three phase induction motor consists of cylindrical laminated core with
parallel slots that can carry conductors. Conductors are heavy copper or aluminum bars which
fits in each slots & they are short circuited by the end rings. The slots are not exactly made
parallel to the axis of the shaft but are slotted a little skewed because this arrangement reduces
magnetic humming noise & can avoid stalling of motor.

Working of Three Phase Induction Motor

Production of Rotating Magnetic Field
The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an electrical angle of 120°. When the
primary winding or the stator is connected to a 3 phase AC source, it establishes a rotating magnetic
field which rotates at the synchronous speed.

Secrets behind the rotation:

According to Faraday’s law an emf induced in any circuit is due to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linkage through the circuit. As the rotor winding in an induction motor are either
closed through an external resistance or directly shorted by end ring, and cut the stator rotating
magnetic field, an emf is induced in the rotor copper bar and due to this emf a current flows
through the rotor conductor.
Here the relative velocity between the rotating flux and static rotor conductor is the cause of
current generation; hence as per Lenz's law the rotor will rotate in the same direction to reduce
the cause i.e. the relative velocity.

Thus from the working principle of three phase induction motor it may observed that the
rotor speed should not reach the synchronous speed produced by the stator. If the speeds equals,
there would be no such relative velocity, so no emf induction in the rotor, & no current would be
flowing, and therefore no torque would be generated. Consequently the rotor can not reach at the
synchronous speed. The difference between the stator (synchronous speed) and rotor speeds is
called the slip. The rotation of the magnetic field in an induction motor has the advantage that no
electrical connections need to be made to the rotor.

Thus the three phase induction motor is:

• Self-starting.

• Less armature reaction and brush sparking because of the absence of commutators and brushes
that may cause sparks.

• Robust in construction.

• Economical.

• Easier to maintain.

Torque Equation of Three Phase Induction

Motor
The torque produced by three phase induction motor depends upon the following three factors:

Firstly the magnitude of rotor current, secondly the flux which interact with the rotor of three
phase induction motor and is responsible for producing emf in the rotor part of induction motor,
lastly the power factor of rotor of the three phase induction motor.

Combining all these factors together we get the equation of torque as-
Where, T is the torque produced by induction motor,

φ is flux responsible of producing induced emf,

I2 is rotor current,

cosθ2 is the power factor of rotor circuit.

The flux φ produced by the stator is proportional to stator emf E1.

i.e φ ∝ E1

We know that transformation ratio K is defined as the ratio of secondary voltage (rotor voltage)
to that of primary voltage (stator voltage).

Rotor current I2 is defined as the ratio of rotor induced emf under running condition , sE2 to total
impedance, Z2 of rotor side,

and total impedance Z2 on rotor side is given by ,

Putting this value in above equation we get,

We know that power factor is defined as ratio of resistance to that of impedance. The power
factor of the rotor circuit is

Putting the value of flux φ, rotor current I2, power factor cosθ2 in the equation of torque we get,
Combining similar term we get,

Removing proportionality constant we get,

Where ns is synchronous speed in r. p. s, ns = Ns / 60. So, finally the equation of torque becomes,

Derivation of K in torque equation.

In case of three phase induction motor, there occur copper losses in rotor. These rotor copper
losses are expressed as Pc = 3I22R2

We know that rotor current,

Substitute this value of I2 in the equation of rotor copper losses, Pc. So, we get

The ratio of P2 : Pc : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)

Where P2 is the rotor input,

Pc is the rotor copper losses,

Pm is the mechanical power developed.

Substitute the value of Pc in above equation we get,

On simplifying we get,

The mechanical power developed Pm = Tω,

Substituting the value of Pm

We know that the rotor speed N = Ns(1 - s)

Substituting this value of rotor speed in above equation we get,

Ns is speed in revolution per minute (rpm) and ns is speed in revolution per sec (rps) and the
relation between the two is
Substitute this value of Ns in above equation and simplifying it we get

Comparing both the equations, we get, constant K = 3 / 2πns

Equation of Starting Torque of Three Phase Induction Motor

Starting torque is the torque produced by induction motor when it is started. We know that at start the
rotor speed, N is zero.

So, the equation of starting torque is easily obtained by simply putting the value of s = 1 in the
equation of torque of the three phase induction motor,

Maximum Torque Condition for Three Phase Induction Motor

In the equation of torque,

The rotor resistance, rotor inductive reactance and synchronous speed of induction motor
remains constant . The supply voltage to the three phase induction motor is usually rated and
remains constant so the stator emf also remains the constant. The transformation ratio is defined
as the ratio of rotor emf to that of stator emf. So if stator emf remains constant then rotor emf
also remains constant.

If we want to find the maximum value of some quantity then we have to differentiate that
quantity with respect to some variable parameter and then put it equal to zero. In this case we
have to find the condition for maximum torque so we have to differentiate torque with respect to
some variable quantity which is slip, s in this case as all other parameters in the equation of
torque remains constant.
So, for torque to be maximum

Now differentiate the above equation by using division rule of differentiation. On differentiating
and after putting the terms equal to zero we get,

Neglecting the negative value of slip we get

So, when slip s = R2 / X2, the torque will be maximum and this slip is called maximum slip Sm
and it is defined as the ratio of rotor resistance to that of rotor reactance.

NOTE : At starting S = 1, so the maximum starting torque occur when rotor resistance is equal to
rotor reactance.

Equation of Maximum Torque

The equation of torque is

The torque will be maximum when slip s = R2 / X2

Substituting the value of this slip in above equation we get the maximum value of torque as,

CONCLUSION : From the above equation it is concluded that

1. The maximum torque is directly proportional to square of rotor induced emf at the standstill.
2. The maximum torque is inversely proportional to rotor reactance.
3. The maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.
 4. The slip at which maximum torque occur depends upon rotor resistance, R2. So, by varying the
rotor resistance, maximum torque can be obtained at any required slip.

Construction of Three Phase Induction

Motor
The three phase induction motor is the most widely used electrical motor. Almost 80% of the
mechanical power used by industries is provided by three phase induction motors because of its simple
and rugged construction, low cost, good operating characteristics, absence of commutator and good
speed regulation. In three phase induction motor the power is transferred from stator to rotor winding
through induction. The Induction motor is also called asynchronous motor as it runs at a speed other
than the synchronous speed.

Like any other electrical motor induction motor also have two main parts namely rotor and stator

1. Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A stator winding is
placed in the stator of induction motor and the three phase supply is given to it.

2. Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the mechanical
load through the shaft.

The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further classified as

1. Squirrel cage rotor,

2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.

Depending upon the type of rotor construction used the three phase induction motor are
classified as:

1. Squirrel cage induction motor,

2. Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase wound induction motor.

The construction of stator for both the kinds of three phase induction motor remains the same
and is discussed in brief in next paragraph.

The other parts, which are required to complete the induction motor, are:

1. Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made up of steel.
2. Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
 3. One of the problems with electrical motor is the production of heat during its rotation. In order
to overcome this problem we need fan for cooling.
4. For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is needed.
5. There is a small distance between rotor and stator which usually varies from 0.4 mm to 4 mm.
Such a distance is called air gap.

Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor

The stator of the three phase induction motor consists of three main parts :

1. Stator frame,
2. Stator core,
3. Stator winding or field winding.

Stator Frame

It is the outer most part of the three phase induction

motor. Its main function is to support the stator core and the field winding. It acts as a covering and it
provide protection and mechanical strength to all the inner parts of the induction motor. The frame is
either made up of die cast or fabricated steel. The frame of three phase induction motor should be very
strong and rigid as the air gap length of three phase induction motor is very small, otherwise rotor will
not remain concentric with stator, which will give rise to unbalanced magnetic pull.

Stator Core
The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In order to reduce the eddy current
loss, the stator core is laminated. These laminated types of structure are made up of stamping which is
about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All the stamping are stamped together to form stator core, which is then
housed in stator frame. The stamping is generally made up of silicon steel, which helps to reduce the
hysteresis loss occurring in motor.

Stator Winding or Field Winding

The slots on the periphery of stator core of the three phase induction motor carries three phase
windings. This three phase winding is supplied by three phase ac supply. The three phases of the
winding are connected either in star or delta depending upon which type of starting method is used. The
squirrel cage motor is mostly started by star – delta stater and hence the stator of squirrel cage motor is
delta connected. The slip ring three phase induction motor are started by inserting resistances so, the
stator winding of slip ring induction motor can be connected either in star or delta. The winding wound
on the stator of three phase induction motor is also called field winding and when this winding is excited
by three phase ac supply it produces a rotating magnetic field.

Types of Three Phase Induction Motor

1. Squirrel cage three phase induction motor: The rotor of the squirrel cage three phase induction
motor is cylindrical in shape and have slots on its periphery. The slots are not made parallel to
each other but are bit skewed (skewing is not shown in the figure of squirrel cadge rotor beside)
as the skewing prevents magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of
motor more smooth and quieter. The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper
bars (copper bras rotor is shown in the figure beside). These aluminum, brass or copper bars are
called rotor conductors and are placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor
conductors are permanently shorted by the copper or aluminum rings called the end rings. In
order to provide mechanical strength these rotor conductor are braced to the end ring and
hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and hence got its name as "squirrel
cage induction motor". The squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical. As the bars are
permanently shorted by end rings, the rotor resistance is very small and it is not possible to add
external resistance as the bars are permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and brushes
make the construction of Squirrel cage three phase induction motor very simple and robust and
hence widely used three phase induction motor. These motors have the advantage of adapting
any number of pole pairs. The below diagram shows squirrel cage induction rotor having
aluminum bars short circuit by aluminum end rings.
 Advantages of squirrel cage induction
rotor-

1. Its construction is very simple and rugged.

2. As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors requires less maintenance.

Applications: Squirrel cage induction motor is used in lathes, drilling machine, fan,
blower printing machines etc

2. Slip ring or wound three phase induction motor : In this type of three phase induction motor the
rotor is wound for the same number of poles as that of stator but it has less number of slots and
has less turns per phase of a heavier conductor.The rotor also carries star or delta winding
similar to that of stator winding. The rotor consists of numbers of slots and rotor winding are
placed inside these slots. The three end terminals are connected together to form star
connection. As its name indicates three phase slip ring induction motor consists of slip rings
connected on same shaft as that of rotor. The three ends of three phase windings are
permanently connected to these slip rings. The external resistance can be easily connected
through the brushes and slip rings and hence used for speed control and improving the starting
torque of three phase induction motor. The brushes are used to carry current to and from the
rotor winding. These brushes are further connected to three phase star connected resistances.
At starting, the resistance are connected in rotor circuit and is gradually cut out as the rotor pick
up its speed. When the motor is running the slip ring are shorted by connecting a metal collar,
which connect all slip ring together and the brushes are also removed. This reduces wear and
tear of the brushes. Due to presence of slip rings and brushes the rotor construction becomes
somewhat complicated therefore it is less used as compare to squirrel cage induction motor.
 Advantages of slip ring induction motor -
1. It has high starting torque and low starting current.
2. Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.

Application:

Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting torque is required i.e in hoists,
cranes, elevator etc.

Difference between Slip Ring and Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Slip ring or phase wound Induction motor Squirrel cage induction motor

Construction is complicated due to presence of slip

Construction is very simple
ring and brushes

The rotor consists of rotor bars which are

The rotor winding is similar to the stator winding
permanently shorted with the help of end rings

We can easily add rotor resistance by using slip ring Since the rotor bars are permanently shorted, its
and brushes not possible to add external resistance

Due to presence of external resistance high starting

Staring torque is low and cannot be improved
torque can be obtained

Slip ring and brushes are present Slip ring and brushes are absent

Frequent maintenance is required due to presence

Less maintenance is required
of brushes

The construction is complicated and the presence of The construction is simple and robust and it is
brushes and slip ring makes the motor more costly cheap as compared to slip ring induction motor
This motor is rarely used only 10 % industry uses slip Due to its simple construction and low cost. The
ring induction motor squirrel cage induction motor is widely used

Rotor copper losses are high and hence less

Less rotor copper losses and hence high efficiency
efficiency

Speed control by rotor resistance method is not

Speed control by rotor resistance method is possible
possible

Slip ring induction motor are used where high Squirrel cage induction motor is used in lathes,
starting torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes, drilling machine, fan, blower printing machines
elevator etc etc

Types of Three Phase Induction Motor

Induction motor is also called asynchronous motor as it runs at a speed other than the
synchronous speed. Like any other electrical motor, induction motor have two main parts namely

rotor and stator.

Stator
As its name indicate stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A three phase supply is given
to the stator of induction motor.
Rotor
The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the mechanical load
through the shaft. The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further classified as-

1. Squirrel cage rotor,

2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.

Depending upon the type of rotor used the three phase induction motor are classified as-

1. Squirrel cage induction motor

2. Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase wound induction motor

The construction of stator for both the kind of three phase induction motor remains the same and
is discussed in brief in next paragraph.

Stator of three phase induction motor

The stator of the three phase induction motor consists of three main parts:

1. Stator frame
2. Stator core
3. Stator winding or field winding

1. Stator frame : It is the outer most part of the three phase induction motor. Its main
function is to support the stator core and the field winding. It acts as a covering and
provide protection and mechanical strength to all the inner parts of the machine. The
frame is either made up of die cast or fabricated steel. The frame of three phase induction
motor should be very strong and rigid as the air gap length of three phase induction motor
is very small, otherwise rotor will not remain concentric with stator which will give rise
to unbalanced magnetic pull.
2. Stator core : The main function of the stator core is to carry alternating flux. In order to
reduce the eddy current losses the stator core is laminated. This laminated type of
structure are made up of stamping which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All the stamping
are stamped together to form stator core, which is then housed in stator frame. The
stamping are generally made up of silicon steel, which reduces the hysteresis loss.
3. Stator winding or field winding : The slots on the periphery of stator core of the three
phase induction motor carries three phase windings. This three phase winding is supplied
by three phase ac supply. The three phases of the winding are connected either in star or
delta depending upon which type of starting method is used. The squirrel cage motor is
mostly started by star – delta stater and hence the stator of squirrel cage motor are delta
connected. The slip ring three phase induction motor are started by inserting resistances
so, the stator winding can be connected either in star or delta. The winding wound on the
 stator of three phase induction motor is also called field winding and when this winding
is excited by three phase ac supply it produces rotating magnetic field.

Losses and Efficiency of Induction Motor

There are two types of losses occur in three phase induction motor. These losses are,

1. Constant or fixed losses,

2. Variable losses.

Constant or Fixed Losses

Constant losses are those losses which are considered to remain constant over normal working range of
induction motor. The fixed losses can be easily obtained by performing no-load test on the three phase
induction motor. These losses are further classified as-

1. Iron or core losses,

2. Mechanical losses,
3. Brush friction losses.

Iron or Core Losses

Iron or core losses are further divided into hysteresis and eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are
minimized by using lamination. Since by laminating the core, area decreases and hence resistance
increases, which results in decrease in eddy currents. Hysteresis losses are minimized by using high
grade silicon steel . The core losses depend upon frequency. The frequency of stator is always supply
frequency, f and the frequency of rotor is slip times the supply frequency, (sf) which is always less than
the stator frequency. Hence the rotor core loss is very small as compared to stator core loss and is
usually neglected in running conditions.

Mechanical and Brush Friction Losses

Mechanical losses occur at the bearing and brush friction loss occurs in wound rotor induction motor.
These losses occurs with the change in speed. In three phase induction motor the speed usually remains
constant. hence these losses almost remains constant.

Variable Losses
 These losses are also
called copper losses. These losses occur due to current flowing in stator and rotor windings. As the load
changes, the current flowing in rotor and stator winding also changes and hence these losses also
changes. Therefore these losses are called variable losses. The copper losses are obtained by performing
blocked rotor test on three phase induction motor.

The main function of induction motor is to convert an electrical power into mechanical power.
During this conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy the power flows through
different stages. This power flowing through different stages is shown by power flow diagram.
As we all know the input to the three phase induction motor is three phase supply. So, the three
phase supply is given to the stator of three phase induction motor.

Let, Pin = electrical power supplied to the stator of three phase induction motor,

VL = line voltage supplied to the stator of three phase induction motor,

IL = line current,

Cosφ = power factor of the three phase induction motor.

Electrical power input to the stator, Pin = √3VLILcosφ

A part of this power input is used to supply stator losses which are stator iron loss and stator
copper loss. The remaining power i.e ( input electrical power – stator losses ) are supplied to
rotor as rotor input.

So, rotor input P2 = Pin – stator losses (stator copper loss and stator iron loss).

Now, the rotor has to convert this rotor input into mechanical energy but this complete input
cannot be converted into mechanical output as it has to supply rotor losses. As explained earlier
the rotor losses are of two types rotor iron loss and rotor copper loss. Since the iron loss depends
upon the rotor frequency, which is very small when the rotor rotates, so it is usually neglected.
So, the rotor has only rotor copper loss. Therefore the rotor input has to supply these rotor copper
losses. After supplying the rotor copper losses, the remaining part of Rotor input, P2 is converted
into mechanical power, Pm.

Let Pc be the rotor copper loss,

I2 be the rotor current under running condition,

R2 is the rotor resistance,

Pm is the gross mechanical power developed.

Pc = 3I22R2

Pm = P2 – Pc

Now this mechanical power developed is given to the load by the shaft but there occur some
mechanical losses like friction and windage losses. So, the gross mechanical power developed
has to supplied these losses. Therefore the net output power developed at the shaft, which is
finally given to the load is Pout.

Pout = Pm – Mechanical losses (friction and windage losses).

Efficiency of Three Phase Induction Motor

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output to that of input,

Rotor efficiency of the three phase induction motor ,

= gross mechanical power developed / rotor input

Three phase induction motor efficiency,

Three phase induction motor efficiency

Speed Control of Three Phase Induction

Motor
Under Induction Motor

A three phase induction motor is basically a constant speed motor so it’s somewhat difficult to control
its speed. The speed control of induction motor is done at the cost of decrease in efficiency and low
electrical power factor. Before discussing the methods to control the speed of three phase induction
motor one should know the basic formulas of speed and torque of three phase induction motor as the
methods of speed control depends upon these formulas.

Synchronous speed

Where f = frequency and P is the number of poles

The speed of induction motor is given by,

Where N is the speed of rotor of induction motor, Ns is the synchronous speed, S is the
slip.
The torque produced by three phase induction motor is given by,

When rotor is at sandstill slip , s is one.

So the equation of torque is,

Where E2 is the rotor emf Ns is the synchronous speed R2 is the rotor resistance X2 is the rotor
inductive reactance

The Speed of Induction Motor is changed from Both Stator and Rotor Side
The speed control of three phase induction motor from stator side are further classified as :

1. V / f control or frequency control.

2. Changing the number of stator poles.
3. Controlling supply voltage.
4. Adding rheostat in the stator circuit.

The speed controls of three phase induction motor from rotor side are further classified as:

1. Adding external resistance on rotor side.

2. Cascade control method.
3. Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side.

Speed Control from Stator Side

1. V / f control or frequency control - Whenever three phase supply is given to three phase
induction motor rotating magnetic field is produced which rotates at synchronous speed given
by

In three phase induction motor emf is induced by induction similar to that of transformer
which is given by
 Where K is the winding constant, T is the number of turns per phase and f is frequency.
Now if we change frequency synchronous speed changes but with decrease in frequency
flux will increase and this change in value of flux causes saturation of rotor and stator
cores which will further cause increase in no load current of the motor . So, its important
to maintain flux , φ constant and it is only possible if we change voltage . i.e if we
decrease frequency flux increases but at the same time if we decrease voltage flux will
also decease causing no change in flux and hence it remains constant. So, here we are
keeping the ratio of V/ f as constant. Hence its name is V/ f method. For controlling the
speed of three phase induction motor by V/ f method we have to supply variable voltage
and frequency which is easily obtained by using converter and inverter set.

2. Controlling supply voltage: The torque produced by running three phase induction motor is
given by

In low slip region (sX)2 is very very small as compared to R2 . So, it can be neglected. So
torque becomes

Since rotor resistance, R2 is constant so the equation of torque further reduces to

We know that rotor induced emf E2 ∝ V. So, T ∝ sV2. From the equation above it is clear
that if we decrease supply voltage torque will also decrease. But for supplying the same
load, the torque must remains the same and it is only possible if we increase the slip and
if the slip increases the motor will run at reduced speed . This method of speed control is
rarely used because small change in speed requires large reduction in voltage, and hence
the current drawn by motor increases, which cause over heating of induction motor.

3. Changing the number of stator poles : The stator poles can be changed by two methods
4. Multiple stator winding method.
5. Pole amplitude modulation method (PAM)
6. Multiple stator winding method – In this method of speed control of three phase induction
motor , the stator is provided by two separate winding. These two stator windings are
electrically isolated from each other and are wound for two different pole numbers. Using
switching arrangement, at a time , supply is given to one winding only and hence speed control
is possible. Disadvantages of this method is that the smooth speed control is not possible . This
method is more costly and less efficient as two different stator winding are required. This
method of speed control can only be applied for squirrel cage motor.
7. Pole amplitude modulation method (PAM) – In this method of speed control of three phase
induction motor the original sinusoidal mmf wave is modulated by another sinusoidal mmf wave
having different number of poles.

Let f1(θ) be the original mmf wave of induction motor whose speed is to be controlled.

f2(θ) be the modulation mmf wave. P1 be the number of poles of induction motor whose
speed is to be controlled. P2 be the number of poles of modulation wave.

After modulation resultant mmf wave

So we get, resultant mmf wave

Therefore the resultant mmf wave will have two different number of poles

Therefore by changing the number of poles we can easily change the speed of three phase
induction motor.

8. Adding rheostat in the stator circuit - In this method of speed control of three phase induction
motor rheostat is added in the stator circuit due to this voltage gets dropped .In case of three
phase induction motor torque produced is given by T ∝ sV22. If we decrease supply voltage
torque will also decrease. But for supplying the same load , the torque must remains the same
and it is only possible if we increase the slip and if the slip increase motor will run reduced
speed.
Speed Control from Rotor Side

1. Adding external resistance on rotor side – In this method of speed control of three phase
induction motor external resistance are added on rotor side. The equation of torque for three
phase induction motor is

The three phase induction motor operates in low slip region .In low slip region term (sX)2
becomes very very small as compared to R2. So, it can be neglected . and also E2 is
constant. So the equation of torque after simplification becomes,

Now if we increase rotor resistance, R2 torque decreases but to supply the same load
torque must remains constant. So, we increase slip, which will further results in decrease
in rotor speed. Thus by adding additional resistance in rotor circuit we can decrease the
speed of three phase induction motor. The main advantage of this method is that with
addition of external resistance starting torque increases but this method of speed control
of three phase induction motor also suffers from some disadvantages :

1. The speed above the normal value is not possible.

2. Large speed change requires large value of resistance and if such large value of
resistance is added in the circuit it will cause large copper loss and hence reduction in
efficiency.
3. Presence of resistance causes more losses.
4. This method cannot be used for squirrel cage induction motor.
2. Cascade control method – In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, the
two three phase induction motor are connected on common shaft and hence called cascaded
motor. One motor is the called the main motor and another motor is called the auxiliary motor.
The three phase supply is given to the stator of the main motor while the auxiliary motor is
derived at a slip frequency from the slip ring of main motor.

Let NS1 be the synchronous speed of main motor.

NS2 be the synchronous speed of auxiliary motor.

P1 be the number of poles of the main motor.

P2 be the number of poles of the auxiliary motor.

F is the supply frequency.

F1 is the frequency of rotor induced emf of main motor.

N is the speed of set and it remains same for both the main and auxiliary motor as both
the motors are mounted on common shaft.

S1 is the slip of main motor.

The auxiliary motor is supplied with same frequency as the main motor i.e

Now put the value of

Now at no load , the speed of auxiliary rotor is almost same as its synchronous speed i.e
N = NS2

Now rearrange the above equation and find out the value of N, we get,

This cascaded set of two motors will now run at new speed having number of poles (P1 +
P2). In the above method the torque produced by the main and auxiliary motor will act in
same direction, resulting in number of poles (P1 + P2). Such type of cascading is called
cumulative cascading. There is one more type of cascading in which the torque produced
by the main motor is in opposite direction to that of auxiliary motor. Such type of
cascading is called differential cascading; resulting in speed corresponds to number of
 poles (P1 - P2). In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, four
different speeds can be obtained

1. When only main induction motor work, having speed corresponds to NS1 = 120 F / P1.
2. When only auxiliary induction motor work, having speed corresponds to NS2 = 120 F / P2.
3. When cumulative cascading is done, then the complete set runs at a speed of N = 120F /
(P1 + P2).
4. When differential cascading is done, then the complete set runs at a speed of N = 120F /
(P1 - P2).
3. Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side - when the speed control of three phase induction
motor is done by adding resistance in rotor circuit, some part of power called, the slip power is
lost as I2R losses. Therefore the efficiency of three phase induction motor is reduced by this
method of speed control. This slip power loss can be recovered and supplied back in order to
improve the overall efficiency of three phase induction motor and this scheme of recovering the
power is called slip power recovery scheme and this is done by connecting an external source of
emf of slip frequency to the rotor circuit. The injected emf can either oppose the rotor induced
emf or aids the rotor induced emf. If it oppose the rotor induced emf, the total rotor resistance
increases and hence speed decreases and if the injected emf aids the main rotor emf the total
resistance decreases and hence speed increases. Therefore by injecting induced emf in rotor
circuit the speed can be easily controlled. The main advantage of this type of speed control of
three phase induction motor is that wide range of speed control is possible whether its above
normal or below normal speed.

Starting Methods for Polyphase Induction

Machine
Under Induction Motor

In this article we are going to discuss various methods of starting three phase induction motor. Before
we discuss this, it is very essential here to recall the torque slip characteristic of the three phase
induction motor which is given below.
From the torque slip characteristic it is clear that at the slip equals to one we have some positive
starting torque hence we can say that the three phase induction motor is self starting machine,
then why there is a need of starters for three phase induction motor? The answer is very simple.
If we look at the equivalent circuit of the three phase induction motor at the time of starting, we
can see the motor behaves like an electrical transformer with short circuited secondary winding,
because at the time of starting, the rotor is stationary and the back emf due to the rotation is not
developed yet hence the motor draws the high starting current. So the reason of using the starter
is clear here. We use starters in order to limit the high starting current. We use different starters
for both the type of three phase induction motors. Let us consider first squirrel cage type of
induction motor. In order to choose a particular type of starting method for the squirrel cage type
of induction motor, we have three main considerations and these are,

(a) A particular type of starter is selected on the basis of power capacity of the power lines. (b)
The type of starter selected on the basis of the size and the design parameters of the motor. (c)
The third consideration is the type of load on the motor (i.e. the load may be heavy or light).

We classify starting methods for squirrel cage induction motor into two types on the basis of
voltage. The two types are (i) Full voltage starting method and (ii) reduced voltage method for
starting squirrel cage induction motor.

Now let us discuss each of these methods in detail.

Full Voltage Starting Method for Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

In this type we have only one method of starting.
Direct on Line Starting Method
This method is also known as the DOL method for starting the three phase squirrel cage induction
motor. In this method we directly switch the stator of the three phase squirrel cage induction motor on
to the supply mains. The motor at the time of starting draws very high starting current (about 5 to 7
times the full load current) for the very short duration. The amount of current drawn by the motor
depends upon its design and size. But such a high value of current does not harm the motor because of
rugged construction of the squirrel cage induction motor. Such a high value of current causes sudden
undesirable voltage drop in the supply voltage. A live example of this sudden drop of voltage is the
dimming of the tube lights and bulbs in our homes at the instant of starting of refrigerator motor. Now
let us derive the expression for starting torque in terms of full load torque for the direct online starter.
We have various quantities that involved in the expression for the starting torque are written below: We
define Ts as starting torque

Tf as full load torque If as per phase rotor current at full load Is as per phase rotor current at the
time of starting sf as full load slip ss as starting slip R2 as rotor resistance Ws as synchronous
speed of the motor

Now we can directly write the expression for torque of induction motor as

From the help of the above expression we write the ratio of starting torque to full load torque as

Here we have assumed that the rotor resistance is constant and it does not vary with the
frequency of the rotor current.

Reduced voltage method for starting squirrel cage induction motor

In reduced voltage method we have three different type of starting method and these are written
below:

(1) Stator resistor starting method (2) Auto transformer staring method (3) Star delta starting
method

Now let us discuss each of these methods in detail.

Stator Resistor Starting Method

Given below is the figure for the starting resistor method:
In this method we add resistor or a reactor in each phase as shown in the diagram (between the
motor terminal and the supply mains).Thus by adding resistor we can control the supply voltage.
Only a fraction of the voltage (x) of the supply voltage is applied at the time of starting of the
induction motor. The value of x is always less than one. Due to the drop in the voltage the
starting torque also decreases. We will derive the expression for the starting torque in terms of
the voltage fraction x in order to show the variation of the starting torque with the value of x. As
the motor speeds up the reactor or resistor is cut out from the circuit and finally the resistors are
short circuited when the motor reaches to its operating speed. Now let us derive the expression
for starting torque in terms of full load torque for the stator resistor starting method. We have
various quantities that involved in the expression for the starting torque are written below: we
define Ts as starting torque Tf as full load torque If as per phase rotor current at full load Is as per
phase rotor current at the time of starting sf as full load slip ss as starting slip R2 as rotor
resistance Ws as synchronous speed of the motor Now we can directly write the expression for
torque of the induction motor as

From the help of the above expression we write the ratio of starting torque to full load torque as

Here we have assumed that the rotor resistance is constant and it does not vary with the
frequency of the rotor current. From the above equation we can have the expression for the
starting torque in terms of the full load torque. Now at the time of starting the per phase voltage
is reduced to xV1, the per phase starting current is also reduced to xIs. On substituting the value
of Is as xIs in equation 1. We have

This shows the variation of the starting torque with the value of x. Now there are some
considerations regarding this method. If we add series resistor then the energy losses are
increased so it’s better to use series reactor in place of resistor because it is more effective in
reducing the voltage however series reactor is more costly than the series resistance.

Auto Transformer Starting Method

As the name suggests in this method we connect auto transformer in between the three phase power
supply and the induction motor as shown in the given diagram:

The auto transformer is a step down transformer hence it reduces the per phase supply voltage
from V1 to xV1.The reduction in voltage reduces current from Is to xIs. After the motor reaches to
its normal operating speed, the autotransformer is disconnected and then full line voltage is
applied. Now let us derive the expression for starting torque in terms of full load torque for the
auto transformer starting method. We have various quantities that involved in the expression for
the starting torque are written below:
We define Ts as starting torque Tf as full load torque If as per phase rotor current at full load Is as
per phase rotor current at the time of starting sf as full load slip ss as starting slip R2 as rotor
resistance Ws as synchronous speed of the motor

Now we can directly write the expression for torque of the induction motor as

From the help of the above expression we write the ratio of starting torque to full load torque as

Here we have assumed that the rotor resistance is constant and it does not vary with the
frequency of the rotor current. From the above equation we can have the expression for the
starting torque in terms of the full load torque. Now at the time of starting the per phase voltage
is reduced to xV1, the per phase starting current is also reduced to xIs. On substituting the value
of Is as xIs in equation 1. We have

This shows the variation of the starting torque with the value of x.

Star-Delta Starting Method

Connection diagram is shown below for star delta method,
 This
method is used for the motors designed to operate in delta connected winding. The terminals are
marked for the phases of the stator are shown above. Now let us see this method works. The
stator phases are first connected to the star by the help of triple pole double throw switch (TPDT
switch) in the diagram the position is marked as 1 then after this when the steady state speed is
reached the switch is thrown to position 2 as shown in the above diagram.

Now let analyse the working of the above circuit. In the first position the terminals of the motor
are short circuited and in the second position from the diagram the terminal a, b and c are
respectively connected to B, C and A. Now let us derive the expression for starting torque in
terms of full load torque for the star delta starting method. We have various quantities that
involved in the expression for the starting torque are written below

Tf as full load torque Ts as starting torque If as per phase rotor current at full load Is as per phase
rotor current at the time of starting sf as full load slip ss as starting slip R2 as rotor resistance Ws
as synchronous speed of the motor Now we can directly write the expression for torque of the
induction motor as
From the help of the above expression we write the ratio of starting torque to full load torque as

Here we have assumed that the rotor resistance is constant and it does not vary with the
frequency of the rotor current. Let us assume the line voltage to be Vl then the per phase starting
current when connected in star position is Iss which is given by

When stator is in delta connected position we have starting current

From the above equation we have

This shows that the reduced voltage method has an advantage of reducing the starting current but
the disadvantage is that all these methods of reduced voltage causes the objectionable reduction
in the starting torque.

Starting Methods of Wound Rotor Motors

We can employ all the methods that we have discussed for starting of the squirrel cage induction motor
in order to start the wound rotor motors. We will discuss the cheapest method of starting the wound
rotors motor here.

Addition of External Resistances in Rotor Circuit

This will decrease the starting current, increases the starting torque and also improves the power factor.
The circuit diagram is shown below: In the circuit diagram, the three slip rings shown are connected to
the rotor terminals of the wound rotor motor. At the time of starting of the motor, the entire external
resistance is added in the rotor circuit. Then the external rotor resistance is decreased in steps as the
rotor speeds up, however the motor torque remain maximum during the acceleration period of the
motor. Under normal condition when the motor develops load torque the external resistance is
removed.

After completing this article, we are able to compare induction motor with synchronous motor.
Point wise comparison between the induction motor and synchronous motor is written below,
(a) Induction motor always operates at lagging power factor while the synchronous motor can
operate at both lagging and leading power factor. (b) In an induction motor the value of
maximum torque is directly proportional to the square of the supply voltage while in case of
synchronous machine the maximum torque is directly proportional to the supply voltage. (c) In
an induction motor we can easily control speed while with synchronous motor, in normal
condition we cannot control speed of the motor. (d) Induction motor has inherent self starting
torque while the synchronous motor has no inherent self starting torque. (e) We cannot use
induction motor to improve the power factor of the supply system while with the use of
synchronous motor we can improve the power factor of the supply system. (f) It is a singly
excited machine means there is no requirement of dc excitation while the synchronous motor is
doubly excited motor means there is requirement of separate dc excitation. (g) In case of
induction motor on increasing the load the speed of the motor decreases while with the speed of
the synchronous motor remains constant.

Single Phase Induction Motor

For lightning and general purposes in homes, offices, shops, small factories single phase system
is widely used as compared to three phase system as the single phase system is more economical
and the power requirement in most of the houses, shops, offices are small, which can be easily
met by single phase system. The single phase motors are simple in construction, cheap in cost,
reliable and easy to repair and maintain. Due to all these advantages the single phase motor finds
its application in vacuum cleaner, fans, washing machine, centrifugal pump, blowers, washing
machine, small toys etc.

The single phase ac motors are further classified as:

1. Single phase induction motors or asynchronous motors.

2. Single phase synchronous motors.
3. Commutator motors.

This article will provide fundamentals, description and working principle of single phase
induction motor.

Construction of Single Phase Induction Motor

Like any other electrical motor asynchronous motor also have two main parts namely rotor and stator.

Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A single phase ac
supply is given to the stator of single phase induction motor.
Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the mechanical
load through the shaft. The rotor in single phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor type.

The construction of single phase induction motor is almost similar to the squirrel cage three
phase motor except that in case of asynchronous motor the stator have two windings instead of
one as compare to the single stator winding in three phase induction motor.

Stator of Single Phase Induction Motor

The stator of the single phase induction motor has laminated stamping to reduce eddy current losses on
its periphery. The slots are provided on its stamping to carry stator or main winding. In order to reduce
the hysteresis losses, stamping are made up of silicon steel. When the stator winding is given a single
phase ac supply, the magnetic field is produced and the motor rotates at a speed slightly less than the
synchronous speed Ns which is given by

The construction of the stator of asynchronous motor is similar to that of three phase induction
motor except there are two dissimilarity in the winding part of the single phase induction motor.

1. Firstly the single phase induction motors are mostly provided with concentric coils. As the
number of turns per coil can be easily adjusted with the help of concentric coils, the mmf
distribution is almost sinusoidal.
2. Except for shaded pole motor, the asynchronous motor has two stator windings namely the
main winding and the auxiliary winding. These two windings are placed in space quadrature with
respect to each other.

Rotor of Single Phase Induction Motor

The construction of the rotor of the single phase induction motor is similar to the squirrel cage
three phase induction motor. The rotor is cylindrical in shape and has slots all over its periphery.
The slots are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed as the skewing prevents
magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of induction motor more
smooth and quieter. The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminium, brass or copper bars. These
aluminium or copper bars are called rotor conductors and are placed in the slots on the
periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the copper or
aluminium rings called the end rings. In order to provide mechanical strength these rotor
conductor are braced to the end ring and hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a
cage and hence got its name as "squirrel cage induction motor". As the bars are permanently
shorted by end rings, the rotor electrical resistance is very small and it is not possible to add
external resistance as the bars are permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and brushes
make the construction of single phase induction motor very simple and robust.

Working Principle of Single Phase Induction Motor

NOTE: We know that for the working of any electrical motor whether its ac or dc motor, we
require two fluxes as, the interact of these two fluxes produced the required torque, which is
desired parameter for any motor to rotate.

When single phase ac supply is given to the stator winding of single phase induction
motor, the alternating current starts flowing through the stator or main winding. This
alternating current produces an alternating flux called main flux. This main flux also links
with the rotor conductors and hence cut the rotor conductors. According to the Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction, emf gets induced in the rotor. As the rotor circuit is
closed one so, the current starts flowing in the rotor. This current is called the rotor
current. This rotor current produces its own flux called rotor flux. Since this flux is
produced due to induction principle so, the motor working on this principle got its name
as induction motor. Now there are two fluxes one is main flux and another is called rotor
flux. These two fluxes produce the desired torque which is required by the motor to
rotate.

Why Single Phase Induction Motor is not Self Starting?

According to double field revolving theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two
components, each component have magnitude equal to the half of the maximum magnitude of
the alternating quantity and both these component rotates in opposite direction to each other.
For example - a flux, φ can be resolved into two components

Each of these components rotates in opposite direction i. e if one φm / 2 is rotating in

clockwise direction then the other φm / 2 rotates in anticlockwise direction.

When a single phase ac supply is given to the stator winding of single phase induction
motor, it produces its flux of magnitude, φm. According to the double field revolving
theory, this alternating flux, φm is divided into two components of magnitude φm /2. Each
of these components will rotate in opposite direction, with the synchronous speed, Ns. Let
us call these two components of flux as forward component of flux, φf and backward
component of flux, φb. The resultant of these two component of flux at any instant of
time, gives the value of instantaneous stator flux at that particular instant.

Now at starting, both the forward and backward components of flux are exactly opposite
to each other. Also both of these components of flux are equal in magnitude. So, they
cancel each other and hence the net torque experienced by the rotor at starting is zero. So,
the single phase induction motors are not self starting motors.
 Methods for Making Single Phase Induction as Self Starting Motor
From the above topic we can easily conclude that the single phase induction motors are not self
starting because the produced stator flux is alternating in nature and at the starting the two
components of this flux cancel each other and hence there is no net torque. The solution to this
problem is that if the stator flux is made rotating type, rather than alternating type, which
rotates in one particular direction only. Then the induction motor will become self starting. Now
for producing this rotating magnetic field we require two alternating flux, having some phase
difference angle between them. When these two fluxes interact with each other they will
produce a resultant flux. This resultant flux is rotating in nature and rotates in space in one
particular direction only. Once the motor starts running, the additional flux can be removed. The
motor will continue to run under the influence of the main flux only. Depending upon the
methods for making asynchronous motor as Self Starting Motor, there are mainly four types of
single phase induction motor namely,

1. Split phase induction motor,

2. Capacitor start inductor motor,
3. Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor,
4. Shaded pole induction motor.

Comparison between Single Phase and Three Phase Induction Motors

5. Single phase induction motors are simple in construction, reliable and economical for
small power rating as compared to three phase induction motors.
6. The electrical power factor of single phase induction motors is low as compared to three
phase induction motors.
7. For same size, the single phase induction motors develop about 50% of the output as
that of three phase induction motors.
8. The starting torque is also low for asynchronous motors.
9. The efficiency of single phase induction motors is less as compare it to the three phase
induction motors.

Types of Single Phase Induction Motor | Split

Phase Capacitor Start Run Shaded Pole
Under Induction Motor

The single phase induction motors are made self starting by providing an additional flux by some
additional means. Now depending upon these additional means the single phase induction motors are
classified as:

1. Split phase induction motor.

2. Capacitor start inductor motor.
3. Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor.
4. Shaded pole induction motor.
Split Phase Induction Motor
In addition to the main winding or running winding, the stator of single phase induction motor carries
another winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding. A centrifugal switch is connected in series
with auxiliary winding . The purpose of this switch is to disconnect the auxiliary winding from the main
circuit when the motor attains a speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed. We know that the
running winding is inductive in nature. Our aim is to create the phase difference between the two
winding and this is possible if the starting winding carries high resistance. Let us say

Irun is the current flowing through the main or running winding,

Istart is the current flowing in starting winding,

& VT is the supply voltage.

We know that for highly resistive winding the current is almost in phase with the voltage and for
highly inductive winding the current lag behind the voltage by large angle. The starting winding
is highly resistive so, the current flowing in the starting winding lags behind the applied voltage
by very small angle and the running winding is highly inductive in nature so, the current flowing
in running winding lags behind applied voltage by large angle. The resultant of these two current
is IT. The resultant of these two current produce rotating magnetic field which rotates in one
direction. In split phase induction motor the starting and main current get splitted from each
other by some angle so this motor got its name as split phase induction motor.
Applications of Split Phase Induction Motor
Split phase induction motors have low starting current and moderate starting torque. So these motors
are used in fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, washing machine grinder etc. These motors are available in
the size ranging from 1 / 20 to 1 / 2 KW.

Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor Start Capacitor Run IM

The working principle and construction of Capacitor start inductor motors and capacitor start
capacitor run induction motors are almost the same. We already know that single phase induction
motor is not self starting because the magnetic field produced is not rotating type. In order to
produce rotating magnetic field there must be some phase difference. In case of split phase
induction motor we use resistance for creating phase difference but here we use capacitor for this
purpose. We are familiar with this fact that the current flowing through the capacitor leads the
voltage. So, in capacitor start inductor motor and capacitor start capacitor run induction
motor we are using two winding, the main winding and the starting winding. With starting
winding we connect a capacitor so the current flowing in the capacitor i.e Ist leads the applied
voltage by some angle, φst.

The running winding is inductive in nature so, the current flowing in running winding lags
behind applied voltage by an angle, φm. Now there occur large phase angle differences between
these two currents which produce an resultant current, I and this will produce a rotating magnetic
field. Since the torque produced by these motors depends upon the phase angle difference, which
is almost 90°. So, these motors produce very high starting torque. In case of capacitor start
induction motor, the centrifugal switch is provided so as to disconnect the starting winding
when the motor attains a speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed but in case of
capacitor start capacitors run induction motor there is no centrifugal switch so, the capacitor
remains in the circuit and helps to improve the power factor and the running conditions of single
phase induction motor.

Application of Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor Start Capacitor Run IM

These motors have high starting torque hence they are used in conveyors, grinder, air conditioners etc.
They are available up to 6 KW.

Shaded Pole Single Phase Induction Motors

The stator of
the shaded pole single phase induction motor has salient or projected poles. These poles are shaded by
copper band or ring which is inductive in nature. The poles are divided into two unequal halves. The
smaller portion carries the copper band and is called as shaded portion of the pole.

ACTION: When a single phase supply is given to the stator of shaded pole induction motor an
alternating flux is produced . This change of flux induces emf in the shaded coil. Since this
shaded portion is short circuited, the current is produced in it in such a direction to oppose the
main flux. The flux in shaded pole lags behind the flux in the unshaded pole. The phase
difference between these two fluxes produces resultant rotating flux.

We know that the stator winding current is alternating in nature and so is the flux produced by
the stator current. In order to clearly understand the working of shaded pole induction motor
consider three regions-

1. When the flux changes its value from zero to nearly maximum positive value.
2. When the flux remains almost constant at its maximum value.
3. When the flux decreases from maximum positive value to zero.
REGION 1: When the flux changes its value from zero to nearly maximum positive value – In this region
the rate of rise of flux and hence current is very high. According to Faraday's law whenever there is
change in flux emf gets induced. Since the copper band is short circuit the current starts flowing in the
copper band due to this induced emf. This current in copper band produces its own flux. Now according
to Lenz's law the direction of this current in copper band is such that it opposes its own cause i.e rise in
current. So the shaded ring flux opposes the main flux, which leads to the crowding of flux in non
shaded part of stator and the flux weaken in shaded part. This non uniform distribution of flux causes
magnetic axis to shift in the middle of the non shaded part.

REGION 2: When the flux remains almost constant at its maximum value – In this region the
rate of rise of current and hence flux remains almost constant. Hence there is very little induced
emf in the shaded portion. The flux produced by this induced emf has no effect on the main flux
and hence distribution of flux remains uniform and the magnetic axis lies at the center of the
pole.

REGION 3: When the flux decreases from maximum positive value to zero - In this region the
rate of decrease in the flux and hence current is very high. According to Faraday's law whenever
there is change in flux emf gets induced. Since the copper band is short circuit the current starts
flowing in the copper band due to this induced emf. This current in copper band produces its own
flux. Now according to Lenz's law the direction of the current in copper band is such that it
opposes its own cause i.e decrease in current. So the shaded ring flux aids the main flux, which
leads to the crowding of flux in shaded part of stator and the flux weaken in non shaded part.
This non uniform distribution of flux causes magnetic axis to shift in the middle of the shaded
part of the pole.

This shifting of magnetic axis continues for negative cycle also and leads to the production of
rotating magnetic field. The direction of this field is from non shaded part of the pole to the
shaded part of the pole.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Shaded Pole Motor

The advantages of shaded pole induction motor are

1. Very economical and reliable.

2. Construction is simple and robust because there is no centrifugal switch.

The disadvantages of shaded pole induction motor are

1. Low power factor.

2. The starting torque is very poor.
3. The efficiency is very low as, the copper losses are high due to presence of
copper band.
4. The speed reversal is also difficult and expensive as it requires another set of
copper rings.

Applications of Shaded Pole Motor

Applications of Shaded pole motors induction motor are-
Due to their low starting torques and reasonable cost these motors are mostly employed in small
instruments, hair dryers, toys, record players, small fans, electric clocks etc. These motors are
usually available in a range of 1/300 to 1/20 KW.