26 ABPS1103 Social Psychology CApr15 (RS) (M)

Faculty of Applied Social Sciences
ABPS1103
Social Psychology
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

ABPS1103
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Azlina Abu Bakar @ Mohd

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Mohd Yusof Ahmad
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Azlina Abu Bakar @ Mohd

Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
Moderator: Dr Wong Huey Siew

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, April 2010

Second Edition, April 2015 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2015, ABPS1103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix-xiii
Topic 1 Introduction to Social Psychology 1

1.1 What is Social Psychology? 2
1.2 Social Psychology and its Relation to Other Disciplines 3
1.3 Understanding the History of Social Psychology 5
1.4 Theories in Social Psychology 6
1.5 Research Methods and Ethical Issues 10
Summary 16
Key Terms 18
Self-Test 19
References 19
Topic 2 Social Cognition and Social Thinking 20

2.1 Social Inference 21
2.2 Schema 26
2.2.1 Social Schemas and Categories 26
2.2.2 Schema Use and Development 28
2.3 Nonverbal Communication 32
Summary 35
Key Terms 36
Self-Test 36
References 37
Topic 3 Social Knowledge and the Self 38

3.1 Attribution 39
3.1.1 Theories on Attribution 39
3.1.2 Basic Sources of Bias 42
3.2 Self and Identity 45
3.2.1 Culture and the Self 45
3.2.2 Aspects of Self-knowledge 47
Summary 50
Key Terms 51
Self-Test 51
References 52

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 4 Attitudes 53
4.1 The Nature and Model of Attitudes 54
4.1.1 The Structure of Attitudes 57
4.1.2 Functions of Attitudes 58
4.2 Measuring Attitudes 60
4.3 Models of Attitude and Relations 62
Summary 64
Key Terms 65
Self-Test 65
References 66
Topic 5 Persuasion and Attitude Change 67

5.1 Persuasion 68
5.2 How Attitudes Change 70
5.3 Dual-Process Models of Persuasion 72
5.4 Tactics for Enhancing Compliance 74
5.4.1 The Door-in-the-Face Technique 74
5.4.2 The Foot-in-the-Door Technique 75
5.4.3 The ThatÊs-Not-All Technique 76
5.5 Incentive-Induced Attitude Change 76
5.6 Cognitive Dissonance Theories and Research Paradigms 77
5.7 Resistance to Persuasion 78
Summary 79
Key Terms 81
Self-Test 81
References 82
Topic 6 Social Influence 83

6.1 Definition of Social Influence 83
6.2 Power and Influence 86
6.3 Obedience to Authority 88
6.4 Studies of Conformity 90
6.4.1 Norm Formation and SherifÊs Conformity
Experiment 91
6.4.2 Group Pressure and AschÊs Conformity Experiment 93
6.4.3 When Will People Conform to Informational Social
Influence? 95
6.4.4 Resisting Pressures to Conform 96
6.5 Minority Influence and Social Change 96
Summary 97
Key Terms 98
Self-Test 98
References 99

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 7 People in Groups and Inter-Group Behaviour 100

7.1 The Nature of Groups 101
7.2 Group Processes: The Presence of Others 101
7.2.1 Social Facilitation: When Others Arouse Us 102
7.2.2 Social Loafing: When Others Relax Us 104
7.2.3 Deindividuation: When People Lose Control 105
7.3 Group Processes and Group Structures: Interacting with
Others 107
7.4 Context of Intergroup Behaviour 110
7.5 Stategies for Improving Intergroup Relations 112
7.5.1 Bargaining 114
7.5.2 Superordinate Goals: Finding Common Ground 114
7.5.3 GRIT 115
Summary 116
Key Terms 117
Self-Test 117
References 118
Topic 8 Leadership and Decision Making 119

8.1 Leadership 119
8.2 Theories of Leadership 120
8.2.1 Contingency Theory of Leadership 120
8.2.2 Path-Goal Theory 121
8.2.3 Aspects of Contingency Factors 123
8.3 Styles of Leadership 123
8.4 Types of Power 127
8.5 Group Decision Making 127
8.5.1 Group Polarisation: Gaining Conviction 128
8.5.2 Groupthink: Losing Perspective 129
8.6 Brainstorming: Coming Up with Ideas 132
Summary 134
Key Terms 135
Self-Test 136
References 137

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 9 Prejudice, Aggression and Discrimination 138

9.1 The Nature and Dimensions of Prejudice, Discrimination
and Stereotypes 139
9.1.1 Prejudice 139
9.1.2 Discrimination 139
9.1.3 Stereotypes 139
9.1.4 The Dynamic Relationship of Discrimination,
Prejudice and Stereotypes 140
9.2 Prejudice and Discrimination 141
9.2.1 Forms of Prejudice 142
9.2.2 Theories of Prejudice and Discrimination 144
9.3 Definition and Measurement of Aggression 147
9.4 Biological and Social Theories of Aggression 149
9.4.1 Biological Approaches 149
9.4.2 Psychological or Social Approaches 150
9.4.3 Social Theories of Aggression 150
9.5 Violence and Aggression 155
9.5.1 Violence against Women 155
Summary 157
Key Terms 159
Self-Test 160
References 160
Topic 10 Affiliation, Attraction, Love and Prosocial Behaviour 162

10.1 Affiliation 163
10.2 Theories of Affiliation 163
10.3 Factors Affecting Attraction 165
10.4 Love 168
10.5 Why People Help and Theories of Helping 171
10.5.1 Prosocial Behaviour and Personal Characteristics 174
10.5.2 Prosocial Behaviour and Situational Determinants 176
Summary 179
Key Terms 181
Self-Test 182
References 182

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION
You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
ABPS1103 Social Psychology is one of the courses offered by the Faculty of
Applied Social Sciences at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is
worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Psychology (Honours)
programme. This module aims to impart the knowledge on the fundamental
aspects of social psychology.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the nature of social psychology and the theories involved;
2. Differentiate the various aspects of social psychology;
3. Describe the limitation of social psychology in solving human problems;

and
4. Discuss how we think, influence and relate to one another.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is as follows:
Topic 1 begins with an introduction on social psychology and its relation to other
disciplines. History and theories on social psychology are also mentioned in this
topic.
Topic 2 touches on the subjects of cognition, social inference, social schemas and
non-verbal communication.
Topic 3 discusses the subjects of attribution, self and identity, culture and aspects
of self-knowledge.

COURSE GUIDE  xi
Topic 4 explains the nature, model, structure, functions and measurement of

attitudes.
Topic 5 explains multiple subjects such as the persuasion process, attitude

change, dual-process models of persuasion and tactics for enhancing compliance.
This topic also discusses other related elements such as incentive-induced
attitude change, cognitive dissonance theories, research paradigms and resistance
to persuasion.
Topic 6 describes the types of social influence, obedience to authority, studies to

conformity, minority influence and social change. This topic also touches on
experiments such as SherifÊs and AschÊs experiments on conformity.
Topic 7 explains group processes, group structures, context of intergroup

behaviour and strategies for improving intergroup relations.
Topic 8 discusses theories, styles and types of leadership. Group decision

making, group polarisation, groupthink and brainstorming are also discussed in
this topic.
Topic 9 touches on the subjects of prejudice, discrimination and aggression.
Topic 10 deals with theories on affiliation, affection and helping. The subjects
such as love, factors affecting attraction and prosocial behaviour are also
explained in this topic.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various locations
or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to solve
questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research. It may
even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an Activity,
you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and apply it
to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher order
thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead
of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2005). Social psychology. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Baron, R. A., Branscombe, N. R., & Byrne, D. (2008). Social psychology. Boston,
MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Hewstone, M., Stroebe, W., & Jonas, K. (2008). Introduction to social psychology:
A European perspective. Malden, MA: British Psychological Society &
Blackwell Publishing.
Taylor, S. E., Peplau, L. A., & Sears, D. O. (2003). Social psychology. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through
the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising
e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are
EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books, Emerald
Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are
encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Introduction
1 to Social
Psychology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the nature of social psychology;
2. Explain the history of social psychology;
3. Identify how social psychology differs from or relates to other areas
in social science;
4. Explain major theoretical approaches in social psychology;
5. Differentiate methods of research and data collection in social
psychological research; and
6. Discuss ethical issues in social psychological research.
 INTRODUCTION
As this is the introduction topic for the subject ‰Social Psychology‰, you will be
given a glimpse of the meaning of social psychology. The aim of social
psychology is to understand the feelings, thoughts and behaviours of human
beings in relation to their social environment. This module covers the core
themes of social behaviour: which are social beliefs, social thinking, attitudes, self
and identity, social learning, personality and culture, social influences, prosocial
behaviour and social relationships (for example, groups and conformity,
intergroup relations, leadership, prejudice, stereotypes, and so on.)

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
1.1 WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY?
„Social psychology is the scientific study of how people think about,

influence and relate to one another‰.
Myers, 2008, p.4
We can thus gather that social psychology is a study of ourselves as humans; of

how individuals view, influence and affect others. It explores how peopleÊs
thoughts, feelings, relationships or behaviours are in turn influenced by other
people. It also covers aspects such as social perception, interpersonal relations,
beliefs and attitudes.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Discuss with your friends in class what they understand by the term
„social psychology‰ and why they think it is important to learn about it.
How is it different from other fields of psychology?
Social psychology involves the study of social thinking, social influence and
social relations (Myers, 2008):
(a) Social Thinking

Social thinking involves understanding ourselves and others, and believing
in the judgements we make and the attitudes we show. We tend to build
our social environment. Furthermore, social intuition, which is sensing
something without reasoning, is a powerful thing.
Human attitudes are shaped by behaviour. For example, a studentÊs

attitude towards cheating in an examination may influence his or her
behaviour. The practice of cheating may shape his or her attitude until the
action becomes a habit.
(b) Social Influence

Social influence includes the interaction between biology and culture,
agreement, persuasion and groups of people. This involves the impact or
influence of the words, actions, surrounding environment, family, cultural
background or presence of other people on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes
or behaviour.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY  3
For example, childrenÊs behaviour can be influenced by their parentsÊ

characteristics and the cultural background of their family or even the
environment they live in.
(c) Social Relations

Social relations are relationships that exist in human communication and in
everyday life. Love, attraction, prejudice, helping and aggression are some
of the elements in social relations. Feelings and actions toward people can
be negative or positive.
For example, people tend to react positively to others when they experience
love and support from their families.
These social psychology principles can be applied not only to our everyday lives
but also to various fields of study. Therefore, social psychology is concerned
with:
(a) The process of how people define their social world;
(b) The process of how social intuitions guide and sometimes deceive people;
and
(c) The process of how social behaviour is shaped by other people, by our
attitudes, personality and biology.
ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Discuss the social influences in the context of Malaysian society.
2. What is the role of social psychology in MalaysiaÊs development?
1.2 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS RELATION

TO OTHER DISCIPLINES
Social psychology focuses on social behaviour. It is shared by several other areas
in the social sciences, including personality psychology, sociology, economics
and political science which involve the study of social factors on human
behaviour. However, the level of analysis can be different.

(a) Social Psychology and Personality Psychology

When explaining social behaviour, personality psychology generally
focuses on individual differences such as personality characteristics. There
are some aspects of personalities that make people different from one
another. However, social psychologists believe that explaining behaviour
primarily through personality factors ignores the role played by social
influence.
For example, personality psychologists would be interested in personality

characteristics and address the question of individual differences as the
element that causes prejudicial behaviour. Social psychologists, on the
other hand, emphasise the power of strong social relations over personality
influences on the issue.
Social psychologists believe that social influences have a great impact on

how human beings relate to one another while personality psychologists
focus on the impact of personality characteristics on behaviour.
(b) Social Psychology and other Social Sciences (Smith & Mackie, 2000)
The difference between social psychology and other social sciences subjects
is what they are trying to explain. Social psychologists focus on the level of
analysis of individuals in the context of social situations with specific
psychological processes involved in certain situations.
For example, social psychologists found that reminding people of their

responsibility for their actions, could reduce the punishment they
administered towards others. Other social sciences are more concerned
with broad social, political, economic and historical factors that influence
society.
Social psychology is involved in identifying the properties of human nature

that make people responsive or acceptable to social influences, regardless
of their cultural background. Compared to sociology, social psychology
focuses more on the psychological nature of individuals that makes people
acceptable to social influence. Sociology provides general laws about
societies, not individuals.
For example, in studying violence, social psychologists will trace it down to

the individualÊs motives and understanding, whereas sociologists tend to
focus on the structural variables (norms, roles or social class); such as why
levels of aggression are higher in some groups than in others.

1.3 UNDERSTANDING THE HISTORY OF

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
When we touch on the Âhistory of social psychologyÊ, we need to clearly
understand the sequence of the historical events that occurred in the field of
social psychology.
In the early years of social psychology development, Norman Triplett was

credited with having published the first research article in social psychology
entitled „The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition‰ (Delamater
& Myers, 2007) at the end of nineteenth century. The article was about the effects
of social context on individualsÊ behaviour.
After TriplettÊs research article, William Mc Dougall and E.H. Ross published the
first-ever textbook in the field of social psychology in the earlier part of the
twentieth century (Delamater & Myers, 2007).
In 1924, Floyd Henry Allport produced his social psychology textbook from a
behaviourist perspective. His studies on the impact of groups on the individualÊs
emotional or mental performance contributed to the development of social
psychology. His textbook which supported the use of experimental methods in
social psychology, paved the way for further research (Delamater & Myers,
2007).
Other three significant major contributors to social psychology are (Delamater &
Myers, 2007):
(a) L. L. Thurstone, who published the remarkable paper „Attitudes can be

Measured‰ in 1928;
(b) Muzafer Sherif, who produced „The Psychology of Social Norms‰ in 1936;
and
(c) Theodore Newcomb, who published „Personality and Social Change‰ in

1943.
The development in social psychology from the 1960Ês until the 1990Ês was
ongoing and productive. Many new theories were created, many significant
approaches were taken, and many new social psychology journals were
published (Delamater & Myers, 2007).

1.4 THEORIES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Before we move on to the major current theories used in social psychology, let us
take a look at the earlier theories.
Theories of psychoanalysis, behaviourism and Gestalt psychology, which were

founded earlier, were applied to the analysis of social behaviour. As in social
psychology, the basic goal of the theories was to explain and predict human
behaviour.
Table 1.1 summarises the three fundamental theories in social psychology.
Table 1.1: Three Fundamental Theories in Social Psychology
Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud proposed that behaviour is motivated from within

Theory by powerful internal drives and impulses such as aggression and
sexuality. Some of the elements in this theory are: behaviour is
shaped by unresolved psychological conflicts, which is traceable to
childhood experiences, while inner forces energise and direct
behaviour.
Behaviourism Developed by Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner

(Myers, 2008), behaviourism focused on observable behaviour and
is not interested in subjective thoughts. Some of the elements in this
theory are: current behaviour is the result of past learning; and
environment shapes human behaviour.
Gestalt Developed by Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka and Kurt Lewin, it

Psychology focuses on the way individuals perceive and understand people
and events. People perceive situations as a whole, not as made up
of many different elements.
Current approaches on social psychology have been guided by basic ideas from
the general theories of the past (Taylor et al., 2003):
(a) The legacy of psychoanalytic theory can be seen in the analysis of

motivation and emotion in social life;
(b) The legacy of behaviourism can be seen in the concept of learning, how
learning shapes social behaviour; and
(c) The legacy of Gestalt psychology is found in social cognition, the study of
how people perceive and understand the social world.

Major Current Theories

Major theories in social psychology that are currently being subscribed to are:
(a) Motivational Theory

This theory explores individual needs or motives. The psychoanalytic view
on human motivation focuses on the inborn impulses or drives, especially
those that are associated with sex and aggression. However, social
psychologists emphasise more on a diverse range of human needs and how
social relationships can develop these needs and motives.
(b) Learning theories

Learning theories emphasise that an individualÊs current behaviour is
determined by previous experience. The learning behaviour may become
habits over time. According to Albert Bandura and others, this approach is
called the social learning theory. There are three ways in which learning
occurs (Taylor et al., 2003):
(i) Association
Association is also referred to as classical conditioning. An
experiment was developed by Ivan Pavlov using dogs as subjects. As
can be seen in Figure 1.1, PavlovÊs dogs learned to salivate at the
sound of a bell because they were given food each time the bell was
rung. After a while, they would salivate at the sound of the bell even
in the absence of the food. This happened because the dogs had
associated the bell with food. Sometimes, people also learn emotions
by association. For instance, prejudice and phobias are related to
association.

Figure 1.1: Ivan PavlovÊs experiment

Source: http://www.myuccedu.com/tag/ivan-pavlov/
(ii) Reinforcement
B. F. Skinner developed a learning mechanism called reinforcement.
In operant conditioning, the individual performs a behaviour that
produces an effect on the environment. The effect, either
reinforcement or punishment, often determines whether the response
will occur again in the future.
Reinforcement strengthens a response and makes it more likely to be

repeated. In the social context, giving rewards or praises may
strengthen the relationship between one person to another. In
contrast, punishment weakens the response and prevents it from
happening again in the future.
Shaping is another applied concept of operant conditioning. Parents,

teachers, animal trainers and athletic coaches all use shaping
techniques. It is useful for teaching complex behaviours that are not
likely to occur naturally.

(iii) Observational Learning

Observational learning is learning new behaviours by watching
others; it is also known as modelling. To imitate the behaviours of
others, we should be able to pay attention, remember, reproduce the
behaviour and be motivated by reinforcement. Watching others helps
us to avoid dangerous situations, teaches us on how to think and how
to act, and interact in social contexts.
(c) Cognitive Theory

This theory emphasises the thinking process in human beings and how
they interpret things. People have beliefs, attitudes, emotions, motivations
and expectations that affect learning. Human beings are social creatures
that are capable of learning new things through observation and imitating
others. An individualÊs behaviour depends on the way he or she perceives
the social situation.
(d) Sociocultural Theory

Sociocultural theory provides a useful perspective on social behaviour,
both within our own cultures and across cultures. This theory focuses on
comparisons of different cultures or social groups. It involves cultural
values, social norms and social roles. In order to understand how diverse
social backgrounds influence thoughts, feelings and behaviours,
psychologists emphasise the importance of culture.
Culture is the shared beliefs, values, traditions and behaviour patterns of

particular groups (Taylor et al., 2003). These groups may be classed
according to ethnicity, religion, nationality or age. Culture is taught from
one generation to the next through a process called socialisation.
Social norms are the strength of a culture. It means the rules and
expectations about how group members should behave. Social role (Taylor
et al., 2003) refers to the set of norms that apply to people in a particular
position, such as doctors, lecturers or students as these individuals have
their own supporting roles in the society. The sociocultural perspective is
important in understanding behaviours within a particular social context.
(e) Evolutionary Social Psychology Theory

It emphasises the shared human qualities and evolved psychological
mechanisms. In the past, behavioural tendencies increased the chance of
survival among our ancestors. Similar evolutionary principles explain how
people form emotional bonds with each other, how aggressiveness plays a
role in social interactions, and how people are willing to help others, and so
on.

Social behaviour is affected by natural selection tendencies which favour

behaviours that are most flexible for survival. Therefore, this theory
explains the evolution of cognition and behaviour using the principles of
natural selection.
For example, avoidance of being infected with disease by taking preventive

measures and eating healthily may increase the chances of survival.
Social psychologists today find that they cannot fully explain social
behaviours from using a single theory; therefore the need to combine and
integrate ideas from different theoretical approaches.
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Discuss how phobias and prejudice can be related to association.
2. What are the differences between theories of motivation, learning,

cognitive, sociocultural and evolutionary social psychology?
3. According to research, playing violent video games can increase

aggression (Anderson & Dill, 2000). How does this finding relate
to the theories discussed above?
4. List two ways you can positively reinforce yourself to complete

assignments and attend class.
1.5 RESEARCH METHODS AND ETHICAL

ISSUES
Social psychology is an experimental science which means research in social
psychology uses systematic methods to gather information. Social psychologists
organise their ideas and findings into theories. An exciting feature about research
in social psychology is that it explores events related to everyday experiences.
(a) Social psychological research has four main goals as shown in Figure 1.2
(Taylor et al., 2003):

Figure 1.2: Four main goals in social psychological research
(i) Description
A major goal of research in social psychology is to provide a
systematic description of social behaviour that enables researchers to
make reliable generalisations about how human beings act in various
situations.
(ii) Theory Building

Another goal in social psychology is to develop theories and gain a
better understanding of social behaviour that help social
psychologists to understand why people behave in certain ways.
Theories help social psychologists to organise and make predictions
that can be tested in further research.
(iii) Casual Analysis

Social psychologists seek to establish cause and effect relationships.
Changes in one variable accompanied by changes in another in no
way guarantees that a causal link exists between them. In many cases,
two variables tend to rise or fall together. This simply shows that
both are caused by the third variable.
(iv) Application
Findings from research in social psychology can help to solve
everyday social problems such as love and intimacy problems, how
to control anger, how to change negative attitudes, how to behave in
groups, and so on. Today, researchers are using social psychological
principles to find ways to understand prejudice against people with
AIDS.

(b) In social psychology, there are two basic research designs:
(i) Correlational Research

In correlational research, the researcher carefully observes and
records the relationship between two or more factors, known
technically as variables. In correlational design, the researcher does
not influence samplesÊ behaviour in any way but merely records the
information needed. This kind of research asks if there is an
association between the variables.
One example of the correlational method is finding out the

relationship between self-esteem and resiliency. The value of
correlation, the relationship that exists between the two aspects,
which can be either positive or negative, shows that students with
high self-esteem tend to have a high resiliency level. Correlation
allows researchers to predict, but it cannot tell us whether changing
one variable will cause changes in another.
The correlational method allows social psychologists to collect more

information and measure more relationships than they can in most
experiments. Correlational studies also enable researchers to study
problems in which intervention is not possible. However, the
correlational method does not provide clear-cut evidence of cause-
and-effect relationships.
(ii) Experimental Research

In contrast, experimental research design is intervention. The
researcher puts a sample in a controlled situation and assesses how
they react. The researcher creates two or more conditions that differ
from each other. For example, by exposing children to violent and
nonviolent movies, researchers can observe how the amount of
violence affects behaviour.
Samples are randomly assigned to one of these conditions and their

reactions are measured. The factor which is controlled by the
researcher is called the independent variable. The outcome that is
being studied is called the dependent variable. Its value is dependent
on the independent variable. Compared to the correlational method,
the independent variable varies naturally.

The strength of the experimental method is that it avoids

uncertainties about causality that is troublesome to most correlational
studies. However, random assignment of samples is crucial because it
means that differences between samples in all conditions are due to
chance only, which is quite difficult to control in studying the
behaviour of human beings.
Most social psychological research is either correlational or experimental. When

possible, social psychologists prefer to conduct experiments that explore cause
and effect (Myers, 2008).
Table 1.2 shows the comparison between the two methods mentioned above.
Table 1.2: Comparing Correlational and Experimental Methods
Correlational Experimental
Independent variable Varies naturally Controlled by researcher
Unambiguous causality Usually not Yes
Exploratory Often Usually not
Theory testing Often Usually
Test many relationships Usually Usually not
Source: Taylor et al., 2003
(c) In data collection, social psychologists can either ask samples to report their
own behaviours or they can observe samples directly, or they can go to an
archive. According to Taylor et al., (2003), methods of data collection are as
shown below in Figure 1.3:
Figure 1.3: Methods of data collection

(i) Self-report
In data collection, when using the self-report technique, people are
asked about their preferences, perceptions, emotions or opinions. The
advantage of self-report questionnaires or interviews is that they
allow the researcher to measure subjective matters such as feelings,
attitudes or perceptions, which can be inferred indirectly from
observational studies.
However, using the self-report technique means that researchers have

to rely on people to give honest answers. Sometimes, people are not
really aware of their own emotions.
(ii) Observation
Direct observation is also widely used in social psychological
research. This kind of data collection can be used in research related
to helping behaviour, interpersonal relationships or to observe
human behaviour in certain situations.
(iii) Archival Research

Researchers use data that were previously collected for other
purposes. Many databanks exist with the records of surveys, meta
analysis, census, polls, and so on. Data collection using this technique
is inexpensive. Besides, archival data also allow social psychologists
to study changes in behaviours or attitudes over time.
However, archival data were originally collected with some ideas in

mind other than the one researchers intended to study.
Consequently, the questions are usually not exactly the ones the
present researchers would ask, or the samples in the study might not
be exactly the group that the researchers would prefer.
(d) A major concern in social psychological research is the ethical treatment of

samples. Social psychologists face many ethical issues in conducting
research. They must protect the welfare of samples and respect their
privacy.
Some guidelines are provided to overcome this issue (refer to Figure 1.4).
These are debriefing, informed consent and minimal risk (Myers, 2008).

Figure 1.4: Guidelines to overcome the ethical issues
(i) Debriefing
Debriefing is the process of explaining to the samples, at the end of
an experiment, the true purpose of the study as well as the exact
processes involved. The samples learn about the goals and purpose of
the experiment. If any samples experienced discomfort, the
researchers would attempt to undo the experiment. Deception must
be avoided in conducting the research. Deception involves
misleading the samples about the true purpose of the study.
(ii) Informed Consent

The American Psychological Association (APA) provides guidelines
in conducting research including the procedure of informed consent.
Informed consent is an agreement to participate in the research with
full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been
explained by the researcher earlier. Samples are able to leave the
experiment at any time, particularly if they feel deception has been
used.
(iii) Minimal Risk

Another ethical guideline for research is to minimise potential risks to
samples. Possible risks of participating in a research are no greater
than those ordinarily encountered in everyday lives. Researchers
should protect not only the samplesÊ rights to withhold personal
information but also their privacy.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. We spend most of our time interacting with others. From your

experience, what kind of issues have you tried to understand in
social relationships?
2. Think of a problem statement that can be studied in a research.
3. What kind of research design and data collection would be most

suitable for your study?
 Social psychology focuses on:
ă Understanding the causes of social behaviour, social thought and social

influence; and
ă Identifying the factors that shape our feelings, behaviours and thoughts
in social situations through the use of scientific methods.
 Social behaviour and thought are influenced by a wide range of social,

cognitive, biological, cultural and environmental factors.
 Social psychology is concerned with how people interact with and think
about other people.
 Social influence usually outweighs individual differences in personalities as

determinants of human behaviours.
 Social psychologists study the causes of social behaviour so that their

findings may help to solve social problems.
 Social psychologists are concerned with how people are influenced by their
interpretations of their social environment; how they perceive, understand
and interpret the environment.
 Major theoretical approaches in social psychology include motivational

theories, learning theories, cognitive theories, sociocultural theories and
evolutionary theories.

 Social psychology adopts multicultural perspectives to determine social

behaviours.
 Research in social psychology has four goals; description, theory building,

causal analysis and application.
 In conducting research, social psychologists often employ experimental and

correlational methods:
ă Experimentation involves procedures in which researchers

systematically vary one or more variables to examine the impact of such
changes on one or more aspects of social behaviour.
ă The correlational method involves careful observation and measurement

of two or more variables to determine whether changes in one variable
are accompanied by changes in the other.
 Research in the laboratory provides more control and greater internal

validity.
 Research in the field setting is closer to the real world and often has more
external validity.
 The most common sources of data in social psychology research are self-
report, observation and archival data.
 Both informed consent and debriefing are required, as stated in the ethical
standards published by the American Psychological Association.
 Researchers must protect participants from harm and discomfort. Any

information about their participants should be treated as confidential.

Archival data Motivational theory

Behaviourism Observation
Causal analysis Observational learning
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
Cognitive theory Psychoanalytic theory
Correlational research Random assignment
Culture Self-report
Debriefing Shaping
Dependent variable Social influence
Description Social learning theory
Evolutionary social psychology Social norm
Experimental research Social psychology
Gestalt psychology Social relations
Independent variable Social role
Informed consent Social thinking
Minimal risk Socialisation
Modelling Theory building

Read the statements below and indicate whether each of the statements is true or
false.
1. By conducting a correlational study, social psychologists can demonstrate

relationships between independent and dependent variables.
2. Giving rewards to people for doing an enjoyable activity is one form of

reinforcement.
3. „Birds of a feather flock together‰ is considered as true (i.e., people are

generally attracted to those similar to themselves).
4. Exposure to aggressive models from television programmes increases

aggressive behaviour among viewers.
5. Rich people are happier than most other people.
6. Men „fall in love‰ more quickly than women.
7. To show causality, researchers must use a correlational design.
8. If each person in a given population has an equal chance of being selected

for a study, the researchers are using a representative method of selection.
Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Journal of personality and social

psychology, vol 78, 4, 772-790.
Delamater, J. D., & Myers, D. J. (2007). Social psychology (6th ed.). USA:
Thomson Wadsworth.
Myers, D. G. (2008). Social psychology (9th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Smith, E. R., & Mackie, D. (2000). Social psychology (2nd ed.). Philadelphia PA:
Psychology Press.
Taylor, S. E., Peplau, L. A., & Sears, D. O. (2003). Social psychology (11th ed.).
USA: Prentice Hall.

Topic  Social
2 Cognition
and Social
Thinking
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the cognitive process in forming impressions of others;
2. Explain the factors that shape our thinking;
3. Identify the process through which we attempt to understand others;
and
4. Identify the ways in which people think about themselves and the
social world.
 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever heard of the term „social cognition‰? Well, a central topic in social
psychology is the study of social cognition. It involves how people think about
themselves and the social world; how people select, interpret, remember and use
information in making judgments and decisions. The assumption is that people
are generally trying to form accurate impressions of the environment and they do
it much of the time. However, sometimes peopleÊs ideas become distorted due to
the nature of social thinking.

TOPIC 2 SOCIAL COGNITION AND SOCIAL THINKING  21
Basically, research on social cognition explores how people make judgments

about other individuals or groups, about social roles and about their own
experiences in social settings. Therefore, social cognition can be defined as the
study of how people form inferences from the information received or presented
in the social world (Taylor et.al, 2003).
For example, a teacher suspects one of her students has plagiarised on the
recently submitted assignment, based on her previous act of plagiarising.
ACTIVITY 2.1
What do you think are some of the errors that occur when people are
trying to understand the social world?
2.1 SOCIAL INFERENCE

People draw dispositional inferences about others and then adjust those
inferences with information on the targetÊs behaviours. The process of social
inference involves several steps; gathering information, deciding which or what
information to use and integrating the information into a judgement (Taylor et
al., 2003).
The process of social inference is shown below in Figure 2.1:
Figure 2.1: Steps in social inference

22  TOPIC 2 SOCIAL COGNITION AND SOCIAL THINKING
(a) Gathering Information

In a social world, people usually plan to approach others fairly and
positively in the process of gathering information. However, there might be
elements of prejudice and unfairness in the actual information gathering.
(b) Deciding on What Information to Use

Previous beliefs can be one of the sources of bias in the process of gathering
information. These beliefs create problems because the wrong inferences
we make can lead to prejudice. Because people do not realise that their
previous beliefs can influence their perceptions, they might not be able to
correct the bias.
For example, there is a burglary in your neighbourhood. You simply put

the blame on your neighbour, who happens to be an ex-prisoner. The
reason for this is due to your belief that he is still capable of getting
involved in crimes.
Occasionally, people ignore the reflection of information altogether. If the

information contradicts with what we believe, we may want to investigate
it; or we could refuse to accept the information in order to support what we
want to believe.
(c) Combining the Information into a Judgement

Judgements that are made on the basis of limited information can be turned
aside when the given information is biased. In the process of social
inference, people have to collect the information and determine which part
of the information from the available sources should be acknowledged.
People sometimes fail to understand the significance of biased information
although they are aware of it.
However, social inferences can create problems when impressions are

made based on little information from very few samples. Nonetheless,
people still make inferences.
For example, a car dealer tries to sell a car to one of his customers but only
presents some relevant information of the carÊs condition. Even his co-
workers try to help by adding more information. However, the customer
remains unconvinced and does not continue with the purchase of the car.

Aspects Related to Social Inference

There are several aspects related to social inference such as emotion and
motivation. Below are detailed explanations about these aspects:
(a) Dispositional Inferences

People make dispositional inferences about others and then adjust these
inferences with information about the targetÊs behaviours.
(b) Emotion
Emotion plays a huge role in social inferences. When we are in a good
emotional state, we tend to be more active, more sociable, spend more time
with others and show more positive behaviour. Mood also influences
memory because if someone is in a good mood, he or she tends to
remember positive things.
(c) Mood-congruent Memory

Mood-congruent memory is the tendency for people to remember
information which fits their current mood state (Taylor et.al, 2003). Mood-
congruent memory acts in a predictable manner. This means people are
likely to remember positive information when they are in a positive mood
and vice-versa. Mood also plays a major role in the process of making
judgements.
(d) Motivation
How we process information can be affected by the judgements we want to
make. This means, oneÊs level of motivation can also influence inferences.
Many studies have found that a high level of motivation increases the
accuracy of inferences when the judgements are easy to make.
OneÊs evaluation of oneÊs expertise in a certain area can also influence the
nature of social inference. People who perceive themselves to be well-
informed usually get less information. Consequently, they do not make
good decisions and are prone to making bad decisions.
(e) Thoughts
Sometimes, we try to forget certain events in our social world. When we try
to control a thought, we are simultaneously trying to distract ourselves and
monitor the environment for reminders we might have to control. It takes a
lot of effort to keep our emotional responses in check, and this ultimately
affects our physiological processes and immune system.

(f) Affective Forecasting

Generally, people have high expectations of how long their emotional
reactions will last. Bias gets in the way of a phenomenon called affective
forecasting, which means the way people use their feelings and emotions to
predict the future (Taylor et al., 2003).
Sometimes, people overestimate the impact of certain events on their future

and fail to realise how much their thoughts and feelings about the future
can be influenced by other events that will also affect their emotions.
(g) Categorisation
PeopleÊs understandings are influenced by social categories as well. This
includes ethnic, gender and social class. People spontaneously identify
information as part of some class, group or category. The categorisation or
grouping process is spontaneous and immediate and does not take time or
thought (Taylor et al., 2003). Sometimes, people categorise on the basis of
similarities, such as physical characteristics or racial groups.
The result of categorisation might be category-based stereotype, which

involves social judgement that may call up a stereotype about someone in
general (Taylor et al., 2003). Categorisation also speeds up information-
processing time. Information that is consistent with the pattern of the
category is usually processed faster than information inconsistent with it.
As mentioned above, our impressions of other people can range from

stereotypical impressions, category-based impressions to individuated
impressions towards social behaviour.
When people make evaluations quickly, they usually use their schematic,
stereotypic and category-based ways of inference to form their impressions
on other people. This is called dual-processing (Taylor et al., 2003). Usually,
people make category-based inferences before they process individual
information because it is easier to do so.
(h) Contextual Effects

There are two types of contextual effects on social judgements:
(i) Contrast refers to a biasing effect on judgements away from the

environmental context (Taylor et al., 2003).
For example, a deafening condition experienced after a quiet condition

might be perceived as even noisier than it normally would be.

(ii) Assimilation refers to the bias in a judgement in the same direction as

a contextual standard. Assimilation is more likely to occur when
people are processing information at a stereotypical level and it may
less likely occur when the information is processed in a more
systematic and careful manner.
An example of assimilation is when a poor assignment that is

presented after a good assignment might be perceived as worse than
it normally would be because it is associated with the good
assignment.
(i) Averaging Principle

In addition, our impressions of others usually follow an averaging
principle (Taylor et al., 2003). In the process of making judgements,
information about a person is processed in terms of their calculative
implications, and is then averaged together to form an overall impression.
(j) Halo Effect

The halo effect is a tendency to make consistent evaluation when a liked
person is perceived in positive ways and associated with other good
qualities, regardless of whether or not we have any information about
those qualities (Taylor et al., 2003). Thus, we tend to categorise people as
good or bad, not as both, and we make positive assumptions about a
favoured person.
For example, if we believe someone is warm, we assume that he or she is

also kind-hearted and good-natured. A manager who believes that a
worker is unproductive may also rate that worker negatively on creativity,
teamwork and future performances.

ACTIVITY 2.2
Source of image: http://www.mythofaether.com/
What is your perception on the above scene if you were the boyÊs
friend; or the boyÊs parents; or the boyÊs teacher? Will the impressions
be different?
2.2 SCHEMA
Schema is described as a well-organised structure of cognitions about some social
substance, for example, a person, group, role or event (Delamater & Myers, 2007).
Schema is another word for prejudice or stereotypes which help us to process
complex information by simplifying and organising it. They can help us to
remember and organise details, speed up processing time, fill in gaps in
knowledge and interpret new information.
2.2.1 Social Schemas and Categories

There are three categories of schema as shown in Figure 2.2:
Figure 2.2: Categories of schema

(a) Person schemas are structures about people and they can focus on a certain
person. The reasons we develop schemas for someone is to help us gather
information about the person and to guide our social interactions with
them.
For example, let us concentrate on Oprah Winfrey, the successful, rich TV

celebrity. The schema might include her characteristics such as concern for
poor people, spirited, outgoing, and generous, her accomplishment as a
global media leader etc.
(b) Role schemas represent the abstract and organised concepts we have of
someone in a certain role, such as teacher, parent etc.
(c) Group schemas, which include schemas for group leaders and group
followers, are schemas that mostly focus on groups. These schemas indicate
specific characteristics of a particular group of people.
Usually people draw on the prototype, which is an abstract idea of the schema, in
drawing inferences about other people.
For example, in a group of athletes, we may have an abstract idea of what the
personÊs body type is, what kind of food they eat, what kind of training they
experience, and so on. When we categorise a new person as an athlete, we may
compare his characteristics with those of the prototype for the schema.
Through the use of schemata, automatic thinking easily occurs. Automatic

thinking involves unintentional, involuntary and effortless thinking, based on
our past experiences and knowledge of the environment.
For example, we avoid touching a hot kettle due to our past experience of having
touched a hot kettle.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
Source of image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Thinker

What are the aspects involved in automatic thinking?
2.2.2 Schema Use and Development

Schemas are important mental frameworks because they help us make sense of
experience and help us organise social information. Schemas also represent our
social learning and contain information relevant to ourselves, other individuals
or specific situations to interpret new situations and guide our behaviour. The
use of schema for processing information is not only because it helps people in
decision making, but also because it provides guidelines for interactions with
others.
Schemas can focus on self, people, situations, events, social roles, attitudes about
certain objects, stereotypes about certain groups of people or perceptions of
events. When a schema can predict the sequence of events that is going to take
place in a predictable situation, it is called a script.
Schemas and scripts are important because people draw on them to make
evaluations of the social world. They help us be aware of what aspects of
situations are important. Schemas enable us to organise details, to remember
information better, and to process relevant information quickly. Schemas also
help us in interpreting and evaluating new information.

For example, one script might be called „taking an exam‰. Scan the entire test
first, including the pages and answer sheet. Then, budget your time as you go.
Put your name on the exam paper and answer sheet. Read each question
carefully. Therefore, we could generate similar scripts for the next final
examination.
Advantages of schemas are shown in Figure 2.3 (Taylor et al., 2003):
Figure 2.3: Advantages of schemas
(a) Schemas Organise Information

Schemas make information-processing more organised. Schemas help us to
remember and interpret new information, make conclusions and
evaluations. They help us make judgement and prepare for the future by
organising our future expectations.

For example, if an individual is introduced as a counsellor, a „counsellor

schema‰ is activated and we might associate this person with compassion,
wisdom and good listening skills.
(b) Schemas and Memory

Memory works best when we have a schematic representation of past
events or people because the schema will bring details along with it.
Sometimes, information that contradicts a schema is better recalled than
inconsistent information. People who are familiar with a domain may more
easily recognise inconsistencies.
(c) Schemas Assist Information Processing

When we have a schema of certain events, it is easier for us to process
information as relevant to the schema.
For example, people who have watched a lot of online business services,
simply see more and take in more information than people who know little
about the online business services.
However, schemas do not always assist processing. Sometimes, a well-

developed schema slows things down by introducing more complex
information that must be processed.
(d) Schemas Assist Automatic Assumptions

Some schema-related-inferences appear to occur almost automatically
without any effort, especially if the schema involves a person for which we
have strong emotional concerns.
For example, when meeting an outgoing person, you may automatically

assign to him or her other characteristics associated with being outgoing,
such as confidence, outspokenness and friendliness.
(e) Schemas and Missing Information

When there is a gap in our knowledge, a schema can help us fill in the
missing information, sometimes, just by imagination. For example, when
we hear of an event related to a doctor, we imagine him or her wearing
white uniform with the stethoscope, although we have no information
about the doctorÊs clothing. We also assume the doctor is warm and caring.

(f) SchemaÊs Role in Making Assumptions

Schemas also help us interpret unclear situations. For example, when a
doctor is trying to diagnose a particular disease, he will make inferences by
asking what the symptoms are, how the patient got the disease, what
treatment is the best and so on. Schemas help us make confident inferences
about uncertain matters.
(g) Schemas Aid in Making Predictions

Schemas include expectations for what should happen in a social context.
These expectations can determine how enjoyable we find a particular
situation. If the experience matches expectations, the result may be
enjoyable.
For example, you are suffering from a disease and you are eager to know
what kind of disease you are having. You expect your doctor to explain to
you your condition. Once you have gotten a satisfactory answer that you
were expecting, you may feel happy and relaxed.
(h) Schemas and Emotional Responses

The content of schemas may affect our feelings and emotions. An
emotional response resulting from the use of a particular schema is called
the „schema-driven affect‰.
If information in the environment fits the schema, it may trigger the effect
attached to that schema. Sometimes, simply thinking about something with
a schema can reinforce the way we feel about that person.
For example, people, in general, have a well-developed schema for

politicians: that they are selfish, greedy and corrupted.
(i) Schemas and Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Schemas can be so powerful that they bring about self-fulfilling prophecies.
When an individual behaves or responds according to what another
individual has expected, thereby confirming the expectation, that
individual has created a self-fulfilling prophecy.
For example, a guy who expects his new date to be talkative; the date
somehow manages to get the hint and behaves in the way the guy would
expect.

ACTIVITY 2.3
1. Think about your first impression of a person. How does a

schema play its role?
2. Sufferers of KorsakoffÊs syndrome are unable to form new
memories. How would a schema function in this situation? Do
some research to find out.
3. How can prejudice serve as a self-fulfilling prophecy?
2.3 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

In general, people communicate information through three ways:
(a) Verbal communication;

(b) Nonverbal communication; and
(c) Paralinguistic channel (pitch, contour of speech, and so on).
People form impressions of others on the basis of more than emotional

expressions. Most communication occurs nonverbally which is known as
nonverbal communication.
The nonverbal cues (refer to Figure 2.4) are expressed in four ways (Taylor et al.,
2003):
Figure 2.4: Nonverbal communication

(a) Distance
Standing close is usually a sign of interest or attachment. If someone is not
interested, he or she will probably move farther away but if someone
chooses to stand very closely next to an individual, it signals that the
person is interested in that particular individual.
(b) Gestures
People can tell or understand what others are thinking by observing their
body movements and posture. Certain gestures such as „stop‰ or „come‰
are well-known across various cultures.
(c) Eye Contact

Eye contact has different meanings depending on the context. Eye contact
can also indicate interest or lack of interest with the person or subject we
are involved in. Avoiding eye contact is usually a sign that the other person
is not interested, or he is lying. We may also interpret the reaction as an
indication that he or she is not really involved in the interaction.
(d) Facial Expression

Our judgements of other people are not always right. For example, it is
difficult to judge peopleÊs emotions based on their facial expressions alone.
Nevertheless, facial expressions can also be a channel of communication in
certain situations where it can convey the message of what we are thinking
or feeling to others. The process of making accurate perceptions is focused
on recognising emotions; whether a person is happy or sad, afraid or
horrified and shocked or disgusted.

SELF-CHECK 2.2
Source of image: www.tpub.com/content/draftsman/1...03_1.jpg

Why is facial expression so important in communication? Discuss this
with your friends in class.
Even in the various cultures that exist, there is a widespread recognition of

certain facial expressions. Universal expressions have evolved because they have
great survival value. They allow us to communicate emotions and control the
behaviour of others. People express emotions in the same way, and can interpret
the meaning of nonverbal behaviour.
ACTIVITY 2.4
1. Discuss how cultural differences play a role in nonverbal

communication, such as eye contact, gestures or personal space.
2. From your own personal experience, how do facial expressions

strengthen or break a friendship?
3. What is the role of nonverbal communication in social perceptions?

 People are generally inclined to forming impressions of others quickly, and

judging them, on the basis of minimal information and making judgments.
 Social inference is composed of gathering information, deciding what

information to use and integrating the information into a judgment.
 Emotions such as mood, motivation and feelings may influence social

cognition.
 Social categories influence peopleÊs perception. Impressions of other people

can range from the stereotypical, category-based impressions to individuated
impressions towards other peopleÊs behaviours.
 Schemas are cognitive structures consisting of organised ideas that grow and
differentiate with experience.
 Schema as a cognitive framework contains strong affective components and

provides structure for interpretation of new information.
 Schemas help in speeding up information processing, influencing memory,

making automatic inferences, adding information of a given person, and
interpreting and providing expectations in social world.
 Processing information about people involves perceiving some meaning in

their behaviours. Therefore, we use the context of the personÊs behaviour to
infer its meaning, rather than just interpreting the behaviour.
 Human feelings and emotions are often reflected on the face and can be seen
in specific facial expressions.
 Facial expressions, as a form of nonverbal communication, convey emotional

states to other people.
 Nonverbal communication can be communicated through eye contact,

gestures and posture.
 Nonverbal communication allows us to express emotions and attitudes and

can be a representation of oneÊs personality.

Affective forecasting Mood-congruent memory

Assimilation Motivation
Automatic thinking Nonverbal communication
Averaging principle Paralinguistics
Categorisation Prototype
Category-based stereotype Schema
Contrast Script
Dual-processing Social cognition
Halo effect Social inference
Read the statements below and indicate whether each of the statements is true or
false.
1. People tend to recall positive things when they are in a good mood.
2. Social cognition examines how people form inferences based on social

information of the environment.
3. People automatically use schemas to organise information in the social

world.
4. When everyone sits down and the waiter brings the menu, this is an
example of a script.
5. The averaging principle refers to making a judgement about a person based

on information processed in terms of calculative implications, and
averaged together, to form an overall attitude.
6. Memory works best when we have schematic representations.

7. Pitch, rate, speed and volume are related to paralanguage.
8. People form impressions of others on the basis of more than emotional

expressions.
Thomson Wadsworth.
Mood-congruent memory and natural mood: New evidence. Retrieved from:

http://psp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/21/7/736
Papalia, D. E., Sterns, H. L., Feldman, R. D., & Camp, C. J. (2002). Adult
development and aging. New York: Mc Graw Hill.
USA: Prentice Hall.

Topic  Social
3 Knowledge
and the Self
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify how people infer other peopleÊs traits, motives and
intentions from the process of attribution;
2. Describe how people determine whether other peopleÊs behaviour
stems mainly from internal or external causes;
3. Explain how people justify the causes of their own behaviour and
other peopleÊs behaviour;
4. Discuss how the self guides the way information is processed; and
5. Describe how aspects of the self regulate oneÊs behaviour in response
to external situations.
 INTRODUCTION
What you think about yourself, how you feel about yourself and the ways you
choose to express yourself influence all aspects of your life. Accurate knowledge
about othersÊ feelings can be useful in many ways. We are curious to know more,
especially the causes behind their behaviour. However, our interpretations are
also subject to several forms of bias. Everyone must undergo the different stages
in life, that is, from childhood to old age and no one is able to avoid experiencing
identity changes in their lives.

TOPIC 3 SOCIAL KNOWLEDGE AND THE SELF  39
3.1 ATTRIBUTION
Attribution is the process of understanding the causes of othersÊ behaviour.
Attribution theory is an area of psychology concerned with when and how
people ask „why‰ questions (Taylor et al., 2003). Theorising about causal
attribution began with Fritz Heider (1958) who is referred to as the father of
attribution theory.
Heider proposed that human beings have two motives:
(a) The need to form an understanding of the environment; and

(b) The need to control how people are going to behave.
This means, people are trying to understand other peopleÊs behaviour by piecing
together information until they arrive at a reasonable explanation. People are
likely to make causal attributions when something unexpected or disappointing
happens.
For example, we might think of the possible explanations when a house is on fire
or when there is a sudden death in a family; or we try to interpret an unexpected
compliment from our colleague by wondering if it reflects his or her true opinion
or whether is it mere flattery?
Therefore, unexpected or negative events can elicit a search for causal attributions.
With this, we are able to restore a sense of predictability and control over the
environment. Hence, the Attribution Theory is a description of the way in which
people explain the causes of their own and other peopleÊs behaviour or action.
3.1.1 Theories on Attribution

There are two fundamental theories related to attribution as shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Theories on attribution

40  TOPIC 3 SOCIAL KNOWLEDGE AND THE SELF
(a) Correspondent Inference Theory

Jones and DavisÊ Correspondent Inference Theory discusses a framework
to understand how we use other peopleÊs behaviour to identify their key
traits. Under what circumstances do we conclude that a personÊs behaviour
reflects his or her real disposition and when do we assume that others are
simply responding to external situations? For example, when a candidate
for a job interview behaves in an extroverted manner, it is difficult to know
whether she has the skills needed or is simply appearing so in order to
create a positive impression.
The process of attribution involves two components:
(i) Internal Attribution

The assumption is that when a person is behaving in a certain way, it
is due to their personality, character or attitude.
For example, when a rich girl spends a lot of money buying clothes,
others would assume that she is spending the money on herself. Yet,
it could be that the girl is actually giving the clothes away to charity.
(ii) External Attribution

When a person behaves in a certain way due to a particular situation,
the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in
that situation.
For example, in a romantic situation, a man will only show his best
features to a woman and hide all his bad qualities.
If we make an internal attribution, we will have a negative impression of

that person. If we make an external attribution, we will not learn much
about that person. The internal and external attribution divisions play an
important role in social life as well as in relationships.
(b) Covariation Theory

Have you ever received a much lower grade for an exam than you were
expecting? Or your friend never returns your call? We want to know why
people have acted as they have, or why events have turned out in a
particular way. Harold KellyÊs covariation model, which is an attribution
theory of causal attributions, focuses on how we answer the question why.

According to Kelly, in the attempt to answer the question why, people

focus on information relating to these three dimensions:
(i) Consensus
The extent to which others react to a stimulus in the same manner as
the person we are considering; the higher the number of people who
respond in the same way, the higher the consensus.
(ii) Consistency
The extent to which the person in whose behaviour we are interested,
reacts to the stimulus in the same way on other occasions.
Consistency relates to how the personÊs behaviour remains
unvarying over time. In other words, consistency refers to similar
reactions to a given event at different times.
(iii) Distinctiveness
The extent to which the person reacts in the same manner to other,
different stimuli. Distinctiveness refers to similar reactions to
different events.
KellyÊs theory suggests that we are most likely to attribute otherÊs

behaviour to internal causes under conditions in which consensus and
distinctiveness are low but consistency is high (Anderson, 2000). In
contrast, we are most likely to attribute other peopleÊs behaviour to
external causes under conditions in which consensus and distinctiveness
are all high.
Finally, we usually attribute behaviour to a combination of these factors

under conditions in which consensus is low but distinctiveness is high.
Your decision would depend on information relating to the three factors
mentioned above.
In making attributions, the tendency to reduce reliance on one particular

cause to the extent that other plausible causes exist is called the discounting
principle (Taylor et al., 2003). In other words, we reduce the potential of
any potential cause of another personÊs behaviour to the extent that other
potential causes also exist.
For example, if a salesman is nice to us and offers us food and drink, we may
suspect that he wants our business and he is expecting us to buy something from
him.

ACTIVITY 3.1
1. How does the internal or external attribution dichotomy play an

important role in a marriage? How might it affect the relationship
and communication?
2. Do you think KellyÊs theory is reasonable and applicable to a wide

range of social situations? Why do you think so?
3.1.2 Basic Sources of Bias

As explained in the earlier subtopic, attribution is a process of comprehending
the causes of otherÊs behaviour, and there are several biases which need to be
identified in order to provide an insight into attribution. Listed in Figure 3.2, are
some of the sources of bias.
Figure 3.2: Basic sources of bias
(a) Fundamental Attribution Error

Our strong tendency is to explain the behaviour of others in terms of
dispositional (such as personality characteristics) rather than situational
causes (Taylor et al., 2003). We tend to perceive others as acting as they do
because they are „that kind of person‰, rather than because of the many
situational factors that may have affected their behaviour.

For example, when a police officer seems impersonal and heartless, we

assume that he is unfriendly and arrogant. It probably is his job, not his
personality that makes him perform in that kind of manner.
This tendency to overemphasise internal causes while underestimating the

impact of situational ones seems to arise from the fact that when we
observe another personÊs behaviour, we tend to focus on his or her actions.
As a result, the potential impact of situational causes receives less attention
than it should.
(b) Actor-observer Effect

When we observe other peopleÊs behaviour, we tend to attribute their
behaviours to their habitual qualities, but when we explain our own
behaviour, we explain it in terms of situational forces (Taylor et al., 2003). It
seems to be caused from the fact that we are quite aware of the situational
factors affecting our own behaviours but, as outside observers, are less
aware of such factors when we turn our attention to the actions of others.
For example, when we lose something, others would think that we were
careless, when the truth is that maybe we were so busy with other
commitments such as rushing somewhere or looking after the children.
(c) False Consensus

In general, people tend to expect other people to respond the way they do.
People seek out the company of others who have similarities and behave
as they do. Bias in perception of others involves the tendency to
exaggerate how common our own behaviour and opinions are. This is
called false consensus effect (Taylor et.al, 2003). It is the tendency of
people to project their way of thinking on other people. Besides, we tend
to overestimate the degree to which other people share our attitudes,
beliefs and behaviours.
For example, among groups of students, some will show the same mindset,
behaviour and attitude, even though, in reality, they have their own
preferences and individual styles.
(d) Self-serving Attributional Bias

The tendency is for people to see their positive behaviours as caused
internally and their failures as caused by external factors (Taylor et al.,
2003). People are more likely to credit themselves for success and blame
others for failure.

There is more evidence that people take credit for success and deny
responsibility for failure. However, sometimes, people are willing to accept
responsibility for failure and attribute it to the lack of effort. By doing so,
they can preserve the belief that they will not fail in the future.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Discuss the following journal article in relation to actor-observer bias.
1. Brown continually blamed state and local officials for mistakes

made in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. In one statement, Brown
said he had to ask the White House to help him persuade Blanco
and Nagin, saying, „I told them we needed help to order a
mandatory evacuation.‰
In the days following his resignation, Brown said that his „most
serious mistake‰ was his inability to persuade Blanco and Nagin
to work together in spite of their personal differences, calling the
relationship between the two „dysfunctional,‰ and citing this as
the reason for delayed evacuations in New Orleans. Brown told
lawmakers investigating the Katrina, „The failure to evacuate
was the tipping point for all the other things that either went
wrong or were exacerbated.‰
2. One statement in the executive summary noted „The failure to

order timely mandatory evacuations, Mayor NaginÊs decision to
shelter but not evacuate the remaining population, and decisions
of individuals led to an incomplete evacuation. The incomplete
pre-landfall evacuation led to deaths, thousands of dangerous
rescues, and horrible conditions for those who remained.‰ „He
hasnÊt demonstrated a clear vision for what should be happening
next in New Orleans,‰ said Melissa Harris Lacewell, a political
science professor with the University of ChicagoÊs Centre for the
Study of Race, Politics and Culture.
She described him as a „kind of a passionate character in this

whole story,‰ but added, „He appears to have been pretty
unprepared.‰
Source: Martinko et al., (2009), pp.52-63

3.2 SELF AND IDENTITY

Much of our self-knowledge comes from socialisation from childhood and
adolescence until we become adults. We are treated in certain ways by parents,
relatives, friends, teachers and neighbours. We are also involved in certain
cultural and religious activities that later come to be significant aspects of
ourselves. Socialisation forms the core of our experience and the regularity of the
experiences may be internalised as important aspects of the self-concept (Taylor
et.al, 2003). As we get older, the attributes we value in ourselves lead us to
choose social groups that reinforce the values. Therefore, self-concept and social
identity shape each other.
„Social identity is part of an individualÊs self-concept which derives from his or

her membership in a social group together with the value and emotional
significance attached to that membership„ (Taylor et al., 2003, p.105). The groups
include the family, and personal relationship groups such as colleagues,
religious, political or community group that highlight important aspects of the
self.
Most of the research on social identity has focused on ethnic identity which is
part of an individualÊs self-knowledge that concerns his or her membership in a
particular ethnic group.
Ethnic identity and social identity can lead to self-stereotyping. Self-stereotyping

involves perceiving oneself as a member of a particular group and consequently
behaving in line with this social identity (Taylor et al., 2003). Bicultural
competence happens when individuals are able to gain competence within two
cultures without losing cultural identity and without having to choose one
culture over the other. This has been related to successful functioning in both
oneÊs culture of origin and the new culture.
3.2.1 Culture and the Self

The emphasis on individuality or independent self is „an enclosed, unique, more
or less combined motivational and cognitive universe, a dynamic centre of
awareness, emotion, judgement, and action which is organised into a single
whole and a set contrastively, both against other such wholes and against a social
and natural background‰ (Taylor et al., 2003, p.106). Westerners define
independence as a fundamental task of socialisation.

The interdependent self consists of seeing people as part of social relationship

and realising that oneÊs behaviour is determined and dependent on what one
perceives. The self becomes meaningful within the context of social relationship,
rather than through autonomous action.
However, these attributes are thought to be situation-specific and unstable.

Therefore, the interdependent self is not a bounded whole but changes its
structure with the nature of social context. People are regarded as connected to
each other and they are thought to have personalities in common rather than
attributes that they uniquely possess.
The concept of self as independent versus interdependent is an important aspect

of an individualÊs self system. It influences how people think about their own
characteristics, how they relate to each othersÊ emotions or motivations and how
they express themselves.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Read the statements below and indicate the degree/level of agreement/

disagreement for each statement which will then be used to measure
your self-construals.
The Measurement of Independent and Interdependent Self-construals.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1 = Strongly disagree 4 = Neutral 7 = Strongly agree

2 = Disagree 5 = Somewhat agree
3 = Somewhat disagree 6 = Agree
1. I have respect for authority figures with whom I interact.
2. I am comfortable with being singled out for praise or rewards.
3. My happiness depends on the happiness of those around me.
4. Speaking up in class is not a problem for me.

5. I should take into consideration my parentsÊ advice when making

education or career plans.
6. My personal identity independent of others is very important to

me.
If you chose level 5, 6 or 7 for statements 1, 3, and 5, you scored high in

interdependence, whereas, if you chose level 5, 6 or 7 for statements 2,
4 and 6, you scored high in independence.
Source: Singelis, T. M. (2003). Personality and Social Psychology

Bulletin, 20 (5), in Taylor et al., p.108.
3.2.2 Aspects of Self-knowledge

There are several aspects of self-knowledge which need to be addressed in order
to gain a clearer picture of the concept of self-knowledge. Listed here are the
seven aspects of self-knowledge as shown in Figure 3.3:
Figure 3.3: Aspects of self-knowledge

(a) Self-concept
Self-concept is a complex collection of different information or schemas
about the self that involve cognitive and affective structures which are held
together as you.
(b) Self-schemas
Self-schema is a cognitive framework that guides the way we process
information about ourselves (Taylor et al., 2003). It reflects our past self-
relevant experiences, our current knowledge and existing memories and
interpretations of what we may be like in the future.
(c) Self-esteem
Self-esteem is a self-evaluation that we make on ourselves; those with high
self-esteem are those who believe they are good, capable and worthy. Low
self-esteem is a view of oneself as useless, incapable and unworthy. The
opinions expressed by others may influence self-esteem. It is also affected
by the characteristics of whom we compare ourselves to.
(d) Self-discrepancies
Another aspect of the self that influences our cognition and behaviour
concerns the discrepancy of how we actually are and how we ideally want
to be (Taylor et al., 2003).
For example, when a student fails a particular exam, the student is not able
to accept the failure as he thinks he deserves a better result.
(e) Self-regulation
The ways people control and direct their own behaviours, including their
thoughts, actions and emotions in social contexts (Taylor et al., 2003).
(f) Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is a personÊs belief about his or her chances of successfully
completing a specific task (Griffith, 2006). People with strong self-efficacy
feel capable and confident performing well in a situation, view challenging
problems as tasks to be mastered and recover quickly from setbacks and
disappointments. Self-efficacy is closely related to self-esteem.
However, self-efficacy tends to be more situation specific. People with very

low self-efficacy are associated with a condition called „learned
helplessness‰, which might lead to depression and sometimes, in extreme
cases, to suicide. Usually, they focus on personal failings and negative
outcomes. Refer to Figure 3.4 for further examples of self-efficacy.

1. I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough.

2. If someone opposes me, I can find the means and ways to get what I want.
3. It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals.
4. I am confident that I can deal efficiently with unexpected events.
5. Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations.
6. I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort.
I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping
7.
abilities.
8. When I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions.
9. If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution.
10. I can usually handle whatever comes my way.
Response format: 1 = Not at all true 2 = Hardly true

3 = Moderately true 4 = Exactly true
General Self-Efficacy Scale is a 10-item psychometric scale that is designed to assess
optimistic self-beliefs to cope with a variety of difficult demands in life. The scale has
been originally developed in German by Matthias Jerusalem and Ralf Schwarzer in
1981 and has been used in many studies with hundreds of thousands of participants.
Source: http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~health/engscal.htm
Figure 3.4: General self-efficacy scale
(g) Self-awareness
People are aware when they become objects of their own and other
peopleÊs attention. Self-awareness leads people to evaluate their behaviour
against a standard measurement and make an adjustment to meet the
standard. People compare themselves to standards such as physical
appearance, cognitive ability, certain skills etc.
ACTIVITY 3.4
Based on Figure 3.4, which shows an example of a self-efficacy

questionnaire, answer the following questions:
1. Point out the differences between self-efficacy and self-esteem.
2. Discuss with your friends the importance of having self-efficacy.

 Knowledge about the causes of other peopleÊs behaviour is acquired through

attribution. In this process, we judge othersÊ characteristics, motives and
intentions based on observing their behaviour.
 Attribution theory analyses how we explain peopleÊs behaviour.
 Attributing a behaviour to the wrong source might happen in social

relationships.
 Attribution is subject to several forms of bias, including fundamental

attribution error, the actor-observer effect, the self-serving bias and the false
consensus.
 Attribution theory has been put to practical use in several contexts,

especially in devising effective treatments for depression and learned
helplessness.
 The self consists of our thoughts and beliefs of ourselves.
 Much of our self-knowledge comes from the process of socialisation. This

process is related to several other processes such as social identity, ethnic
identity, self-stereotyping, bicultural competence, and so on.

Actor-observer bias Independent self

Attribution Interdependent self
Bicultural competence Internal attribution
Consensus Self-awareness
Consistency Self-concept
Correspondence inference theory Self-discrepancy
Covariation theory Self-efficacy
Discounting principle Self-esteem
Distinctiveness Self-regulation
Ethnic identity Self-schemas
External attribution Self-serving attributional bias
False consensus effect Self-stereotyping
Fundamental attribution error Social identity
Read the statements below and indicate whether each of them is true or false.
1. The internal and external attribution divisions play an important role in

family relationships.
2. KellyÊs theory suggests that people are most likely to attribute other
peopleÊs behaviour to internal causes under conditions in which consensus
and consistency are low, but distinctiveness is high.
3. A strong tendency to explain othersÊ behaviours in terms of personality,

such as personality characteristics, rather than situational causes, is called
fundamental attribution error.

4. Self-concept and social identity shape each other.
5. Anis just took a new job. She complains about her boss to Salma. This
surprises Salma because she has never heard Anis complain before. KellyÊs
theory argues that this information helps us explain AnisÊs behaviour
because her behaviour toward her boss is uncharacteristic. Based on the
scenario above, attribution is the process of understanding the causes of
othersÊ behaviours.
6. High self-efficacy leads individuals to be more persistent and less

successful.
7. That people are more likely to credit themselves for success and blame
others for failure is known as self-serving bias.
8. Correspondence inference theories emphasise consensus, consistency and

distinctiveness of a personÊs behaviour.
Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts,
feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, (Vol. 78 (4) , pp.772-790).
Griffiths, J. H. (2006). Academic self-efficacy, career self-efficacy, and

psychosocial identity development: A comparison of female college
students from differing socioeconomic status groups. AAT 3232690.
Martinko, M. J., Breaux, D. M., Martinez, A. D., Summers, S., & Harvey, P. (2009).
Hurricane Katrina and attributions of responsibility. Organizational
dynamics Vol. 38 (1) , pp.52-63.
USA: Prentice Hall.

Topic  Attitudes
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Describe the nature and origin of attitudes;
2. Explain the structure involved in the formation of attitudes;
3. Explain the functions of attitudes and how they relate to social
relationships;
4. Explain some methods of measuring attitudes; and
5. Identify models of attitudes and how attitudes predict behaviour.
 INTRODUCTION
Attitudes have been a major point of interest especially in the field of social
psychology. In the book Psychology of Attitudes, Eagly and Chaiken (1993)
define attitudes as a „psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a
particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour‰ (as cited in Hewstone
et al., 2008).
From this definition, we can conclude that attitude involves the expression of an
evaluative judgement about a stimulus object, such as making a decision
concerning favouring or disfavouring, approving or disapproving certain issues
or persons.
Attitude is also a psychological representation of various features of the social or

physical world (Shiraev & Levy, 2001). Attitudes are not directly observable as it
is a mental visualisation which is based on our experiences and generates in
people a state of readiness to respond in certain ways related to the attitude.

54  TOPIC 4 ATTITUDES
An attitude can differ in two ways:
(a) Direction
Some people may have a positive attitude while others have a negative
attitude towards certain issues or persons. There are also those who are
neutral.
For example, in a survey conducted to find out the response of students on

the issue of smoking, some did not mind smoking, while others
condemned those who smoked. A small percentage did not care at all
about the issue.
(b) Strength
Overall, behaviour is very much influenced by the strength of the attitude.
The weaker the attitude, the harder it will be to influence the behaviour,
while the stronger the attitude, the more likely it will influence the
behaviour. (Delamater & Myers, 2007)
For example, while a person might be passionate about the Malaysian

football team, a second person might feel much less strongly about the
same team.
According to Eagly and Chaiken (1993 in Hewstone et al., 2008), some attitude
objects are abstract concepts (for example, liberalism) and others are concrete (for
example, a computer). Even oneÊs own self-esteem can serve as an attitude object,
along with social policy issues, social groups and politicians.
4.1 THE NATURE AND MODEL OF ATTITUDES

Attitudes are overall evaluations of stimulus objects such as people, objects or
ideas (Hewstone et al., 2008; Aronson et al., 2005). Attitudes shape both of our
social perception and our social behaviour. Furthermore, attitudes do not exist in
isolation.
Historically, one of the most influential models of attitude has been the multi-
component model. According to this model cited in Hewstone et al., 2008,
attitudes are summary evaluations of an object that has the three components:
affective, cognitive and behavioural, as shown in Figure 4.1:

TOPIC 4 ATTITUDES  55
Figure 4.1: The multi-component model of attitude
(a) Affective Component

This component consists of emotional reactions toward the attitude object.
An attitude that is based more on emotions and values than on their beliefs
about the nature of an attitude object is called affectively based attitude
(Aronson et al., 2005).
Usually, affectively based attitudes do not come from examining the facts.
They can be developed from peopleÊs values such as culture, religious or
moral beliefs. Sometimes, affectively based attitudes can result from a
sensory reaction or an aesthetic reaction. Affectively based attitudes can be
created through:
(i) Classical Conditioning

This is defined as learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus
becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to bring out a
conditioned response (Huffman, 2005). When one stimulus regularly
occurs first before another, the one that occurs first may soon become
a signal for the one that occurs second.
For example, after repeatedly pairing a product such as a car with an

unconditioned stimulus of an attractive female for the targeted group
of males, just seeing the car model on its own may elicit positive
attitudes or reactions.
(ii) Operant Conditioning

This is defined as learning in which voluntary responses are
controlled by consequences (Huffman, 2005). Behaviours that we
freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on
whether it is followed by a reward or punishment. In other words,
the process of rewards and punishments is tied to our attitudes and
actions.
For example, a child will dutifully do his or her homework, to earn

parental praise; while not doing so would bring negative
consequences instead.

(b) Behavioural Component

This component consists of your actions or observable behaviour toward
the attitude object. A behaviourally based attitude comes from peopleÊs
observations of how one behaves towards an attitude object (Aronson et al.,
2005). In self-perception theory, developed by Daryl Bem (1972), under
certain situations, people do not know how they feel until they see how
they behave.
Our attitude is based more on an observation of our behaviour than on our

cognitions or affect. However, people interpret their attitudes from their
behaviour only under certain conditions; when their initial attitudes are
weak and when there are no other logical explanations for their behaviour.
(c) Cognitive Component

This component consists of your thoughts and beliefs about the attitude
object. The extent that peopleÊs evaluation is based primarily on peopleÊs
beliefs about the properties of an attitude object is called a cognitively
based attitude (Aronson et al., 2005). The purpose of this attitude is to
classify the strengths and weaknesses of an object. According to Tesser
(1993), attitudes are believed to be connected or linked with our genes.
Identical twins were found to share more attitudes than fraternal twins,
even when the identical twins were raised in different homes and never
knew each other. Some attitudes are an indirect function of our genetic
makeup. They are related to temperament and personality.
However, social experiences clearly play a large role in shaping our attitudes
(Aronson et al., 2005). Social psychologists have focused on the way in which
attitudes are created by peopleÊs affective, behavioural and cognitive experiences,
as not all attitudes are formed in the same way.
Once an attitude develops, it can exist at two levels:
(a) Explicit attitudes are ones that people consciously go along with and can
easily report.
(b) Implicit attitudes are involuntary, uncontrollable and at times unconscious

attitudes (Aronson, 2005).

ACTIVITY 4.1
Discuss the following journal article. How do the findings relate to the
nature and origin of attitudes?
We recruited 367 current daily smokers via the Internet and randomised
them to rate the causes of an inability to stop smoking, inability to stop
problematic alcohol usage, or inability to lose excess weight in fictional
scenarios. Most smokers attributed inability to stop smoking to addiction
(88%), habit (88%) and stress (62%). Surprisingly, equal numbers of
smokers agreed and disagreed that inability to stop smoking was due to
lack of willpower or motivation. Most disagreed that it was due to
biological factors, denial, family upbringing, genetics, mental disease,
personality problem, psychological problems, or weakness of character.
Many expected correlations among perceived causes were not found; for
example, endorsement of addiction was not inversely related to
endorsement of willpower. Most smokers endorsed treatment. Higher
ratings of addiction were related to endorsing treatment, and higher
ratings of motivation were related to endorsing no need for treatment;
however, these relationships were of small amount. Ratings of almost all
the causes varied across the three problems; for example, ratings of
addiction were greater for smoking than for problem alcohol use. In
summary, smokers appear to view the inability to stop smoking as multi-
causal; however, their views of causes are only weakly related to
attitudes towards treatment. Given the several unexpected findings,
qualitative research into smokersÊ conceptualisations about smokersÊ
inability to stop smoking is indicated.
Source of journal: Hughes Jr. (2009). SmokersÊ Beliefs about the Inability to Stop
Smoking. Addictive Behaviours, Dec, 34 (12): 1005-9
4.1.1 The Structure of Attitudes

Attitudes can be structured into two major perspectives. Below are the two
perspectives:
(a) One-dimensional
A perspective that perceives positive and negative elements as stored along
a single dimension (Hewstone et al., 2008). The positive and negative
elements are stored in memory at opposite ends of a single dimension and
people tend to experience either end of the dimension or in between.

For example, one person may experience positive elements and another
may experience negative elements during a presentation. Yet another may
experience both of the elements; positive and negative.
(b) Two-dimensional
This perspective perceives positive and negative elements as stored along
two separate dimensions (Hewstone et al., 2008). One dimension reflects
whether the attitude has few or many positive elements and the other
dimension reflects whether the attitude has few or many negative elements.
People can possess any combination of positivity or negativity in their
attitudes.
For example, an interviewer might give a few positive comments and many
negative comments about a candidate being interviewed for a job.
Inconsistent with a one-dimensional view, attitudes might occasionally

contain many positive and negative elements, leading to attitudinal
ambivalence. Attitudinal ambivalence happens when an individual both
likes and dislikes an attitude object, causing an uncertain attitude
(Hewstone et al., 2008). The two dimensional perspective allows for this
uncertainty to occur.
4.1.2 Functions of Attitudes

Over the years, researchers have devoted attention to understanding the needs or
functions fulfilled by attitudes. There are several functions of attitudes as shown
in Figure 4.2:
Figure 4.2: Functions of attitudes

(a) The Utilitarian Function

This function maximises rewards and minimises punishments from
attitude objects. Attitudes alert us to rewarding situations and objects we
should approach and to costly or punishing situations or objects we should
avoid (Gilovich et al., 2006). When we are aware of our attitude towards an
object, it shows that we know the positive and negative information about
that attitude object.
For example, we are aware of the attitudes we hold towards persuasive

messages, pleasant sounds or people who smoke. We avoid negative things
that are potentially dangerous but at the same time, we take into
consideration the positive elements that are beneficial for us.
(b) The Ego-defensive Function

Attitudes protect us from awareness of our negative attributes or from facts
that contradict our cherished beliefs (Gilovich et al., 2006). One theory that
is related to the ego-defensive function of attitudes is the terror
management theory.
This theory states that to avoid the fear of death, we practise attitudes and
values that make us feel protected from the thought of death, believing that
it will safeguard us against death.
For example, people establish religious systems, norms and cultural

traditions that make them feel that they are valuable members in society so
as to push away the fear of dying.
(c) The Value-expressive Function

Attitudes help us express our most cherished values, usually in groups
where they can be supported and reinforced (Gilovich et al., 2006). We
usually choose to express our social attitudes in groups, which motivate us
to identify different groups. Groups whose opinions matter to us and that
affect our beliefs are known as reference groups, such as our friends and
colleagues.
For example, if your classmate Mary is well-known for her friendly attitude
and altruistic philosophy in life, it should be easy to predict what type of
society or group she affiliates with.

(d) The Knowledge Function

This is an attitudinal function whereby attitudes help organise our
understanding of the world, guiding how we attend to, store and retrieve
information (Gilovich et al., 2006). Therefore, attitudes lead us to seek out
and selectively attend to information that supports our pre-existing
attitudes.
For example, Mark loves to play baseball. Based on his knowledge of the
game, he is able to judge and guess the capability of certain players even
before a game starts.
ACTIVITY 4.2
1. Discuss how food preferences illustrate the utilitarian function of

attitudes.
2. Discuss how people who enjoy politics may campaign for a

political candidate, in relation to the value-expressive function of
attitudes.
4.2 MEASURING ATTITUDES

Like most elements in psychology, attitudes are not directly observable but we
can attempt to measure them. There are two types of measures of attitude:
(a) Explicit measures of attitude directly ask subjects to think about and report
an attitude.
(b) Implicit measures of attitude assess attitudes without directly asking

subjects for a verbal report of an attitude (Hewstone et al., 2008). The
majority of attitude measures that have been developed can be
conceptualised as explicit indicators.
In social psychology, there are two ways to measure attitudes:
(a) Self-report Questionnaires

This is the easiest way to assess peopleÊs attitudes. A self-report measure is
direct and straightforward. Attitude scales come in different forms; the
most popular being the Likert Scale. In this technique, subjects are
presented with a list of statements about an attitude object and are asked to

indicate on a multiple-point scale. Each total attitude score is derived by

summing the responses to all the items.
(b) Covert Measures

Covert measures of attitudes is the second approach to assess attitudes of
people (Brehm & Kassin, 1996). Researchers can use observable behaviour
such as body language, facial expressions and tone of voice. Although
behaviour provides clues, it is not a perfect measurement of attitudes.
Facial electromyograph (EMG) is used to measure attitudes through facial
expressions; different muscles in the face contract when we are happy or
sad.
ACTIVITY 4.3
The following statements are part of a survey on public attitudes. There

is no right or wrong answer; the purpose is only to obtain opinions. For
each statement, circle the number that best represents your personal
opinion by using the following Likert Scale:
1 = Strongly Disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither Disagree Nor Agree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree
1. I think euthanasia should be made legal.
2. I would support a referendum for the institution of euthanasia.
3. Euthanasia should never be allowed.
4. Euthanasia is appropriate when someone wants to die.
5. I am against the use of euthanasia.

4.3 MODELS OF ATTITUDE AND RELATIONS

Social psychologists have developed a number of models to understand how
attitudes predict behaviour. Some of the models are shown in Figure 4.3
(Hewstone et al., 2008):
Figure 4.3: Models of attitude and behaviour
(a) Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein and AzjenÊs, 1975)

This model was developed to predict designed and planned behaviour.
Behaviour is predicted by behavioural intentions which are determined by:
(i) Attitude Component, which refers to the individualÊs attitude

towards the behaviour. An individualÊs attitude is derived by
multiplying the expectancy and value for a consequence and then
summed.
For example, our attitude towards recycling is a function of the

expectancy that the behaviour will help the environment and the
value is in the fact that it is our responsibility to help the environment
for the future generations.
(ii) Subjective Norms refer to an individualÊs beliefs about how our close
ones view the relevant behaviour. It is a function of regulative beliefs
and motivation to comply with the expectations.
For example, subjective norms will be high if our family and close
friends are also supportive of and have positive expectations toward
the recycling campaign. We are thus motivated to meet their
expectations.

(b) Theory of Planned Behaviour

The theory of reasoned action was revised to include the notion that
behavioural prediction is affected by whether people believe that they can
perform the relevant behaviour. The inclusion of this concept led Azjen to
name the revised model as the theory of planned behaviour.
According to this theory, perceived behavioural control is determined by

control beliefs, that is, whether or not people believe they have the
resources and the confidence required to perform the behaviour.
OneÊs perceived behavioural control also has a direct effect on behaviour.
(c) MODE Model (Fazio, 1990)

The MODE model refers to motivation and opportunity as determinants of
behaviour. This model proposes that motivation and opportunity are
necessary for a planned consideration of information. It was developed to
find out how attitudes influence spontaneous behaviour.
For example, Jack forgot to do his assignment which had been given earlier
and now needed to be handed in immediately. Jack can choose to either
react calmly or panic.
(d) Composite Model (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, 1998)

The composite model suggests that a number of variables affect the
attitude-behaviour relation, such as habits, attitudes toward targets,
rewards and punishments, approval or disapproval from others and self-
identity outcomes. There is a link between attitudes, intentions and
behaviour, with some of the above factors affecting either intentions or
behaviour directly.
For example, a contestant who wants to participate in a singing

competition needs to consider various aspects before making up his or her
mind.

 Social psychologists regard attitude as the core and fundamental aspect in

understanding social thought and behaviour.
 Attitudes have affective, cognitive and behavioural components which

contribute to overall attitudes.
 Attitudes may be seen to serve both structural and functional purposes.
 Attitudes are acquired from other people through social learning. Attitudes
are also formed on the basis of social comparison.
 Measuring attitudes can be differentiated on the basis of whether they are

explicit or implicit.
 Attitudes can influence behaviour through several mechanisms. According

to the theories of reasoned action and of planned behaviour, when we can
give careful thought to our attitudes, intentions derived from our attitudes
strongly predict behaviour.
 Knowing how attitudes influence behaviour means that we can have some
control over what we do. Attitudes also influence behaviour by prompting
intentions to act in certain ways. The intentions can trigger planning which
leads to attitude-consistent behaviour.

Affective component One-dimensional perspective

Attitude component Operant conditioning
Attitudinal ambivalence Self-report
Behavioural component Subjective norms
Behaviourally based attitude Theory of planned behaviour
Classical conditioning Theory of reasoned action
Composite model Two-dimensional perspective
Covert measures
1. An attitude is a combination of affective, non-verbal and behavioural

reactions towards an object.
2. Attitudes predict behaviour best when they are specific rather than general.
3. The Likert Scale is an example of self-report measures.
4. Terror management theory which is related to the value-expressive

function of attitudes, suggests that to avoid anxiety, we adopt death-
denying attitudes.
5. Attitudes are believed to have a stronger connection to genes than social

experiences.

6. The degree to which attitudes predict behaviour depends upon attitude

strength and personality factors.
7. The theories of reasoned action and of planned behaviour are the most
frequently tested models of attitude-behaviour relations.
8. When our behaviour is spontaneous, the theory of planned behaviour may

not provide a proper conceptualisation in the prediction of behaviour.
Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2005). Social psychology. New Jersey:
Pearson Education Ltd.
Brehm, S. S., & Kassin, S. M. (1996). Social psychology. US: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Thomson Wadsworth.
Gilovich, T., Keltner, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (2006). Social psychology. New York:
Norton & Company, Inc.
An European perspective. British Psychological Society & Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
Huffman, K. (2005). Psychology in action. US: John Wiley & Sons.
Hughes Jr. (2009). SmokersÊ beliefs about the inability to stop smoking. Addictive
behaviors, Dec, 34 (12): 1005-9.
Shiraev, E., & Levy, D. (2001). Introduction to cross-cultural psychology: Critical

thinking and contemporary applications. US: Allyn & Bacon.
Tesser (1993). In Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2005). Social
psychology. New Jersey: Pearson Education Ltd.

Topic  Persuasion
5 and Attitude
Change
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the process of attitude and behaviour change, namely
persuasion and the use of incentives;
2. Explain how attitudes can change;
3. Explain several approaches to persuasion;
4. Explain the concept and the process of compliance;
5. Identify how behaviour is influenced by changing attitudes; and
6. Explain theories in persuasion and how people resist persuasion.
 INTRODUCTION
Do you agree that it is not easy to persuade someone as it involves a mastery of
certain communication skills and techniques? In this topic, you will learn the
importance of persuasion and how attitudes change according to the context.
You will also uncover several theories and approaches related to persuasion; the
concepts and processes involved in compliance how changing attitudes influence
behaviour; and why some people are resistant to persuasion.

68  TOPIC 5 PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE
5.1 PERSUASION
Persuasion is a process that involves the use of communication to change
attitudes and behaviour of other people (Hewstone et al., 2008).
Before 1980, most of the theories in persuasion and attitude change emphasised
that attitude change was brought about by the message receiverÊs detailed
processing of the persuasive arguments in the communication.
In the following subsection, we will take a look at two models of persuasion

which focuses on the systematic processing of a messageÊs content; the
information processing model and the cognitive response model.
The Persuasion Process

The persuasion process can be categorised into two frameworks. The first would
be the information processing model of persuasion and the second is the
cognitive response model of persuasion.
(a) Information Processing Model of Persuasion

This framework was developed by McGuire (1969, 1985), who proposed
that the persuasive impact of a message involves at least five steps
(Hewstone et al., 2006). The five steps are as follows:
(i) Attention
Once a message is presented, a receiver must pay attention to it in
order for it to produce any attitude change.
(ii) Comprehension
The position recommended by the communicator must be
comprehended.
(iii) Yielding
We must accept the message content if any attitude change is to be
detectable.
(iv) Retention
If change is to continue, we must retain the changed attitude over
time.
(v) Behaviour
The receiver must behave on the basis of the changed attitude.

TOPIC 5 PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE  69
Since a receiver must go through each of these steps in order for the
message to have a persuasive impact, this model offers an explanation of
why it is difficult to induce behaviour change through the information
process.
For example, the objective of speeches given on television by politicians is

to influence and persuade the audience to vote for their party during an
election. If viewers use the commercial break between programmes to go to
the bathroom, then definitely, the appeal might not result in an attitude
change.
Social psychologists often assess for attitude change in an audience

immediately after exposure to the message. Thus, their analysis is restricted
to the first three steps of the information processing model (Hewstone et
al., 2008).
In doing this, attention and comprehension are usually combined into a

single step; that is, reception of the message. The model can be further
reduced to a two-step version, that is, the first step covers attention and
comprehension, while the second step involves yielding.
The disadvantage of this model is that it lacks specific theoretical principles

that would allow one to predict the factors which affect acceptance and
attitude change. This is because the model merely emphasises the steps
discussed above.
(b) The Cognitive Response Model of Persuasion

The cognitive response model of persuasion explains the absence of an
inter-connection between information recall and attitude change. This
theory was proposed by Greenwald and his colleagues at Ohio State
University (Hewstone et al., 2008).
According to this theory, it is the thoughts or cognitive responses

stimulated in the receiver that causes attitude change, not so much, the
reception of the message.
Listeners are active participants and listening to a conversation is like a

mental discussion. A message can persuade if it creates favourable
thoughts. Therefore, the impact of persuasion on attitude change depends
on the extent to which the message is able to stimulate or generate
favourable or unfavourable thoughts.
For example, individuals may experience the changing of favourable or

unfavourable thoughts during an argument in communication.

Thought-listing is a measure of cognitive responses. With this task,

receivers are asked to list the thoughts they had while listening to a
conversation. These thoughts are later categorised into favourable or
unfavourable to the position advocated by the message.
Irrelevant thoughts which do not fit into either of these categories are not
considered. In addition, strong and well-argued messages are likely to
produce favourable thoughts that would enhance persuasion.
The cognitive response approach also highlights the impact of distraction

on attitude change (Hewstone et al., 2008); for example, being distracted
while listening to a conversation could affect the listenerÊs reception of the
message and reduce its persuasive impact.
Distraction reduces a receiverÊs ability to generate cognitive responses. If

dominant thoughts are mainly unfavourable, distraction would enhance
persuasion. Therefore, communication which involves logical and strong
arguments are more likely to result in cognitive responses that lead to
attitudinal change.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Advertisers often use persuasion techniques to sell their products. Do
the techniques used by the advertisers have any persuasive impact on
you? Why do you think so?
5.2 HOW ATTITUDES CHANGE

According to Aronson et al. (2005), attitudes do sometimes change, in response to
the social influence. Our attitudes can be influenced by what people do or say, or
by their actual or imagined behaviour.
For example, in America, the popularity of the presidents often seems to rise and
fall, depending on events such as the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 or
the U.S. invasion of Iraq. This is because people tend to have either more positive
attitudes or more negative attitudes toward the president, depending on the
situation.
In other words, we acquire our attitudes from others through the process of
social learning or social interaction, or just by observing their behaviour.

In order to change as many peopleÊs attitudes as possible, we would have to refer

to certain techniques of attitude change, and probably build some sort of
persuasive communication.
One example of a study on persuasive communication is the Yale Attitude

Change Approach (refer to Figure 5.1). It is the study of the conditions under
which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to a persuasive
message. It focuses on „who said what to whom‰; the source of communication;
the nature of the communication; and the nature of the audience.
For example, in a presentation focusing on the importance of exercise, a fitness

trainer presents his findings to a group of university students. As he is an expert
in the field, the students will most likely accept his viewpoints.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Based on the Yale attitude change approach shown in Figure 5.1, how
should a message be delivered so that it achieves its persuasive
objective?
Figure 5.1: Yale attitude change approach

Source: http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/yale_attitude_change.htm#

5.3 DUAL-PROCESS MODELS OF PERSUASION

Dual-process theories of persuasion, as shown in Figure 5.2, integrate theories of
systematic processing and persuasion processes that are not based on systematic
analysis of communication such as classical conditioning. Dual-process theories
combine two modes of information processing, systematic and non-systematic.
Figure 5.2: Dual-model approach to persuasion
These two modes differ in the extent to which people engage in content-relevant
thoughts and critical evaluation of the arguments contained in a message in
order to accept or reject the message (Hewstone et al., 2008). The mode used is
assumed to depend on processing motivation and ability. Dual-process theories
show the conditions under which people will engage in each of the processes.
There are two types of dual-process theories and they are:
(a) Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion by Shelly Chaiken; and
(b) Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion (ELM) by Richard Petty and

Jon Cacioppo.
Both of the theories were developed independently but the concepts related to
both are quite similar (Gilovich et al., 2006). The Elaboration Likelihood Model of
persuasion proposes that there are two routes to persuasion:
(a) Central Route

Through the central route (known as the systematic route in ChaikenÊs
model), people think carefully about the content of the message. They think
of the logic of the message as well as the existing evidence; they retrieve the
relevant information, memories or images. Therefore, the central route
involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the arguments. All of
these cognitive processes can lead individuals to change an attitude or not,

based on a shifting of the evidence.
(b) Peripheral Route

Through the peripheral route (known as the heuristic route in ChaikenÊs
model), the individual attends to the superficial aspects of the message that
are unrelated to its substance and are not based on issue-relevant thinking
such as in classical conditioning (Gilovich et al., 2006). The individual
might consider how long the message is or how good the communicator
appears to be.
The attitude change mechanism does not involve systematic processing. The
individual may rely upon simple or unconscious cues such as communication
heuristics which justify attitude change. Peripheral cues such as an attractive
communicator might change the individualÊs emotional reaction to the object.
The peripheral process which has been most extensively studied is heuristic
processing. Heuristic processing involves assessing the validity of a
communication by depending on heuristics, or simple rules like „experts can be
trusted‰ or „statistics donÊt lie‰ rather than through evaluation of arguments
(Hewstone et al., 2008).
There are several factors that determine whether we will go through the central
or peripheral route in responding to a persuasive message (Gilovich et al., 2006):
(a) Ability to Process in Depth

If the message is clear and we have time, we are able to process it deeply. It
is only when we have little motivation and less ability to process the
message that we get side-tracked with the peripheral cues associated with
the message.
(b) Motivation to Devote Time and Energy

If we are able to spend our time and energy to respond to the persuasive
message or if the message has personal consequences for us, we are more
likely to go through the central route.

5.4 TACTICS FOR ENHANCING COMPLIANCE

Compliance means changes in behaviour that result from direct requests (Brehm,
2002). In all societies, there is a norm that requires people to repay those who
have benefitted them and it is called the norm of reciprocity, (Gilovich et al.,
2006).
For example, when you do me a favour today, you have the right to expect a
favour from me in the future. It creates an obligation to agree to a reasonable
request from the other person. Failure to respond is to violate a social norm.
In the following subsections, there will be a detailed explanation for each of the
techniques involved in compliance.
5.4.1 The Door-in-the-Face Technique

The door-in-the-face technique is also known as the reciprocal concession and
was developed by Robert Cialdini (Brehm, 2002). CialdiniÊs experience with the
Boy Scouts led him to conduct research and generate a general compliance
technique in which people make reciprocal concessions.
For example, at first, we ask someone for a very large favour that he or she will
certainly refuse and then, we follow the request with a smaller favour that we are
really interested in receiving.
The idea in this technique is that the drop in the size of the request will be seen as
a compromise. The most available compromise is to comply with the second
request. The combination of a large request followed immediately by a more
modest request is the basic idea in this technique.

SELF-CHECK 5.2
Read the excerpt below and explain the compliance technique used for
this particular situation.
I was walking down the street when I was approached by an eleven or

twelve-year-old boy. He introduced himself and said that he was selling
tickets to the annual Boy Scouts circus to be held on the upcoming
Saturday night. He asked if I wished to buy any at five dollars a piece.
Since one of the last places I wanted to spend Saturday evening was
with the Boy Scouts, I declined. „Well,‰ he said, „if you donÊt want to
buy any tickets, how about buying some of our big chocolate bars?
TheyÊre only a dollar each.‰ I bought a couple and, right away, realized
that something noteworthy had happened. I knew that to be the case
because: (i) I do not like chocolate bars; (ii) I do like dollars; (iii) I was
standing there with two of his chocolate bars and (iv) he was walking
away with two of my dollars. (Cialdini, R.B. 1984. Influence: How and
why people agree to things).
Source: Adapted from Gilovich et.al (2006). Social Psychology, p.243
5.4.2 The Foot-in-the-Door Technique

The foot-in-the-door technique is a two-step compliance technique in which an
influencer prefaces the real request by first getting a person to comply with a
much smaller request (Brehm, 2002). This technique complements the door-in-
the-face technique because it starts with a small request to which everyone
complies and then follows up with a larger request involving the real behaviour
of interest (Gilovich et al., 2006).
According to Brehm (2002), this technique has proved to be very effective as

people are more likely to donate anything they have such as money, blood, and
other resources once they have been induced to go along with a small request.
According to the self-perception theory, people judge their attitudes by
observing their own behaviour (Brehm, 2002). Therefore, this technique will
succeed only when people attribute an initial act of compliance to their own
personal characteristics.

5.4.3 The That’s-Not-All Technique

The thatÊs-not-all technique is a compliance technique in which the influencer
begins with an extended request, then adding something to the original offer
such as offering a discount or bonus, which is likely to create some pressure to
reciprocate (Gilovich et al., 2006).
As an example, at an art fair held on the Santa Clara University campus, students
who approached the booth of the Psychology ClubÊs bake sale were told that the
cupcakes on display cost 75 cents each. Before any customer responded, half of
them were also told that the price included two medium-sized cookies. This
nearly doubled sales, from 40 to 73 percent (as cited in Gilovich et al., 2006). This
demonstration which was done by Jerry Burger has shown the effectiveness of
the above technique.
5.5 INCENTIVE-INDUCED ATTITUDE CHANGE

Powerful organisations are more prone to using incentives or legal sanctions to
influence behaviour rather than rely on persuasion (Hewstone et al., 2008). For
instance, in 2009, the Malaysian government introduced new regulations requiring
the provision of rear seatbelts. The regulation was introduced to reduce the
number of fatalities in road accidents and to protect the passengers at the back.
There are more evidences to show that the use of incentives is an effective
strategy for behavioural change as it results in a change in attitude towards the
behaviour (Hewstone et al., 2008). According to the value-expectancy model,
oneÊs attitude towards a behaviour reflects the perceived consequences of
engaging in that behaviour.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
Read the excerpt below and answer the following question.
„The announced budget revealed a radical change in the way excise

duty is levied on cigarettes, taking into consideration the consequent
impact of sales tax, trade margins, and so on. Some smokers do not stop
the bad habit just because of the price increase; they will find
alternatives to satisfy their needs.‰
Discuss how the increase in cigarette prices will influence the

consumerÊs attitude towards buying cigarettes.

5.6 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORIES AND

RESEARCH PARADIGMS
People are motivated towards cognitive consistency and will change their
attitudes, beliefs and actions to achieve it. Leon Festinger (1957) proposed the
cognitive dissonance theory, which states that a powerful motive to maintain
cognitive consistency can give rise to irrational behaviour (Brehm, 2002).
We engage in many cognitive processes such as beliefs, attitudes and actions that
influence our social world and ourselves. Under certain situations, conflicts can
result in an unpleasant state of tension known as cognitive dissonance.
However, conflict does not always lead to cognitive dissonance, unless someone
has some knowledge of the consequences. If you mistakenly thought the food
you ate was low in calories, only to find out the truth later, then you would not
experience much dissonance.
Table 5.1: Ways to Reduce Dissonance
Ways to Reduce Dissonance

Change your attitude „I donÊt really need to be on a diet.‰
Change your perception of the behaviour „I hardly ate any chocolate cake.‰
Add consonant cognitions „Chocolate cake is very delicious.‰
Minimise the importance of the conflict „I donÊt care if IÊm overweight. Life is
short, chocolate is great.‰
Reduce perceived choice „I had no choice; the chocolate cake was
prepared for this special occasion.‰
Source: Adapted from Brehm & Kassin (1996), p. 399
SELF-CHECK 5.4
Based on Table 5.1, why is it important to reduce dissonance?
A counter-attitudinal action is a behaviour that is inconsistent with an existing

attitude which will produce change in the attitude only when the actor sees no
strong justification for taking the action (Hewstone et al., 2008).
For instance, we refer to the example mentioned before, regarding the Malaysian
government making it compulsory to use rear seatbelts.

At first, many passengers were reluctant to obey the regulation. This attitude
change is likely to involve the process of habit formation. Over time, putting on
rear seatbelts may become habitual to people. If passengers use the seatbelts to
avoid paying a fine, the behaviour is not completely voluntary.
Thus, if a person behaves counter-attitudinally to avoid a penalty or gain benefit,

dissonance will be greater if the penalty or the benefits are small rather than large
Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) conducted an experiment in which participants

had to perform two dull motor tasks for an hour and were then asked whether
they were willing to tell the next participant that the task was really interesting.
During the experiment (as cited in Hewstone et al., 2008), they were offered
either $20 or $1 for telling the lie. According to the dissonance theory,
participants who had been offered $20 should have fewer problems to justify
their behaviour than those who received only $1. Therefore, participants with the
$20 should experience less dissonance. In conformity with the theory, this
experiment found that participants with the $1condition rated it more enjoyable
than did those who had been paid $20.
In this case, the participants could refuse the request by the experimenter. The
target of the lie had indicated that she had originally not intended to participate
in the experiment and the participantÊs behaviour led to unpleasant
consequences. Therefore, both freedom of choice and negative consequences are
necessary to induce counter-attitudinal behaviour (Hewstone et al., 2008).
Fritz Heider (1946, 1958) developed a balance theory which proposed that people
try to maintain balance among beliefs, cognitions and sentiments (Gilovich et al.,
2006). People will apply psychological energy to achieve balance in relationships
and may decide to like one friend less, and so on. In other words, people prefer
harmony and consistency in social relations. When we are in a state of balance,
there is no need to change.
5.7 RESISTANCE TO PERSUASION

People can resist persuasion because of pre-existing biases, commitments and
knowledge. Several studies indicate that people tend to pay selective attention to
information that confirms their original attitudes (Gilovich et al., 2006). People
also selectively judge the information they take in.
Thus, people are prone to look favourably at information that supports their
attitudes. In other words, they prefer to take in messages that confirm their pre-
existing attitudes.

Many persuasive messages fail because they cannot overcome the targetÊs
previous commitments. Public commitments make people resistant to attitude
change because it is hard to back down from a public commitment. Public
commitments engage us in more extended thought about certain issues, which
tends to produce more extreme attitudes (Gilovich et al., 2006).
This is supported by Abraham TesserÊs thought polarisation hypothesis which

states that more extended thought about certain issues tends to produce more
extreme and hidden attitudes.
In our discussion of the Elaboration Likelihood Model approach to attitude

change, we can see that previous knowledge makes people consider certain
messages much more carefully. People who are knowledgeable are more
resistant to persuasion as they have more beliefs, emotions and habits attached to
their attitudes.
William McGuire believed that resistance to persuasion could be developed

through attitude inoculation. He developed a technique in which small attacks
on our beliefs which are tied to our attitudes and knowledge structures, enable
us to counter a larger attack, and make us resistant to attitude change (Gilovich
et al., 2006). These small attacks give people the chance to muster the information
that they can use when faced with larger attacks on their attitudes.
 Attitudes can change in response to persuasive communication.
 Early theories of persuasion (information processing model, cognitive

response model of persuasion) focused on persuasion that results from
systematic processing.
 According to the Yale Attitude Change Approach, the effectiveness of a

persuasive communication depends on the source of the message, its content
and aspects of the audience.
 Distraction reduces a recipientÊs ability to generate a cognitive response.

Distraction can facilitate persuasion by reducing the listenerÊs defences
against highly discrepant arguments.

 Dual-process theories (elaboration likelihood model, heuristic-systematic

model) integrate theories of systematic and persuasive processing which are
based on low-effort processes such as classical conditioning and heuristic
processing. It combines systematic and non-systematic information
processing.
 People will take the central route to persuasion when they are highly
motivated and able to give attention to the message, especially if it is of high
relevance to them.
 People will take the peripheral route to persuasion when they either do not
want to give attention to the message or cannot do so. Usually they are
persuaded by peripheral cues.
 Reason-based approaches include referring to the norm of reciprocity; doing

a favour for someone or making a concession (the door-in-the-face
technique); and starting a foot-in-the-door process by getting someone to
agree to a small request before making the larger desired request.
 Powerful institutions often influence behaviour through incentives rather

than relying on the uncertain effects of persuasion.
 When people discover inconsistency between their attitudes and behaviours,

it is a cognitive dissonance experience. Types of thoughts people have when
they are confronted with a counter-attitudinal message are directed by their
self-perceived preference to resist persuasion by either counter-arguing or
bolstering their attitude position.
 Attitude inoculation is the technique whereby people are exposed to small

doses of messages against their position, making it easier for them to refuse
the message when they are exposed to the message later.

Attitude inoculation Foot-in-the-door technique

Balance theory Heuristic processing
Central route Heuristic route
Cognitive dissonance theory Information processing model
Cognitive response model Norm of reciprocity
Compliance Peripheral route
Counter-attitudinal action Persuasive communication
Distraction Systematic route
Door-in-the-face technique ThatÊs-not-all technique
Dual-process models of persuasion Thought polarisation hypothesis
Elaboration likelihood model Thought-listing
1. The Information Processing Model of Persuasion was developed by

McGuire (1969, 1985), who proposed that the persuasive impact of a
message involves at least four steps.
2. According to the cognitive response theory, it is the reception of a message

that brings about attitudinal change.
3. In the information processing theory of persuasion, attention and

comprehension can be combined into a single step of message acceptance.
4. Thought listing is a measure of attitude change.
5. Dual-process theories combine two modes of information processing,

systematic and non-systematic.
6. The heuristic route of persuasion involves superficial cues related to the

message such as the expertise of the communicator.
7. When people discover inconsistency between their attitudes and

behaviours, it is called cognitive dissonance experience.
8. „If I help you today you must help me in the future‰ illustrates the
phenomenon of the reciprocal concession.
9. The Door- in- the-Face Technique refers to the combination of a large

request followed immediately by a more modest request.
Brehm, S. S. (2002). Social psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Brehm, S. S., & Kassin, S. M. (1996). Social psychology. US: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
An European perspective. British Psychological Society & Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.

Topic  Social
6 Influence
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain why people give in to social influences;
2. Explain under what circumstances people conform and obey;
3. Describe the role of power in social influence;
4. Identify who resists the pressure to conform;
5. Identify the need to be accepted in groups; and
6. Explain theory and research of conformity, the influences of
majorities and minorities.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss how certain people are able to influence the behaviour of
others; the types of social influence in society; the role of power and obedience to
authority; the concept of conformity; and the experiments related to social
influence. Our discussion will also include how behaviour changes in a group
setting and how minority groups influence norms.
6.1 DEFINITION OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Social influence is the way people affect one another; it involves changes in
beliefs, attitudes, feelings and behaviour which result from the comments,
actions or even the mere presence of others (Gilovich et al., 2006). Social influence
occurs when peopleÊs thoughts and behaviours are affected by the society around
them. This can be seen in human communication, conformity, obedience and
persuasion, especially in areas such as sales and marketing.

84  TOPIC 6 SOCIAL INFLUENCE
There are three types of social influence:
(a) Conformity
Conformity means changing oneÊs behaviour or beliefs in response to direct
or indirect pressure from others (Gilovich et al., 2006). People change their
behaviours in ways that are consistent with group standards.
For example, those who want to be part of the police force will be required
to wear the police uniform and follow the rules set by the force.
Pressures to conform can be indirect as when a Muslim lady decides to

change her style of wearing the headscarf simply because other ladies have
done so. Conformity can also be direct as when students are influenced by
their peers to engage in certain activities. This direct conformity pressure is
related to compliance.
(b) Compliance
Compliance is responding favourably to a direct request by others which
involves changes in behaviour. Sometimes, even when we do not like the
request, we will still proceed with it (Gilovich et al., 2006).
For example, as a team, all football players will follow the coachÊs
instructions in order to ensure they play well.
According to Cialdini, there are six basic principles to compliance as shown

in Figure 6.1 (Baron et al., 2008):
Figure 6.1: Six basic principles to compliance

TOPIC 6 SOCIAL INFLUENCE  85
(i) Friendship or Liking

People are more willing to comply with requests from someone they
like.
(ii) Commitment or Consistency

When we have committed ourselves to a position, we are more
willing to comply with behaviours that are consistent with the
position.
(iii) Scarcity
We value outcomes that are few or decreasing in availability.
(iv) Reciprocity
Generally, people tend to comply with requests from someone who
has previously provided a concession to them, or they desire to
return a favour in some way.
(v) Social Validation

People have the tendency to comply with a request for an action if the
action is consistent with their way of thinking.
(vi) Valid Authority

People are more willing to comply with requests from someone who
holds valid authority.
(c) Obedience
Obedience occurs when the power of relationship is unequal and the more
powerful person issues a command rather than a request, to which the less
powerful person submits (Gilovich et al., 2006).
For example, as an employee, Lisa will do whatever is asked or ordered by

her boss to ensure job security.
Thus, obedience involves giving in to the commands of the more powerful

person. In everyday life, obedience to authority is often flexible and
contributes to smooth social functioning. Sometimes, people obey orders
that are harmful to others and by doing so, violate their own values, which
will be discussed later in this topic.

6.2 POWER AND INFLUENCE

Power, which is related to authority, status and dominance, can be defined as the
freedom to act and the ability to control oneÊs own outcomes and those of others
(Gilovich et al., 2006).
For example, people with great social skills are more likely to rise easily in social
hierarchies and would be able to control others.
Power can originate in five sources:
(a) Authority based on roles in groups;

(b) Expertise based on knowledge;
(c) Coercion based on the ability to use force and aggression;
(d) Ability to provide rewards to others; and
(e) Reference power, which is the ability to serve as a role model.
Inhibition Theory of Power

The inhibition theory of power proposes that we need to be careful of those with
power. Based on this theory and studies done by researchers, the following are
the elements that are associated with someone in possession of higher power
(Gilovich et al., 2006):
(a) Able to control others;

(b) Possess freedom of action;
(c) Lack of social constraint;
(d) Less careful or systematic in social thought;
(e) Inclined towards competitive and approach-related behaviour;
(f) Able to satisfy personal goals;
(g) Thoughtlessly stereotype others and rely on stereotypes;
(h) Inclined on touching others and approaching them physically; and
(i) Act in a direct, unpredictable and aggressive manner.

The opposite occurs when someone is in a reduced-power position. The

following are the criteria that match those with lesser power (Gilovich et al.,
2006):
(a) More alert and careful in social judgement;

(b) More reserved in social actions;
(c) Giving attention to contrasting information; and
(d) Restrict their posture, facial expressions and withdraw in group
interactions.
Siddanius and Pratto have found that social dominance orientation, that is the
desire to see oneÊs own group dominate other groups, is more strongly applied
by people related to more powerful groups (Gilovich et al., 2006).
Furthermore, the effects of power depend on who is in power. According to

Bertram Raven and his colleagues, there are six bases of power that classify how
people influence each other as shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: The Six Bases of Power
The Six Bases of Power

Power Bases Power is Based on An Example of Parent Influencing a Child
Reward Providing or promising a If you brush your teeth every night this
positive outcome week, IÊll take you to the movies.
Coercion Providing or threatening If you donÊt brush your teeth, you canÊt
a negative outcome watch TV.
Expertise Having special The dentist told you to brush twice a day
knowledge or ability and she knows best.
Information The persuasive content of If you donÊt brush your teeth, youÊll get
the message cavities and the dentist will have to drill
holes in your teeth.
Referent Identifying with or Your big brother always brushes twice each
power wanting to be like day.
another person or group
Valid The influencerÊs right to IÊm your mother and IÊm telling you to
authority make a request brush your teeth now!
Source: Adapted from Taylor et al., (2003). Social psychology

SELF-CHECK 6.1
Based on Table 6.1, give the reasons why power plays a huge role in
human interaction.
6.3 OBEDIENCE TO AUTHORITY

In any organisation or society, it is important that people obey orders from a
valid authority. Compliance with authorities is increased when people believe
they are treated fairly, have trust towards the authorities and believe they will
receive benefits just from belonging to that organisation (Myers, 2008).
Obedience to authority means complying with orders from someone of higher

social status in hierarchy (Hewstone et al., 2008). A famous research on
obedience to authority was done by Stanley Milgram (1963, 1974).
The classic research by Milgram, intends to help us to understand better how the
Holocaust during World War II could have taken place. MilgramÊs experiments
tested what happens when the demands of authority are not conformed to the
demands of conscience.
Milgram recruited 40 males via newspaper advertisements to participate in a

psychology study. The volunteers were put in pairs. They were told that the
purpose of the study was to study the effects of punishment on learning.
They were selected by chance as the „learner‰ and the other as the „teacher‰. The
teacherÊs job was to read aloud pairs of words and the learner would memorise
them. Each time the learner made a mistake, the teacher would administer a
punishment.
The learner was put on a chair in another room. His arm was strapped down to
the chair and electrodes were taped to his arm and they communicated by the
intercom. During the testing, the learner made a number of errors. Whenever the
shock was given, the learner grunted. As the level of shock increased, the
learnerÊs reactions became more dramatic. Towards the end, he made no
response. The teacher was urged to continue and was assured that the
responsibility was the experimenterÊs, not his.

From MilgramÊs experiment, it is found that situations that made someone feel
more responsible for his actions or that emphasised the victimÊs suffering might
reduce the amount of obedience.
Furthermore, obedience was greatest when the victim was in a different room
and obedience decreased when the victim was in the same room. It was harder to
disobey the authority figure if he was closely monitoring the participant.
Reminding individuals of their own personal responsibility for their actions also
reduced the punishment they administered. People can be influenced to perform
harm-doing acts when exposed to strong situational pressure from a valid
authority.
Figure 6.2 shows the reasons of why obedience to authority occurs.
Figure 6.2: Why obedience to authority occurs

Source: Adapted from Baron et al., (2008). Social psychology
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Based on Figure 6.2, explain in a logical way why obedience to

authority happens.

There are several ways how obedience can be reduced (Myers, 2008; Baron et al.,
2008):
(a) Obedience is reduced when the suffering of the victim is obvious.
(b) Obedience is reduced when someone is made to feel personally responsible

for his or her behaviours.
(c) People are also more likely to resist authority when they observe others
disobeying the authority.
(d) Encouraging people to question the motive or judgement of the authority

can also reduce obedience.
6.4 STUDIES OF CONFORMITY

As mentioned before, conformity involves changing oneÊs beliefs or behaviours
in ways that are consistent with group standards. It is a fact that we sometimes
mindlessly imitate the behaviour of others.
William James (1890) introduced the principle of ideomotor action, whereby

merely thinking about an action makes its actual performance more likely to
happen (Gilovich et al., 2006).
When we see others behave in a certain way, the idea of that action is brought to
mind and we may unconsciously mimic their postures, facial expressions or
actions through the process of ideomotor action.
Tanya Chartrand and John Bargh tested this idea in a study known as the
chameleon effect, the unconscious mimicry of the expressions, mannerisms,
movements and behaviours of other people (Gilovich et al., 2006).
Students at New York University took part in two ten-minute sessions in which
they were asked to describe various photographs from popular magazines such
as Newsweek and Time. There was a different assistant helping the experimenter
in each of the two sessions. The assistant in one session frequently rubbed his or
her face, whereas the assistant in the other session continuously shook his or her
foot.
This experiment was videotaped and the study found that participants tended to
conform to the behaviour shown by the assistant (Gilovich et al., 2006). They
shook their feet more often when in the presence of a foot-shaking assistant and
rubbed their face more often when in the presence of a face-rubbing assistant.

A follow-up study was done and it was found that the tendency to mimic others
is strong among people who have a strong orientation towards others or who
have a need to associate with others. Furtermore, people who have been
mimicked tend to engage in more pro-social behaviour immediately afterwards
ACTIVITY 6.1
Discuss how the above picture illustrates conformity.
6.4.1 Norm Formation and Sherif’s Conformity

Experiment
Muzafer Sheriff (1936) was interested in how groups influence the behaviour of
people by shaping their reality, how norms develop in social groups and how
strong is the influence of norms on behaviour (Gilovich et al., 2006). SherifÊs
study can be related to the well-known Muller-Lyer illusion, where one
horizontal line appears longer than the other because of how the lines are framed
by the two sets of arrows (refer to Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3: The Muller-Lyer illusion

Source: Adapted from Gilovich et al., (2006). Social psychology

ACTIVITY 6.2
Based on Figure 6.3, which vertical line appears longer? Why?
The experiment done by Sherif was based on the auto-kinetic illusion, the
tendency of a stationary point of light in a completely darkened environment
Sherif put participants in a darkened room, presented them with a stationary

point of light in trial after trial and had them estimate how far it moved each
time. He found that some people thought that it moved very little on each trial
and others thought it moved more. This is because in the dark room there are no
clear cues to indicate distance.
Then, he gathered several participants into the room together and had them call
out their estimates for each other to hear. The experiment found that peopleÊs
estimates tended to be the same over time.
According to Sherif, an individualÊs judgements quickly turned into a group

norm and the norm influenced how far the light was seen to move. A follow-up
experiment was done one year later and he found that when participants were
brought back for individual testing, their judgements still showed the influence
of their groupÊs earlier responses. Therefore, the conclusion made by Sherif was
that they continued to obey the group norm even if they were no longer in the
group setting.
This kind of behaviour is interpreted as the result of informational social

influence or the influence of other people that results from taking their comments
or behaviours as a source of information (Gilovich et al., 2006). The tendency to
use others as a source of information is high when we are uncertain of the right
answer.
Therefore, we have a strong desire to be correct and behave in an appropriate

manner and social norms help us to achieve that goal. We also have the desire to
be accepted and liked by others.

6.4.2 Group Pressure and Asch’s Conformity

Experiment
Solomon Asch wondered if conformity only occurs in ambiguous situations.
What would happen to conformity if the situation was clear? Asch (1955)
designed an experiment, involving five male college students, to study
perception. As shown in Figure 6.4, they were asked to judge the lengths of lines;
where they had to choose one of the lines on the first card (comparison lines: line
1, line 2, line 3) that was the most similar in length to the line on the second card
(standard line).
Figure 6.4: AschÊs line judgement task

Source: Adapted from Baron et al., (2008) Social psychology
ACTIVITY 6.3
Based on Figure 6.4, discuss with your friends which of the lines best
matches the standard line.
One of the lines was exactly the same length as the standard and the other two
were quite different from it. There was no disagreement among the participants
for the first and second set of lines. On the third trial, the first participant looked
carefully at the lines and then gave the wrong answer.
Then, the next participant also gave the wrong answer, as did the third and the
fourth. The fifth participant was quite disturbed to respond. He knew the other
participants gave the wrong answer. He knew that line 2 was most similar to the
standard, yet everyone else said it was line 1 (Myers, 2008; Baron et al., 2008).

People sitting in the fifth position sometimes gave the wrong answer and went
along with the others. The first four participants were assistants of the
experimenter and were responding according to the given script.
In this case, the participants conformed even though they knew the right answer.
The main reason people conformed was to avoid standing out, also known as
normative social influence, or the desire to avoid everyoneÊs disapproval.
AschÊs pioneering study led to many other studies of conformity. Research has
demonstrated similar conformity effects although using a variety of judgement
tasks. SherifÊs and AschÊs findings are interesting because they involved no
obvious pressure to conform, no rewards and no punishment for the participants.
Table 6.2 summarises the studies conducted by the researchers mentioned above.
Table 6.2: Summary of Classic Studies
Topic Researcher Method Real-Life Example

Norm Sherif Accepting the norms in Interpreting events
Formation group differently after hearing
from others: appreciating a
tasty dish that others love
Conformity Asch Agreeing with othersÊ Doing as others do: fads

obviously wrong such as tattoos and body-
perceptual judgements piercing
Obedience Milgram Complying with Soldiers or employees

commands following questionable
orders
Source: Myers, D.G. (2008) Social Psychology, p.206
SELF-CHECK 6.3
Based on Table 6.2, what is the relevance of conducting the three studies
mentioned above?

6.4.3 When Will People Conform to Informational

Social Influence?
There are situations when people are most likely to conform because of
informational social influence (Aronson et al., 2005, Gilovich et al., 2008):
(a) When the Situation is Ambiguous

When we are not sure of the correct answer or response, we will be most
open to influence from others. Asch and SherifÊs experiments point out
how a challenging task makes it difficult to arrive at a decision when
judgement is ambiguous.
(b) When the Situation is a Crisis

In a critical situation, we do not have time to stop and think carefully about
which response is appropriate or which idea is the accurate one.
(c) Expertise and Status

The more expert or knowledgeable a person is, the more valuable he or she
will be as a guide in ambiguous situations.
(d) Gender
Women are raised to value interdependence and to nurture social
relationships more than men are, whereas men are raised to value
autonomy and independence more than women. Thus, we might expect
women to be more exposed to social influence and hence, to conform more
than men.

ACTIVITY 6.4
The above pictures are about obsession with thinness and social
influence.
(a) Why do young women engage in binge eating?
(b) How does this phenomenon relate to conformity?
6.4.4 Resisting Pressures to Conform

Although pressures toward conformity are strong, there are some factors that
guide many people to resist them such as (Baron et al., 2008):
(a) The need to maintain individuality and culture;
(b) The desire for personal control and to maintain control over the events in
their lives; and
(c) Social norms suggest that individuals should go along and do what most
other people do. Yet, norms also urge people to be themselves and not go
along with what most people are doing. Therefore, norms can increase
conformity and reduce it as well.
6.5 MINORITY INFLUENCE AND SOCIAL

CHANGE
According to Serge Moscovici (1985, 1994), a minority can influence the
behaviour of the majority and this is called minority influence. Moscovici was the
French social psychologist, who argued that if social influence only relied on
conformity to the majority, then it would be difficult to see new ideas develop or
how groups change (as cited in Hewstone et al., 2008; Aronson et al., 2005).

The most important factor is consistency. Members of minority groups must be

consistent in their opposition to majority opinions. People with minority views
must express the same view over time and different members of the minority
must agree with one another.
Thus, the majority is likely to take notice and may adopt the minority view. If
two individuals express different views, the majority will dismiss them as people
who have groundless opinions.
People in the majority can cause other groups to conform through normative
influence, which people in the minority can rarely do. Minorities apply their
influence through informational social influence. They can introduce new and
unexpected information and attract the majority to examine the issues more
carefully, and then lead the group to adopt their views.
In conclusion, majorities often obtain public compliance because of normative

social influence, whereas minorities often achieve private acceptance because of
informational social influence (Hewstone et al., 2008; Aronson et al., 2005).
 Social influence involves change of beliefs, opinions, attitudes, values and

behaviour as the result of being exposed to other individualsÊ behaviours or
attitudes. Types of social influence are conformity, compliance and
obedience.
 Social norms are the most basic concept in social influence. Discussions on
social influence include compliance with requests, obedience to authority,
and the influence of majorities and minorities.
 Elevated people are more likely to be less careful in how they judge others.
They are also more likely to rely on stereotypes.
 The famous MilgramÊs experiment found that situations that made

individuals feel responsible for their actions might reduce the level of
obedience.
 Strong situational pressures may induce individuals to obey authority. The

classic experiments of Sherif, Ascha and Milgram revealed that attitudes and
behaviour are mutually reinforcing.

 Conformity occurs when people change their attitudes to comply with social
norms. Conformity increases with cohesiveness and is reduced by the
presence of social support.
 PeopleÊs attempts to resist influence are aided by the need to maintain a

unique identity and culture, as well as the need for personal control and
social norms.
 People in the majority obtain public compliance through normative social

influence. Minorities use influence because of informational social influence.
Asch line task judgement Inhibition theory

AschÊs conformity experiment MilgramÊs experiment
Auto-kinetic illusion Minority influence
Chameleon effect Muller-Lyer illusion
Compliance Normative social influence
Conformity Obedience
Consistency Reference power
Ideo-motor action SherifÊs conformity experiment
Informational social influence Social dominance orientation
Read the following statements and indicate whether each of the statements is
true or false.
1. There are three types of social influence: conformity, compliance and

concession.
2. People have the tendency to comply with a request for some action if the
action is consistent with what they believe or is similar to what they think.
This is called Social Validation.

3. According to Bertram Raven and his colleagues, there are five bases of
power that classify how people influence each other.
4. Obedience is reduced when someone is made to feel personally responsible

for his or her behaviours.
5. Compliance refers to someone able to satisfy anotherÊs personal goals.
6. Elevated people are more likely to be less careful in how they judge others.
They are also more likely to rely on stereotypes.
7. Normally, we are more willing to comply with requests from someone

whom we trust.
8. People in the majority can cause other groups to conform through

normative influence, which people in the minority group may not be able
to do.
Baron, R. A., Branscombe, N. R., & Byrne, D. (2008). Social psychology. USA:
Allyn & Bacon.
A European perspective. British Psychological Society & Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
Taylor, S. E., Peplau, L. A., & Sears, D. O. (2003). Social psychology. USA:
Prentice Hall.

Topic  People in
7 Groups and
Inter-Group
Behaviour
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Describe the nature of groups;
2. Identify how someone acts when people are around;
3. Identify the influence of inter-group behaviour on thoughts, feelings
and behaviours;
4. Explain group structures; and
5. Identify strategies to improve inter-group relations.
 INTRODUCTION
Do you belong to any groups or have any relationships with anyone? People
from all cultures are motivated to form relationships with other people and to
resist any conflicts in the relationships.
A group consists of two or more people, or a collection of people who interact,

are interdependent and perceived to be bonded together in the sense that their
needs and goals cause them to influence each other (Aronson et al., 2005; Baron
et al., 2008). This topic will discuss why people join groups; the relations between
group members; group structures; intergroup behaviour and so on.

TOPIC 7 PEOPLE IN GROUPS AND INTER-GROUP BEHAVIOUR  101
7.1 THE NATURE OF GROUPS

Groups are an important part of our identity and help establish social norms.
Groups do not apply to mere collections of people who happen to be in the same
place at the same time as it is more of collections of individuals that meet certain
criteria. The term „group‰ is restricted to collections of individuals that meet a
certain criteria.
For example, in a classroom, the students are from the same age group, studying
the same subject, and having the same timetable. So, these are the criteria that
identify this group of students.
The individuals involved must interact and are interdependent. What happens to
one may affect the others and the relationship must be stable. They must at least
share some goals with the group and perceive themselves as a member of the
group.
GroupsÊ interaction patterns change over time. Some processes cause group
members to become more similar to or even different from each other.
Differences between group members are also possible. The human tendency to
form and maintain a stable and strong relationship with others is called the need
to belong (Hewstone et al., 2008).
Forming groups enables people to deal more effectively with enemies and allows
cooperation in everyday lives. Social exclusion from groups can lead to negative
effects such as depression and anger.
7.2 GROUP PROCESSES: THE PRESENCE OF

OTHERS
The presence of others has a significant role in the group process. The presence of
others can be put into three different categories: social facilitation, social loafing
and de-individuation.
In the following subsections, each of the categories will be explained in detail.

102  TOPIC 7 PEOPLE IN GROUPS AND INTER-GROUP BEHAVIOUR
7.2.1 Social Facilitation: When Others Arouse Us

Social facilitation is related to an enhanced performance in the presence of others.
It is the tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on difficult
tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance
can be evaluated (Aronson et al., 2005).
There are three reasons to explain this:
(a) More Careful or Alert

First, the presence of other people makes us more alert or careful and
causes mild arousal.
For example, students will be very alert and careful when sitting for their
exams as there will be little chance of cheating due to the presence of
teachers or invigilators in the exam hall.
(b) Concerned about OthersÊ Perception and Evaluation

Second, people are always concerned about what other people think of
them. When someone is present, we feel like the other person is evaluating
us and we will feel embarrassed if we do not show our best side.
For example, the guests at a wedding reception may be very concerned

about their appearance and body language due to the presence of a VIP
and royal dignitaries at the wedding.
The concern about being judged can cause mild arousal and this is called
evaluation apprehension (Aronson et al., 2005).
(c) Distraction from Others

Third, other people can easily distract us (Aronson et al, 2005). Any source
of distraction will put people in a state of conflict because it is difficult to
pay attention to two things simultaneously. When people are around
others, they do better at tasks that are simple but they do worse at tasks
that are complex.
For example, Kelly is not able to concentrate on her gardening due to

hearing a loud argument coming from her neighbourÊs house.

The fundamental aspects in social facilitation are represented well in ZajoncÊs

Model of Social Facilitation as shown in Figure 7.1. ZajoncÊs theory has three
main components (Gilovich et al., 2006):
(a) More Aroused

The mere presence of others makes a person more aroused. For example, a
teacher who is observed during teaching will perform better than if the
teacher is not being observed. Therefore, the presence of others serves as a
source of arousal.
(b) Dominant Response

Arousal tends to make a person become more inclined to do what he or she
is already inclined to do, or more likely to make a dominant response. That
means, in a hierarchy of responses, the response you are most likely to
make (Gilovich et al., 2006).
(c) Facilitation of Simple Tasks and Inhibition of Complex Tasks

The increase in dominant response tendencies leads to the facilitation of
simple tasks and the inhibition of complex tasks. Therefore, the presence of
other people, by facilitating your dominant response, leads to the correct
response and improved performance.
When you are faced with a simple task, the response will not affect the task
greatly as you are already familiar with it.
For complex tasks, however, there is the possibility that the dominant
response will be inappropriate, which makes the task harder to achieve.
For example, when you are being observed at work by your supervisor,
you will work harder in the presence of your supervisor. This improves
performance at simple tasks, but this may affect your performance at
complex or difficult tasks.

Figure 7.1: ZajoncÊs model of social facilitation
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Based on ZajoncÊs model of social facilitation above, explain the

processes involved in the model.
7.2.2 Social Loafing: When Others Relax Us

Social loafing is the tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better
on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual
performance cannot be evaluated (Aronson et al., 2005). In social facilitation, the
presence of others makes us aroused. Being with others means we can merge into
a group and become less noticeable, which makes us more relaxed.
For example, students who work in a group for their final-year-project will be
more relaxed and able to focus since the supervisor will be judging their work
based on team effort rather than individual effort.

Arousal improves performance on simple tasks but impairs performance on

difficult tasks (Aronson et al., 2005). On the other hand, becoming relaxed would
impair the performance on simple tasks but enhance performance on complex
tasks. Thus, when people are not worried about being evaluated, they are more
relaxed and perform better on tasks that require them to learn something new.
Studies have found that the tendency to relax was stronger in men than in
women; and stronger in Western cultures than Asian cultures (Aronson et al.,
2005). Asians are more likely to have an interdependent view of the self, the self-
definition that may reduce the tendency towards social loafing when in groups.
In conclusion, the presence and evaluation of others will help or hinder our
performance in a task; whether simple or complex, as shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Comparison of Social Facilitation and Social Loafing
Social Facilitation Social Loafing
Performance Can Be Evaluated Performance Cannot Be Evaluated
Evaluation Anxiety No Evaluation Anxiety
Arousal Relaxation
Enhanced Impaired Impaired performance on Enhanced

performance on performance on simple tasks performance on
simple tasks complex tasks complex tasks
Source: Adapted from Aronson et al., 2005
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Based on Table 7.1, identify the differences between the two

components.
7.2.3 Deindividuation: When People Lose Control

Deindividuation is the loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when
people are in a crowd, leading to an increase in unpredictable and unusual acts
(Aronson et al., 2005). Getting lost in a crowd can lead to getting involved in
behaviours that we would never dream of doing by ourselves.

Robert Watson (1973) studied 24 cultures and found that warriors who hide their
identities before going into battle were significantly more likely to kill, torture or
disfigure captive prisoners than those who did not hide their identities (as cited
in Aronson et al., 2005).
Deindividuation or the loss of a personÊs sense of individuality makes people feel

less accountable for their actions because it reduces the possibility that any
individual will be blamed. Deindividuation also increases the extent to which
people obey the groupÊs norms (Aronson et al., 2005).
When group members are together and deindividuated, they are more likely to
follow and act according to group norms. Whether deindividuation leads to
aggressive behaviour or not, depends on what the norms of the group are.
For example, the shy girl, who usually keeps to herself, screams loudly,
following the action of her friends who are enjoying themselves at the rock
concert.
Figure 7.2 shows the theoretical model of deindividuation.
Figure 7.2: Theoretical model of deindividuation

Source: Adapted from Gilovich et al., (2006)
ACTIVITY 7.1
Based on Figure 7.2, discuss the theoretical model of deindividuation

and its elements.

7.3 GROUP PROCESSES AND GROUP

STRUCTURES: INTERACTING WITH
OTHERS
Interactive groups can be described in terms of roles, norms and cohesiveness.
The components listed below as shown in Figure 7.3, are part of the group
structures:
Figure 7.3: Group structures
(a) Social Norms

As we discussed before in Topic 6, social norms are a powerful determinant
of behaviour which people are expected to obey and some of which vary
from group to group. Social norms are powerful enough to shape
behaviour and may put pressure on members of a group to leave.
For example, in a group comprising teenagers, the required social norms

would be based on their haircut, clothing, branded items and lifestyle.
(b) Social Roles

Social roles are shared expectations in a group regarding how particular
people are supposed to behave in certain situations (Aronson et al., 2005).
Whereas social norms specify how all group members should behave,
social roles specify how people who occupy certain positions in a group
should act.
Social roles can be very helpful because people know what to expect from
each other. When people follow a set of clear roles, they tend to be satisfied
and perform well in social relationships.

For example, in a business organisation, everyone knows their role very

well and perform their tasks accordingly, which makes the overall task
easier and the individual happier.
However, people may get so far into a role that they lose their identities
and personalities. Role expectations are problematic when they are without
proper reasoning and fairness. The role expectations can restrain the way in
which people behave and result in negative attitudes toward others who do
not behave accordingly.
For instance, if someone in the business organisation chooses to ignore or

does not put much emphasis on their role, there will be problems within
the organisation.
(c) Gender Roles

In many cultures, women are expected to play the role of a wife and
mother. However, conflict can result when expectations change for some
roles but not for others assumed by the same person. Many studies have
been done on gender roles especially on womenÊs work-family conflicts.
Changing roles can actually affect personalities. Social roles are powerful
determinants of peopleÊs feelings, behaviour and personality (Aronson et
al., 2005).
(d) Group Cohesiveness

Group cohesiveness is the qualities of a group that bind members together
and promote mutual liking (Aronson et al., 2005). The more cohesive a
group, the more its members are likely to stay in the group and be involved
in its activities.
For example, due to their passion for football, the group members stay
united and committed to their mission of winning the football match.

Types of Social Groupings

There are six types of social groupings as shown in Figure 7.4 (Taylor et al., 2003):
Figure 7.4: Types of social groupings
(a) Social Categories

We often group people together on the basis of a shared attribute. All
members of a social category have some common characteristics, although
they are not likely to know each other or to interact with each other.
For example, taxi drivers, graduated students, school teachers, teenage

girls, etc.
(b) Audience
People who are watching, listening or responding to a particular event or
situation, even though they are not necessarily aware of each other and
interact with each other.
For example, people watching a singing competition in TV or people

watching a football match in the stadium.

(c) Crowd
When people are in physical closeness to a common situation or stimulus,
we call them a „crowd‰.
For example, people waiting outside a bank or people gathering in the

street to watch the street dancers.
(d) Team
A set of people who interact regularly for some particular purpose or
activity.
For example, work group, cheerleading team or football team.
(e) Family
Although there are many types of families, they usually consist of a set of
people who are related by birth or legal arrangements and who may share
a common residence.
For example, nuclear family or extended family.
(f) Formal Organisation

A huge number of people often working together in some clearly
structured way to accomplish a joint goal.
For example, school systems, universities, or companies and so on.
7.4 CONTEXT OF INTERGROUP BEHAVIOUR

Intergroup context involves the way group members think, feel and act towards
members of other groups (Hewstone et al., 2008). The intergroup context may
also affect intragroup processes. Self-categorisation as a group member needs to
be cognitively activated or rendered as important and noticeable, for the group
membership to exert its influence on peopleÊs self-definition, such as social
identity (Hewstone et al., 2008).
Group membership influences group membersÊ attitudes and behaviour via the
self-definition. Exposure to other groups in a sense reminds us of our own group
memberships. Confrontations may involve direct competition, as in sports or the
political arena, or competition for scarce goods, and indirect forms of
competition such as for social status.

Studies done by James and Greenberg (1989) show that group membership needs
to be salient in order to influence behaviour, but the context in which it is
considered salient affects whether and how group membership salience
translates into behaviour (Hewstone et al., 2008). Performing well could help
establish that oneÊs own group memberships reflect on how we see ourselves.
One important influence of the intergroup context on group members is that it

may lead to group membership salience which may transform into attitudes and
behaviour (Hewstone et al., 2008). The intergroup context may also affect group
membersÊ perceptions of their own group and by doing so, affect their attitudes
and behaviour.
PeopleÊs perceptions of their membership in a group are affected by the

comparison between their own and other groups, and group membersÊ
perceptions of their group also depend on what differentiates their group from
other groups (Heewstone et al., 2008). If the intergroup context changes,
comparison groups may also change. As a consequence, our perceptions of our
own group may also change.
Changes in the intergroup context may occur because (Hewstone et al., 2008):
(a) Old groups disappear from the scene;

(b) New groups emerge;
(c) An existing group becomes more relevant as a comparison group; and
(d) An existing group becomes less relevant as a comparison group.
Such changes may affect which attributes of the group are salient, but they may
also change our perception of a given characteristic of the group.

7.5 STATEGIES FOR IMPROVING INTERGROUP

RELATIONS
There are some factors that may lead to between-group conflicts as shown in
Figure 7.5 (Brehm & Kassin, 1996):
Figure 7.5: Factors of between-group conflicts
(a) Pressures for Conformity

Pressures for conformity such as group cohesiveness, that make it difficult
for individuals to oppose the groupÊs aggressive viewpoint.
For example, in a workplace environment, even though some of the

workers are not happy with the upper management, they keep their
grievances down so as to adhere to the rest of the workforce
(b) Group Polarisation

Group polarisation is the tendency of group members to shift towards
more extreme viewpoints or attitudes as a result of group discussions. If
group members asked for less before a group discussion, but asked for
more after the discussion, then polarisation is said to have occurred
(Delamater & Myers, 2007).

For example, prior to a group discussion, a group of students had

requested for the library to be equipped with more text books. However,
after the discussion, the students requested for additional air-conditioners
to be installed along with the text books as well.
(c) Ingroup Cooperation

Ingroup cooperation increases the likelihood of between-group conflict,
which in turn increases ingroup cooperation.
For example, due to an alliance among the cast members, the actors
purposely refused to follow the instructions of the directing team; resulting
in the whole filming of the drama to be postponed to another day.
(d) Threat Capacity

Premature use of threat capacity triggers aggressive revenge.
For example, when a husband threatens that he will marry another woman,
the wife files for divorce in court and demands for half of their joint
property as compensation.
(e) Entrapment
Entrapment occurs when commitments to a failing course of action are
increased to justify investments already made.
For example, the government keeps on producing campaigns targeting at

smokers and enforcing taxes on cigarettes year-by-year, even though the
attitude of the smokers remains the same. This prompts citizens to protest
against the wastage of money for a doomed project.
(f) Negative Perceptions

Negative perceptions of the „the other‰ that promote acceptance of
aggressive behaviour and enhance cohesiveness of the ingroup „us‰
against the outgroup „them‰.
For example, political party A shows an aggressive stance towards political

party B due to different political beliefs.
Conflict often begins when groups perceive that othersÊ views are not matched
with their own views. Factors such as poor communication, criticism, poor
performance or negative attitudes can play a role in conflict.

Intergroup relations can be improved in many ways such as bargaining, finding

common ground or using the GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in
Tension-reduction) technique (see Figure 7.6).
In the following subsections, there will be a detailed explanation about the ways
to improve intergroup relations.
7.5.1 Bargaining
Bargaining or negotiation is involved when there is a conflict that the parties
wish to resolve without getting into an open fight or relying on an enforced legal
settlement.
Flexibility is an important factor in successful negotiations. Flexible behaviour at

the negotiating table requires integrative complexity, which is:
(a) Searching for information;

(b) Predicting outcomes;
(c) Weighing options;
(d) Considering several potential strategies; and
(e) Understanding the viewpoint of the other party, even if we disagree
with it.
7.5.2 Superordinate Goals: Finding Common Ground

Recognition of a superordinate identity is one way that common ground can be
established to improve intergroup relations. Superordinate identity is the
perception by members of different groups that they all belong to a larger whole
(Brehm & Kassin, 1996).
Superordinate goals and superordinate identity create cooperation by appealing

to peopleÊs self-interest and the premise that everyone stands to benefit.
For example, when group members perceive that they have a shared identity,
there will be a sense of belonging and they will be more attracted to outgroup.
Then, the interactions between the groups will be more peaceful.

7.5.3 GRIT
Charles Osgood (1962) has developed the Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives
in Tension-Reduction (GRIT) to reduce conflict and improve intergroup relations
as shown in Figure 7.6 (as cited in Brehm & Kassin, 1996):
Figure 7.6: GRIT
(a) Make a Clear Statement

You should make a clear statement of your intention to reduce conflict. You
also need to clearly announce your peaceful intentions each time you take
the initiative to reduce tension. Throughout the whole process, you invite
the other party to respond. By taking these steps, you hope to gain public
support and put pressure on the other person to respond cooperatively.
(b) Establish Your Credibility

Show your willingness to listen. These acts serve to establish your
credibility. You enhance your credibility further by employing tension-
reducing initiatives that can be verified by the other person or by neutral
outside observers.
For example, a marriage counsellor listens patiently to the stories presented

by a divorce-seeking couple; without taking sides.

(c) Make a Cooperative Response

Once the other party makes a cooperative move, you quickly reciprocate.
Your cooperative response risks at least as much as, if not more than the
other personÊs cooperative behaviour.
For example, when a pregnant lady holds open a door for you, you thank
the lady and then ask about the baby in her womb.
(d) Show the Willingness to Protect

Show your willingness to protect the relationship. You maintain an
unforgiving stance in order to prevent exploitation by the other person. If
the other person attacks, you retaliate at precisely the same level.
For example, a husband demands money from his wife to fuel his gambling
habit. The wife pushes him away and threatens him by showing a knife as
a self-protective measure for herself and for her children.
The steps mentioned above are useful for beginning the peace process, and are
used in negotiations by state leaders to settle disputes or by divorcing couples
negotiating the terms of divorce.
 Working individually in the presence of others may either improve or impair

a workerÊs performance. The result will depend on the difficulty of the tasks.
 PeopleÊs performance in various tasks is often affected by the presence of

others or by their potential evaluation of their work. Such effects are known
as social facilitation.
 Social loafing stems from an individualÊs belief that his or her effort will be
combined with others, and evaluation will be based on group effort rather
than the individualÊs.
 When we are a part of a large crowd, deindividuation can occur because

anonymity reduces the individualÊs feelings of personal responsibility and
his or her attention is focused on the group rather than on the self.
 Groups apply influence over their members through norms, roles and
cohesiveness.

 The types of social groupings are social categories, audience, crowd, team,
family and formal organisation.
 GRIT is a direct strategy aimed at forging cooperation between opposing

parties and is useful for beginning the peace process.
 Flexibility and an understanding of the other partyÊs perspective are the two
important factors of successful negotiation.
 Superordinate goals and superordinate identity increase the possibility of a

peaceful resolution of differences.
Cohesiveness Interdependent view of the self

Deindividuation Need to belong
Dominant response Social loafing
Entrapment Social facilitation
Evaluation apprehension Social norms
Gender roles Social roles
Group polarisation Superordinate identity
Integrative complexity
1. Groups become an important part of the identity and help to establish

social norms.
2. Social facilitation is related to enhanced performance in the presence of

others.
3. Social loafing is the tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but
better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others.

4. If our performance can be evaluated, the presence of others will make us

alert and aroused.
5. Superordinate goals and superordinate identity can help to decrease the

possibility of a peaceful resolution of differences.
6. Social groupings include social categories, audiences, crowds, teams,

families and formal organisations.
7. Groups can apply influence on their members through norms, roles and
cohesiveness.
8. Conflict often begins when groups perceive that othersÊ views are matched
with their own views.
Aronson, E., Wilson, T.D. & Akert, R.M. (2005). Social psychology. New Jersey:
Baron, R.A., Branscombe, N.R. & Byrne, D. (2008). Social psychology. USA: Allyn
& Bacon.
Brehm, S.S. & Kassin, S.M. (1996). Social psychology. USA: Hughton Mifflin
Company.
Delamater, J. D. & Myers, D. J. (2007). Social psychology (6th ed.). USA: Thomson
Wadsworth.
Gilovich, T., Keltner, D. & Nisbett, R.E. (2006). Social psychology. New York:
Hewstone, M., Stroebe, W. & Jonas, K. (2008). Introduction to social psychology:

Publishing Ltd.
Myers, D.G. (2008). Social psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Taylor, S.E., Peplau, L.A. & Sears, D.O. (2003). Social psychology. USA: Prentice
Hall.

Topic  Leadership
8 and Decision
Making
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the theories of leadership;
2. Identify the styles of leadership and how they apply influence;
3. Describe the factors that determine effectiveness of leadership;
4. Explain the process of decision making; and
5. Define brainstorming, group polarisation and groupthink.
 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wished you could be a leader or strived for the qualities of a
leader? In this topic, you will learn all the aspects involved in the making of a
leader and the qualities of a leader. You will also get to know leadership theories;
styles of leadership; factors that determine effectiveness of leadership; the
process of decision making and related concepts such as brainstorming, group
polarisation and groupthink.
8.1 LEADERSHIP
A group without an effective leader is worse than not having a group at all.
Leadership, in the context of an organisation, means influencing, motivating, or
enabling others to contribute towards the effectiveness of the group (Hewstone
et al., 2008).

120  TOPIC 8 LEADERSHIP AND DECISION MAKING
A leader is someone who can move a group of people towards a goal. Leader
traits are relatively stable characteristics including personality, intelligence,
motivational dispositions on the basis of which leadership effectiveness may be
predicted. Great leaders can transform the situation by making their supporters
believe that anything is possible.
Leadership involves work groups, discussions and decision-making processes,

where some conflicts or problems may emerge in the leadership.
8.2 THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

There are plenty of leadership theories that were developed by many researchers
but we will take a closer look at the two that will be discussed below.
8.2.1 Contingency Theory of Leadership

A highly influential theory of leadership effectiveness has been proposed by
Fiedler (1971). Fiedler called his analysis a contingency model of leadership
effectiveness (Taylor et al., 2003).
This model identifies both leadership style and situational factors into account.
There are three situational factors:
(a) Leader-Follower Relations

If the leader is accepted, trusted and respected, relations are good.
For example, once a religious leader in a village is well accepted by the

villagers, they may be able to interact with and establish a good
relationship with the leader.
(b) Task Structure

High task structure is where the task set for the group is well defined while
low task structure is where the task set is vague.
For example, an effective project leader will clearly divide and arrange the
team membersÊ tasks, in which the team members will give their full
support to their leader.

TOPIC 8 LEADERSHIP AND DECISION MAKING  121
(c) Power of the Leader

The leader has strong position of power if the leaderÊs power is both valid
and can draw on resources to impose rewards and sanctions on members
of the group as a whole. However, the position of power is weak if both of
the elements are absent.
For example, the prime minister of a country may have unopposed power
in the government. All his decisions will be valid and become a source of
reference for others.
Leaders who give higher priority to completing a group task and deemphasises
relations among members of the group are called task-oriented leaders. The task-
oriented leader is more concerned with getting the job done than with the
workersÊ relationships.
Leaders who reverse these priorities by putting group relations first and task
accomplishment second are called relationship-oriented leaders (Taylor et al.,
2003).
FiedlerÊs model predicts that task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders will

be most effective in encouraging good group performance under different
situations. Task-oriented leaders are most effective when their situational control
is either low or high. Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective when
situational control is moderate (Taylor et al., 2003).
Therefore, the effectiveness of either type of leader changes when there is a

change in control as not one style of leadership is effective in all situations. The
most effective leader may be the person who can adapt his or her leadership style
to the situation (Taylor et al., 2003).
Thirty years of research on FiedlerÊs contingency model has demonstrated a wide

range of applications, especially in management. However, the approach does
not emphasise the group processes nor explains why leaders are appointed to a
position and later, are removed.
8.2.2 Path-Goal Theory

Leaders are considered effective when their behaviour has an impact on the
followersÊ motivation, satisfaction and ability to perform effectively (Hewstone et
al., 2008). This theory emphasises how a leader influences the subordinatesÊ
perceptions of their work goals, their personal goals and the paths to goal
achievement.

There are five categories of leadership behaviours in path-goal theory as shown

in Figure 8.1 (House, 1996; as cited in Hewstone et al., 2008):
Figure 8.1: Leadership behaviours
(a) Clarifying Behaviour

It is mostly about rewards and punishments, performance goals and the
means to achieve them. This behaviour reduces role uncertainty and
increases follower beliefs by emphasising that effort in a certain direction
will result in good performance and will be rewarded.
(b) Work Facilitation Behaviour

It is about planning, scheduling, coordinating, guiding, counselling and
giving feedback. This behaviour provides resources, stimulates self-
development and helps to assign authority to followers.
(c) Participative Behaviour

It is about consulting with followers and incorporating subordinate
opinions in decision making. This will increase subordinatesÊ self-
confidence and personal value of job-related tasks.
(d) Supportive Behaviour

It involves mostly creating a friendly and psychologically supportive
environment and displaying concern for subordinatesÊ welfare. This might
increase the followersÊ involvement with the work group and both
organisational and goal commitment.
(e) Achievement-Oriented Behaviour

It is about setting high goals and seeking improvement, emphasising
excellence, showing confidence in subordinates and stressing pride in
work. This will increase subordinatesÊ confidence and the personal value of
goal-directed effort.

8.2.3 Aspects of Contingency Factors

The extent to which the leadership behaviours are successful or not depends on
two aspects of contingency factors:
(a) Personal Characteristics of the Followers

Internal versus external point of control, self-efficacy beliefs, knowledge,
skills and abilities influence the degree to which subordinates see the
leadership behaviour as a source of satisfaction or as instrumental for
future satisfaction.
(b) Characteristics of the Environment

Task structure, formal authority system of the organisation, primary work
group, etc, are not within the direct control of followers but are important
to satisfy their needs or their ability to perform well.
In todayÊs context, the path-goal theory is still relevant because it provides a

framework for identifying situational factors related to leadership effectiveness.
It also emphasises to followers that their characteristics matter in the leadership
process, including their perceptions, cognitions and beliefs about work-related
issues. This approach has been adopted in several newer leadership theories
8.3 STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

Each leader has his or her own distinctive leadership style. We will now look at
the different styles of leadership.
(a) Transactional Leaders

They refer to leaders who focus on the proper exchange of resources and
give subordinates something in exchange for what the leaders want
(Hewstone et al., 2008). Transactional leadership consists of three categories
as shown below in Figure 8.2:

Figure 8.2: Transactional leaders
(i) Contingent Reward

Leaders set up exchanges with followers, such as clarify expectations
and establish rewards.
For example, a leader who promises to give a huge amount of money

to his followers with the condition that the follower needs to follow
some specific instructions which will be laid out by the leader.
(ii) Active Management by Exception

Leaders monitor followersÊ behaviour, anticipate problems and take
actions.
For example, the leader of a country who observes and analyses a

critical situation and takes appropriate action to rectify the situation
before it becomes worse.
(iii) Passive Management by Exception

Leaders wait until the followersÊ behaviour creates problems before
taking action.
For example, a leader of an organisation who ignores his problematic

workers and later on, tries to find a solution to get rid of them.
(b) Laissez-Faire Leaders

This type of leader offers very little rewards to subordinates and avoids
making decisions, hesitates in taking action and is often absent when
needed (Hewstone et al., 2008).

(c) Transformational and Charismatic Leaders

He or she is a leader who develops visions of a better future and focuses on
the arrangement of the group or organisational goals with the
subordinatesÊ needs in order to influence them to make sacrifices or inspire
them to take new challenges and put the needs of the organisation above
their self-interest. (Taylor et al., 2003; Hewstone et al., 2008).
As can be seen in Figure 8.3, the concept of transformational leadership can

be divided into four sub-dimensions, also known as the Â4 IsÊ (as cited in
Kenrick et al., 2002; Hewstone et al., 2008):
Figure 8.3: Transformational leadership
(i) Idealised Influence

Leaders behave in favourable ways such as displaying role-modelling
behaviour and conviction so that subordinates tend to identify with
them, expressing dedication, appealing to the hopes of followers and
showing a willingness to sacrifice his or her self-gain for the benefit of
the group.
(ii) Inspirational Motivation

Leaders articulate a vision such as providing meaning for the work
task, setting high goals, presenting an optimistic view of the future,
setting an example for others to strive for and communicating
positively; these are certainly appealing and inspiring to followers.

(iii) Intellectual Stimulation

Leaders create openness to new ways of thinking; they stimulate and
encourage creativity in their subordinates, such as taking risks; and
get them to develop their own ideas; or to challenge assumptions.
(iv) Individualised Consideration

Leaders attend to each subordinate individually in the role of a coach
or mentor; they recognise individual strengths and weaknesses; show
interest in the well-being of others; and supervise and listen to their
needs.
Charismatic leaders can be described as self-confident; show role-modelling

behaviour consistent with the vision; willingly take personal risks; are
enthusiastic; and able to win their followersÊ respect and support.
An example of a charismatic leader is Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who motivated
many people in the United States to dream of and work for a changed society
that practised racial justice and harmony (Taylor et al., 2003).
Leadership is a complex social phenomenon where people and the environment

interact with each other. Hence, Kurt LewinÊs famous formula, b = f (P, E), in
which human behaviour (b) is a function of a personÊs characteristics (P) and
characteristics of the environment (E) (Hewstone et al., 2008).
ACTIVITY 8.1
Source of image: http://www.canalacademie.com/IMG/jpg/thatcher
Margaret Thatcher was known as Âthe iron ladyÊ. Discuss how her
leadership style led to her rapid fall from leadership.

8.4 TYPES OF POWER

According to Frost and Stakelski (1998), top managers in business organisations
tend to use coercive, reward and legitimate power more than middle managers
(as cited in Pennington et al., 1999).
The more senior a person is in an organisation and the more people that person
has to manage, the more he or she will use coercive, reward and referent power.
Dictators maintain their power by excessive use of coercive and reward power.
They also use referent power in an attempt to create a common group identity.
There are six types of power as shown in Table 8.1. Some ideas may come to you
about when and under what circumstances each of the powers can be used.
Table 8.1: Types of Power
Type of Power Description Example: Psychology Teacher

Expert power High level of knowledge Teacher has doctorate in social
and ability psychology
Referent power Enhances group or Teacher makes whole class feel like
common identity a group with shared goals
Information power Uses logic, argument and Teacher persuades you that
information to persuade psychology is worth studying
Legitimate power Use of norms, rules, status Teacher expects students to regard
and hierarchies her as in charge of the class
Reward power Able to give or withhold Teacher praises you for hard work
rewards on practical project
Coercive power Ability to threaten or Teacher sends you out of class for
punish talking
Source: Adapted from Pennington et al., 1996
8.5 GROUP DECISION MAKING

One of the most important activities that groups are involved in is decision
making; deciding on one or several courses of action by combining and
integrating available information. Factors that affect decision rules used by
groups in decision making are defined by the type of decision.

When a discussion involves no objectively correct opinion and there is no correct

answer, a majority-wins rule often prevails. In a majority-wins decision, the
group decides to go along with the position that has the most supporters.
When groups are discussing matters of fact rather than opinion, and when one
solution is correct and the other is wrong, then groups tend to adopt a truth-wins
rule. Group decisions rules have an impact on the group functioning (Baron, et
al., 2008, Taylor et al., 2003).
Strict rules, such as the requirement that a group reaches a decision when
everyone involved agrees, usually require more discussion than less rigid rules.
Unanimous decisions are more difficult to reach and usually involve
compromises; sometimes, the result is a failure to reach a decision (Taylor et al.,
2003).
When groups are able to reach a unanimous decision, they tend to be more
satisfied with the outcome than when a minority of members disagree with a
group decision.
Groups do not necessarily make wise decisions. Groups are exposed to certain
forces that can influence decision-making. Two issues in group decision making
are group polarisation and groupthink.
Both of these issues will be elaborated in the following subsections.
8.5.1 Group Polarisation: Gaining Conviction

Group polarisation means the tendency of a group member to shift towards more
extreme positions than those initially held as a result of group discussion (Baron
et al., 2008). Social comparison might play a role. For example, if members of a
group want to be above average in their opinions, this implies holding views that
are better or superior than other group members.
During discussions, people may learn that others have similar attitudes. A desire
to be seen positively and perceived as confident may lead people to shift towards
more extreme positions than that held by the other group members, by which
people try to be better than average (Baron et al., 2008; Taylor et al., 2003).
Group discussions may encourage members to think about various arguments

and to commit themselves to a particular position. During a group discussion,
most arguments favour the groupÊs initial preference. As a result of hearing such
arguments, persuasion may occur through the central route (described in Topic
5), and members shift increasingly toward the majorityÊs view.
The arguments favouring the groupÊs initial preferences increase and the
members convince themselves that this must be the right opinion. The
information presented during the discussion may convince people of the
correctness of their original views and so may lead to more extreme opinions
(Taylor et al., 2003; Baron et al., 2008).
Discussion also causes individuals to focus on their group membership and to

identify with the group. This identification may lead individuals to feel
pressured to shift their own views to conform to the perceived norm of their
group. They conform to what they believe is the groupÊs decision by shifting
their own views towards a greater extreme.
Active participation in discussions produces more attitude change than does

passive learning. However, „depolarisation‰ can occur if the discussion leads to a
compromise between the opposing views of group members (Taylor et al., 2003;
Myers, 2008).
8.5.2 Groupthink: Losing Perspective

When groups become more concerned with reaching an agreement than with
making the right decision, actions based on their norms can be disastrous. Irving
Janis (1982) applied the term groupthink for situations in which the desire to
reach an agreement interferes with effective decision-making (Taylor et al., 2003).
Groupthink is defined as a group that feels confident and is excessively

optimistic. Group decision making is affected by the need to reach an agreement,
regardless of how the agreement is formed.
The group reaches a decision without allowing members to express doubts about
it. Members shield themselves from any outside information that might
undermine this decision. The group believes its decision is unopposed.
According to Janis, groupthink contributed to U.S. foreign policy. He cited the

failed invasion of the Bay of Pigs in Cuba in the 1960s, the lack of preparation for
the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the escalation of the Vietnam War
and the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger in 1986 (Taylor et al., 2003;
Kenrick et al., 2002).
Janis suggested that groupthink occurs most often in highly solid groups that are
able to cover themselves off from outside opinions and that have very strong and
dynamic leaders. These leaders propose a solution and argue strongly for it,
while members who fear being rejected, are likely forced to conform. Sceptical

members may go along with the group and convince themselves that their views
are not worth expressing.
JanisÊs suggestions for combating groupthink and enhancing effectiveness of

group decision making are shown in Figure 8.4 (Taylor et al., 2003; Smith &
Mackie, 2000):
Figure 8.4: Ways to reduce groupthink
(a) Express Doubts and Objections

A leader should encourage group members to express doubts and
objections about proposed decisions.
(b) Leader should be Firm

A leader should remain unbiased in the discussion, stating preferences and
expectations only after group members have expressed their own views.
(c) Discussion Held Separately

A group should be divided into subgroups to discuss issues independently
and then come together to discuss the best solution.
(d) Participation of Outsiders

Outside experts can be brought in to judge the groupÊs decisions. Thus,
outsiders should be invited to participate occasionally in group discussions
and should be encouraged to challenge the views of group members.

(e) Challenge the Ideas

At each meeting, at least one person should be assigned to play the role of
„devilÊs advocate‰ to challenge the groupÊs ideas.
(f) Minimise the Power of Leader

The power of the leader should be minimised. Self-criticism and the
voicing of doubts and objections should be encouraged as a leader should
accept criticism for his or her own benefit as well as for the groupÊs.
Figure 8.5 shows the theory of groupthink that was created by Irving Janis.
Figure 8.5: JanisÊs theory of groupthink

Source: Adapted from Taylor et al., 2003

When a leader proposes an idea and a group keeps itself away from
contradicting views, groupthink may produce decisions that have some
weaknesses (Myers, 2008). The processes that cause groupthink are more
complex than how Janis described.
Many strong leaders make excellent and thoughtful decisions. Yet, these
decisions never guarantee ultimate success. JanisÊs analysis of groupthink and
the research it has produced, provide a useful reminder of some of the pitfalls of
group decision making (Taylor et al., 2003).
8.6 BRAINSTORMING: COMING UP WITH

IDEAS
Alex Osborn (in the 1950s) proposed that groups are better at generating creative
ideas and solutions through a technique called brainstorming (Taylor et al.,
2003). Brainstorming attempts to enhance the production of creative ideas by
encouraging members of a group to speak freely without criticising their own or
other personÊs ideas (Brehm et al., 2002).
Brainstorming is still used widely today in fields such as advertising, education,

government and industry. Brainstorming is not necessarily more effective than
individuals working alone, yet, many people believe that brainstorming
increases productivity.
The ground rules of brainstorming are as follows (as cited in Taylor et al., 2003):
(a) Never Criticise

Criticism is ruled out. DonÊt criticise anyoneÊs ideas. Negative evaluations
of ideas can be done later.
(b) Let Out the Ideas

Express all ideas. Freewheeling suggestions are welcome. The wilder the
idea, the better. It is easier to tone down an idea than to make one up.
(c) Give More Ideas

Quantity is necessary. The greater the number of ideas, the greater the
likelihood of winners. The more ideas, the better.

(d) All Ideas Belong to the Group

All ideas belong to the group. Combinations and improvements are sought.
In addition to contributing ideas of your own, you should suggest how the
ideas of others could be turned into better ideas. Members should feel free
to build on each otherÊs ideas.
Osborn claimed that by using these procedures, groups could generate better
ideas than working alone. After a brainstorming session, group members may be
impressed by the different ideas generated through the discussion. They may
recognise that the group produced more solutions than one person would have.
Group discussions are popular because many people enjoy being in groups and
may prefer group discussions to working alone. The combined memory of two
people which is more efficient than the memory of either individual is known as
transactive memory (Aronson et al., 2005). When individuals know that one
member is responsible for remembering things the other is not, this may lead to
effective transactive memory.
Group discussions tend to boost morale and motivation, even though they are
usually time-consuming. One good strategy to improve productivity through
brainstorming is by having members of a group to brainstorm together and then
individually (Brehm et al., 2002). Another strategy is to use a facilitator trained to
understand the factors that impair group brainstorming (Brehm et al., 2002).
Factors that reduce the effectiveness of group brainstorming:
(a) Production Blocking

When people have to wait for their turn to speak, they may forget their
ideas, or may simply lose interest.
(b) Free Riding

As others give ideas, individuals may feel less motivated to work hard
themselves. They see their own contributions as less necessary or less likely
to have an impact.
(c) Evaluation Apprehension

In the presence of others, people may be hesitant to suggest wild, off-the-
wall ideas for fear of looking foolish and having their ideas criticised.

(d) Performance Matching

Group members work only as hard as they see others work. Once the other
three factors have reduced the performance of a group brainstorming,
performance matching can help maintain this relatively inferior
performance.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Based on the factors above, provide the strategies to increase the

effectiveness of group brainstorming.
 The most influential theory of leadership has been FiedlerÊs contingency

theory which takes both leadership style and situational factors into account
to predict the effectiveness of leadership.
 Effective leadership depends on how personal characteristics and styles of

the leader meet with the groupÊs needs. There are three styles of leadership;
transactional, laissez-faire and transformational.
 There are six types of interpersonal power that leaders may use; expert,
referent, information, legitimate, reward and coercive power.
 Decision making is a process involved in combining and integrating

available information to choose the best solution.
 Groups are often subject to group polarisation, which leads them to make
more extreme decisions than individuals.
 Groups often suffer from groupthink, a tendency to assume that they cannot
be wrong and that information contrary to the groupÊs view should be
rejected.
 Groupthink may be countered by encouraging criticism, expressing doubts

and bringing outsiders into the group discussion.

 People tend to believe that brainstorming is more effective than individuals

working alone. This view may not be true because sometimes people are
prevented from contributing their ideas while waiting for others to finish. In
addition, generating ideas in a group does not necessarily result in more
creativity or better ideas than from individuals.
Brainstorming Legitimate power

Charismatic leaders Majority-wins rule
Coercive power Path-goal theory
Contingency theory of leadership Referent power
Expert power Relationship-oriented leaders
Group polarisation Reward power
Groupthink Task-oriented leaders
Information power Transactional leaders
Laissez-faire leaders Transactive memory
Leader traits Transformational leaders
Leadership Truth-wins rule
Leadership behaviour

1. Leaders who emphasise task accomplishment first and group relations

second are called achievement-oriented leaders.
2. Charismatic leaders will focus on the proper exchange of resources and

give subordinates something in exchange for what the leaders want.
3. The extent to which leadership behaviours are effective does not depend on
personal characteristics of the followers and characteristics of the
environment.
4. A leader who is able to communicate to his or her followers a vision such

as meaning for their work tasks, achievable goals, and an optimistic view of
the future, while setting an example for others, is called a Transactional
leader.
5. Group polarisation refers to the tendency of a group member to shift

towards more extreme positions than those that were initially held by the
individual members as a result of group discussion.
6. Laissez-faire leaders are often absent when needed by their followers.
7. Brainstorming refers to a process whereby a group comes up with a greater

number of ideas that are better than those who are working individually.
8. Coercive power involves the use of norms and rules in leadership.

Allyn & Bacon.
Brehm, S. S., Kassin, S. M., & Fein, S. (2002). Social psychology. USA: Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Publishing Ltd.
Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S. L., & Cialdini, R. B. (2002). Social psychology:

Unraveling the mystery. USA: Pearson Education Company.
Myers, D. G. (2008). Social psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pennington, D. C., Gillen, K., & Hill, P. (1999). Social psychology. Great Britain:
Arnold.
Smith, E. R., & Mackie, D. M. (2000). Social psychology. USA: Taylor & Francis
Group.
Prentice Hall.

Topic  Prejudice,
9 Aggression
and
Discrimination
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Identify prejudice and social discrimination as an intergroup
phenomenon;
2. Identify the processes and theories related to prejudice,
discrimination and stereotypes;
3. Explain aggression and the main theories of aggressive behaviours;
4. Explain biological and psychological approaches to aggression; and
5. Explain how aggression is related to violence especially domestic
violence.
 INTRODUCTION
At some point in your life, you may have faced prejudice, discrimination or
aggression from someone; it could have been someone you knew or even a
perfect stranger. This is an unavoidable circumstance in everyoneÊs life.
A perfect example would be the Israelis and Palestinians fighting for what seems
to be an eternal battle. PeopleÊs attitudes toward the Caucasians, Africans,
Muslims, Americans and other groups are often fuelled by frustration, hate,
anxiety and other emotions. This topic will discuss the phenomena of prejudice,
discrimination, aggression and violence in human relationships.

TOPIC 9 PREJUDICE, AGGRESSION AND DISCRIMINATION  139
9.1 THE NATURE AND DIMENSIONS OF

PREJUDICE, DISCRIMINATION AND
STEREOTYPES
In social psychology, it will be unusual not to mention prejudice, discrimination
or stereotypes as these are core issues affecting human society.
In the following subsections, each of these terms will be explained and discussed.
9.1.1 Prejudice
Prejudice is a term to describe our negative feelings towards some particular
people. It refers to an unfavourable attitude or affective response based on group
membership (Baron et al., 2008; Gilovich et al., 2006).
Prejudice involves prejudgement of others just because they belong to a specific

category, and the judgement is based on category memberships, such as gender,
occupation, religion, age, marital status, body weight, and so on.
9.1.2 Discrimination
Discrimination corresponds to negative or offensive behaviour directed towards
members of different social groups (Baron et al., 2008; Taylor et al., 2003). Thus,
behaviours are directed towards people on the basis of their group membership.
It involves unfair treatment of others; treatment based not on the content of their
character, but on their membership in a group.
Group conflict occurs when members of one group, called the in-group display
negative attitudes towards members of another group, called the out-group
(Taylor et al., 2003).
9.1.3 Stereotypes
You may realise that we normally associate the colour pink for girls and blue for
boys. Such a belief is an example of stereotyping, that is, attributing certain
characteristics to members of certain groups. This influences the processing of
social information (Baron et al., 2008; Gilovich et al., 2006).

140  TOPIC 9 PREJUDICE, AGGRESSION AND DISCRIMINATION
Stereotypes can be true or false, positive or negative. Whether valid or not, they
are a way of categorising people. Thus, stereotypes often overemphasise certain
attributes. Stereotyping involves thinking about a person as a member of a
group, not as an individual.
One negative effect of stereotypes is the self-fulfilling prophecy that produces

stereotype-confirming behaviour on the part of the out-group members (Taylor
et al., 2003). Members of the victimised group begin to live up to the stereotype.
9.1.4 The Dynamic Relationship of Discrimination,

Prejudice and Stereotypes
Stereotypes are cognitive, prejudice is affective and discrimination is
behavioural. However, in fact, they reflect a mixture of cognition, affect and
behaviour. Prejudice, discrimination and stereotyping often go together.
However, people can discriminate without prejudice and it is also possible to be
prejudiced and yet not discriminate.
Figure 9.1 shows the dynamic relationship that exists between discrimination,
prejudice and stereotypes. Discriminatory practices may support stereotypes and
prejudice; stereotypes may cause people to become prejudiced; and prejudiced
people may use stereotypes to justify their feelings.
Figure 9.1: Dynamic relationship between discrimination, prejudice and stereotypes

Source: Adapted from Brehm et al., 2002
SELF-CHECK 9.1
How do we differentiate each of the components in Figure 9.1?

9.2 PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION

Discrimination is the behavioural component of group conflict which consists of
negative behaviours towards individuals based on their group membership.
The following are some of the terms that are inter-related to prejudice and
discrimination:
(a) Institutionalised Discrimination

Mostly performed by societyÊs institutions, this discrimination has been
built into the legal, political, economic and social institutions of a culture,
such as laws discriminating against women, and so on (Kenrick et al., 2002;
Gilovich et al., 2006).
(b) Social Discrimination

Social discrimination refers to the behavioural indication of prejudice and
harmful acts towards particular group members (Hewstone et al., 2008;
Taylor et al., 2003). Discrimination can take the form of disadvantage, social
exception, violation, under privilege or even physical destruction.
For example, a minority group who has been denied the use of facilities in
the community centre.
(c) Reverse Discrimination

Sometimes, prejudiced people act against their prejudice and show reverse
discrimination, in which they systematically evaluate members of a target
group more favourably than non-members.
This form of discrimination happens mainly due to the discrimination

shown towards the prejudiced people, who are the minority. Thus, the
minority gets back at the majority group by discriminating them in a direct
or indirect way (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010).
(d) Tokenism
Tokenism involves conceding a favour to a minority in order to justify
negative discrimination on a broader scale (Hewstone et al., 2008; Taylor et
al., 2003).
For example, a minority group which has been denied access to many
facilities all the while, are suddenly given food, clothing and learning
materials, even money, when a general election is around the corner.

Another instance can be when an employer hires a woman on the basis of

her gender, not her competency. The employer can use this token minority
to show that he is not practicing any discrimination. Thus, it is a hiring
based on group membership.
(e) Ethnocentrism
Prejudice does not apply exclusively to negative attitudes about the out-
group. Ethnocentrism is the belief that the in-group is superior to all out-
groups (Taylor et al., 2003). Thus, the effects of prejudice are also
destructive and extensive.
However, discrimination and prejudice are not always consistent.

Inconsistency is common nowadays because of the many laws that forbid
discrimination based on gender, race and national origin.
(f) Attributional Ambiguity

Acts of discrimination often involve attributional ambiguity, which is,
being uncertain as to the cause of some event (Taylor et al., 2003). It creates
a dilemma for people who are often subjected to discrimination because
they do not know whether their failures are due to discrimination or due to
their own lack of effort.
For example, a girl, who is short, wonders whether her lack of height
contributed to her failure in the driving test or was it due to her poor
driving skills.
9.2.1 Forms of Prejudice

There are several concepts of modern prejudice, such as aversive racism,
ambivalent racism and modern racism. These concepts all share the common
assumption of internal conflict associated with attitudes towards particular
groups. Refer to Table 9.1 for the different forms of prejudice.

Table 9.1: Modern Forms of Prejudice
Types Explanations
Aversive Racism Consists of outwardly endorsing egalitarian values, fairness and
justice for all social groups. It comprises a strong self-image of
being non-prejudiced. At the same time, it is associated with
negative feelings towards minority groups.
Aversive racists will not discriminate in situations where their

prejudice will be revealed.
However, discrimination against minority groups is likely in the
following situations:
(a) The regulating structure is weak;
(b) The guidelines of appropriate behaviour are unclear; and
(c) The bases of social judgement are not direct.
Ambivalent Ambivalent racism involves ambivalent feelings towards minority

Racism groups, implying simultaneously strong positive and negative
feelings.
Ambivalent racism leads to response reinforcement towards the

minority groups:
(a) Positive actions and achievements lead to extremely positive

evaluations; and
(b) Negative actions and failures lead to extremely negative

evaluations.
Modern Racism Modern racism replaces most old-fashioned, openly racist attitudes
because open expression of negative inter-group attitudes is
frowned upon socially.
Negative affect is no longer attached to race alone but to newly
emerging racial issues such as affirmative action and welfare
programmes. For instance, modern racists deny the existence of
social discrimination and thus, claim that affirmative action is an
unfair gain for minority groups.
Source: Adapted from Hewstone et al., 2008

9.2.2 Theories of Prejudice and Discrimination

In order to further explain the topic of prejudice and discrimination, we should
look at the following studies and theories:
(a) The Authoritarian Personality

Adorno and colleagues (1950) developed a personality-based approach to
prejudice (Hewstone et al., 2008). The authoritarian personality is perceived
to be overly submissive to any authority figure, where individuals are
prone to prejudice and susceptible to fascist ideologies. In other words, this
type of personality expects to follow the commands of a strong leader,
believes in aggression and has respect for submission to an acknowledged
authority.
Adorno developed a personality inventory known as F-scale (Fascism

scale) which was meant to help identify how racism develops in people.
This inventory assessed dimensions of the authoritarian personality such as
attitudes towards minorities, admiration for authorities, political and
economic conservatism and cognitive style of thinking (Hewstone et al.,
2008).
(b) Social Dominance Theory

Authoritarian personality and social dominance theory are personality-
based explanations of prejudice. Social dominance orientation (SDO) is the
degree of individual acceptance and desire for group-based social hierarchy
and the domination of inferior groups by superior groups (Hewstone et al.,
2008).
In other words, SDO, is a measure of individual differences in levels of

group-based discrimination and domination, and individual preference for
hierarchy within any social system. For example, a group finds pride in its
high social status in society.
People who score highly on the SDO scale have a strong desire to promote
intergroup hierarchies and for their ingroups to dominate their outgroups.
They also reject policies that promote equality. In contrast, people who
score low on the SDO scale argue that inequality is unjust.

(c) Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT)

This theory suggests that it is not personality but the relationship between
social groups that determines the attitudes and behaviour of group
members. Prejudice results from direct competition between social groups
over valued resources.
Muzafer Sherif (1966) proposed that instead of beginning with individual

attitudes, which then lead to acceptance or rejection of others, a reverse
sequence explains the origins of prejudice and discrimination.
Furthermore, it is the particular relationship between social groups which

influences the attitudes and behaviour of its members (Hewstone et al.,
2008; Baron et al., 2008).
Imagine that both groups from different disciplines have a common goal,
which is to win the grand prize; and neither your group nor the other
group could win the prize on its own. Therefore, they share a superordinate
goal and both groups are positively dependent on one another in order to
achieve their goal.
Superordinate goals are goals which are desired by groups, but can only be
achieved by cooperation between groups (Hewstone et al., 2008). Positive
interdependence means that the other group is necessary and highly
functional for the achievement of the in-groupÊs goal. Thus, positive
interdependence leads to more positive evaluations and greater acceptance
of the other group.
The intergroup conditions, such as the type of interdependent relationship

between groups, determine the attitudes and behaviour of group members
(Hewsteone et al., 2008). Therefore, it is the in-group solidarity, in-group
identification and negative out-group attitudes increased with inter-group
competition.
Sherif believed that inter-group cooperation and conflict are rational. RCT
also identifies social groups and their goal relations as the basis for
cooperation and conflict. It is the type of inter-group relationship which
explains inter-group attitudes and behaviours.
For example, two groups from different disciplines can only achieve their
goal by mutual cooperation. Thus, they share a superordinate goal and
both groups are positively dependent on one another. Thus when a group
competes with the other group to win in a competition, both groups are
negatively dependent on one another.

(d) Social Identity Theory (SIT)

Tajfel and Turner (1986) developed social identity theory to explain social
categorisation, social comparison, social identity and positive
distinctiveness. SIT is concerned with the consequences of perceiving
ourselves as a member of a social group and identifying with it (Hewstone
et al., 2008; Baron et al., 2008).
Group members feel positively about the group they belong to and part of
their self-esteem is derived from social group membership. Prejudice is
likely to happen because people who are identified with their group are
most likely to express favouritism towards the in-group and bias against
the out-group.
Social categorisation divides the social world into in-groups and out-
groups on the basis of particular features such as gender, religion or
ethnicity. Positive distinctiveness is the motivation to show the superiority
of the in-group compared to the out-group on valued features (Hewstone et
al., 2008; Baron et al., 2008). Therefore, striving for a positive social identity
may lead to prejudice.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Prejudice Legitimised Prejudice Seen as Illegitimate

Rapists Blind people
Child abusers Homemakers
Child molesters The hearing impaired
Wife beaters Dog owners
Terrorists Family men
Racists Farmers
Ku Klux Klan members Male nurses
Drunk drivers Librarians
Nazi party members Bowling league members
Who, do we believe, is „OK‰ or „NOT OK‰ to express prejudice

towards? How do you think the list would differ for people who are
members of different ethnic groups?

9.3 DEFINITION AND MEASUREMENT OF

AGGRESSION
Baron and Richardson (1994) have defined aggression as any form of behaviour
that is intended to hurt, harm or to injure another individual who is motivated to
avoid such treatment (Baron et al., 2008; Hewstone et al., 2008).
Aggressive behaviour refers to the underlying motivation or need to harm or

injure another person, even though there is no actual harm or injury caused to
the person.
Aggressive behaviour covers physical and verbal aggression; spontaneous and

reactive aggression; and individual and group aggression (Hewstone et al., 2008;
Kenrick et al., 2002).
These are five aggression-related terms:
(a) Prosocial Aggression

Usually, we think of aggression as bad, but aggressive acts that are dictated
by social norms are described as prosocial aggression. Acts of law
enforcement and appropriate parental discipline are regarded as necessary,
such as when a father slaps his son for not telling the truth.
(b) Antisocial Aggression

Unprovoked criminal acts that harm others and violate social norms are
called antisocial aggression, such as a man who snatches a womanÊs
handbag and punches her face.
(c) Sanctioned Aggression

This type of aggression falls between prosocial and antisocial aggressions
(Taylor et al., 2003). It involves acts that are not required by social norms
and does not violate accepted moral standards, such as someone acting in
self-defence against an attacker.
(d) Instrumental Aggression

Instrumental aggression refers to aggressive behaviour performed to reach
a particular goal, such as taking a hostage in order to secure a ransom.
(e) Hostile Aggression

Hostile aggression is motivated by someoneÊs desire to express negative
feelings (Hewstone et al., 2008). This aggression and instrumental
aggression differ with respect to the underlying motivation.

An example would be a person who suddenly kicks a pet without any

apparent reason.
The measurement of aggressive behaviour creates particular problems for

researchers due to its potentially harmful nature. It would be unethical to
create experimental situations that involve harm and aggressive behaviour.
However, there are two methods which can be used to safely study aggressive
behaviour and they are:
(a) Observation
Besides observation under natural conditions, observation can be done by
laboratory experiments in which the aggressive behaviour is observed and
studied by researchers (Hewstone et al., 2008).
The researchers create situations in which participants are given the

opportunity to deliver insensitive stimuli to another person, such as in the
form of electric shocks, cold water or unpleasantly hot spicy sauce.
The effects of independent variables on aggression, such as alcohol

consumption, frustration or exposure to media violence can be studied
(Hewstone et al., 2008). Experimental studies on aggression do have
construct validity because researchers can observe variations in aggressive
behaviour as a result of their experimental manipulations.
(b) Reports
Reports of aggressive behaviour can be collected and studied in various
forms:
(i) Self-Reports
In behavioural self-reports, individuals describe their own aggressive
tendencies. The problem with this technique is that people may be
unwilling to reveal their true aggressive behaviour in order to
provide socially acceptable, desirable answers (Hewstone et al., 2008).
(ii) Peer Reports

Reports conducted by peers or others such as classmates, parents or
teachers about the aggressive behaviour of an individual. This
method is less responsive to the problem of social interest.
Peer reports can be used to justify self-reports or to identify

differences between actors and observers in the perception of
aggressive behaviour (Hewstone et al., 2008).

(iii) Archival Records

Another source of data on aggressive behaviour is provided by
archival records, especially on crime statistics. These research data
are not compiled for research purposes and therefore, researchers
have no influence on what is recorded.
This kind of statistics is informative about the incidence of particular

forms of aggression and they can also be used for hypotheses testing
9.4 BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL THEORIES OF

AGGRESSION
Basically, there are two approaches in dealing with theories of aggression. The two
approaches are; biological approaches and psychological or social approaches.
9.4.1 Biological Approaches

Biological approaches of aggression explain individual differences in peopleÊs
tendency to engage in aggressive behaviour. They are:
(a) Genetic
Researchers in the field of behaviour genetics, emphasise the differences in
genetic framework to explain individual differences (Hewstone et al., 2008).
Genetic framework may lead someone towards becoming an aggressive
person.
(b) Evolutionary Principles

Environmental factors play a crucial role in determining whether the
aggressiveness will be reinforced or opposed.
Therefore, similar to genetic framework, socialisation experiences affect

aggressive behaviours in the course of individual development.
(c) Role of Hormones

Some theorists are concerned with the role of hormones. The dramatic
increase in the male sex hormone, testosterone, in boys during their
adolescence has been linked to an increase in the tendency for aggressive
behaviour.
Mixed literature reviews results present no conclusive evidence that

hormones play a causal role in the emergence of aggressive behaviour
patterns (Hewstone et al., 2008).

The ethological perspective, or the steam-boiler model, proposed by

Konrad Lorenz (1974), looks at aggressive behaviour as driven by an
internal energy which is released by aggression-related stimuli (Hewstone
et al., 2008).
Aggressive energy is produced continuously within the organism until it is

released by an external cue, such as a rival; it can overflow and lead to
spontaneous aggression.
9.4.2 Psychological or Social Approaches

Early psychological approaches assumed aggression to be an inborn response
tendency. The following psychological models widen the frustration-aggression
link while highlighting the role of cognitive learning experiences and decision-
making processes to predict aggressive behaviour.
In the next subsection, we will further explore the social theories of aggression.
9.4.3 Social Theories of Aggression

There are six important social theories of aggression as listed in Figure 9.2:
Figure 9.2: Social theories of aggression

(a) Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

Frustration-aggression hypothesis is one of the drive theories of aggression
which emphasises on the importance of external conditions that arouse the
motivation to harm others. This theory assumes that aggression is
motivated by a desire to overcome frustration but in reality, aggression is
just a possible response to frustration.
Frustration leads to the arousal of a drive to hurt someone which is caused

by the feeling of frustration. This depends on the influence of additional
factors in the person or the environment, such as fear of punishment or
unavailability of the frustrated object or outcome.
Frustration that cannot be expressed in an aggressive manner is often

displaced, that is directed at an unrelated and more easily available target
(Baron et al., 2008; Hewstone et al., 2008).
We should identify the conditions under which people are likely to show
aggressive action when they get frustrated:
(i) Aggressive Cues

Situational cues that attract oneÊs attention to the possibility of an
aggressive manner, such as seeing pictures of people fighting.
(ii) Weapons Effect

People who were previously frustrated, showed more aggressive
behaviour in the presence of a weapon than in the presence of neutral
objects (Hewstone et al., 2008).
(b) Cognitive Neo-Association

Berkowitz (1993) proposed that frustration is just one type of stimulus that
induces negative affective arousal, while other insensitive stimuli may
generate aggressive behaviour in the same way (Hewstone et al., 2008).
Insensitive stimuli give rise to unspecific negative feelings that create

reactions of fight and flight. The fight impulse is associated with
aggression-related thoughts, memories and behavioural responses,
whereas, flight is associated with escape-related responses.
For example, frustrations, provocations, loud noises, uncomfortable

temperatures, and unpleasant odours produce negative affect.

Arousal occurs when someone encounters danger and readies the person
for escape (flight) or attack by forceful action (fight). These responses lead
to the more specific emotional states.
This information processing involves the evaluation of potential outcomes,

memories of similar experiences and social norms related to the emotions.
This means, activating one component is assumed to create other
components relative to the strength of the association.
The weapons effect described earlier can be explained as a result of

aggression-related associations triggered by the presentation of a weapon
which then activate other connected, aggressive thoughts, feelings and
behaviours (Hewstone et al., 2008).
Negative affect automatically stimulates various thoughts, memories,

expressive motor reactions, and physiological responses associated with
both fight and flight tendencies.
For example, the fight associations give rise to primary feelings of anger,
whereas the flight associations give rise to primary feelings of fear.
(c) Excitation Transfer

The theory of excitation transfer proposed by Zillmann (1978) argues that
neutral physiological arousal is transferred onto arousal resulting from
frustration, thus strengthening negative affect and enhancing the strength
of an aggressive response (Hewstone et al., 2008).
This is based on the concept that arousal is not emotion specific. The effects
of frustration as a trigger for aggressive behaviour can be increased by
physiological arousal from a non-aggression-related source.
For example, a person who steps on a snake in the grass is bound to get
excited and reacts in a combination of fear and disgust. Once the person
realises that the snake is a rubber dummy planted by a mischievous child
he or she might react with anger, which might, after a while, likely turn
into amusement.
Therefore, the excitation transfer model highlights the role of negative

affect as a powerful stimulant of aggression. It activates a network of
affective and cognitive responses that increase aggressive behaviour.

(d) Learning Theory

Learning is a behaviour change through experience and it is affected by:
(i) Direct Reinforcement

Involves the experience of being rewarded for aggressive behaviour,
either by achieving a desired goal or by winning social approval for
showing aggressive behaviour.
(ii) Modelling
Refers to learning by imitation, such as watching others being
rewarded for their aggressive manner.
Furthermore, the social learning theory is a major theoretical

approach for understanding the effects of media violence on
aggressive behaviour (Hewstone et al., 2008).
(e) Social Cognitive Model

Huesmann (1998) proposed that aggressive behaviour is shaped by
conceptual representations of appropriate behaviours in different
environments. The conceptual representations are called aggressive scripts,
which are guidelines to make decisions in favour of or against showing
aggressive behaviour.
For example, when children observe violence in the mass media, they learn
aggressive scripts which define situations and guide behaviour. Children
first select a script to represent the situation and then assume a role in the
script. Once a script has been learned, it may be retrieved later and used as
a guide for behaviour.
(f) General Aggression Model

Anderson and colleagues (2000) combined the different approaches on
aggressive response into a comprehensive framework which is known as
the General Aggression Model (GAM) as shown in Figure 9.3 (Hewstone et
al., 2008).
GAM is a modern theory of aggression combining a framework which

suggests that aggression is activated by a wide range of input variables.
There are two types of input variables; situational factors and personal
factors.

These situational and personal factors lead to noticeable aggression

through their impact on arousal, affective states and cognitions. Thus,
GAM is more complex than earlier theories of aggression which were
mentioned before (Baron et al., 2008; Hewstone et al., 2008).
Figure 9.3: General aggression model

Source: Baron et al., 2008
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Based on Figure 9.3, explain the general aggression model.

9.5 VIOLENCE AND AGGRESSION

Some forms of aggression are motivated by the potential for material and social
rewards. According to social learning theory, a reward can enhance aggression
when it is direct. Alcohol intoxication may reduce the perceived costs of
aggression by reducing feelings of sympathy for a victim. Aggression is seen as
most justified when it is motivated by defence of oneself or others (Kenrick et al.,
2002).
Intimate violence, such as child abuse, spousal abuse, rape and sexual
harassment is the most common form of aggression (Taylor et al., 2003). Viewing
television or movie violence has ambivalent effects on aggressive behaviour in
real-life settings, although many researches found that there is contribution of
media violence to violent crime in society.
The major factors contributing to sexual violence and sexual harassment seem to
come from the non-democratic and forceful attitudes towards women, group
norms and substance abuse. In addition, aggressive behaviour such as bullying
usually occurs in school and work settings. (Taylor et al., 2003; Hewstone et al.,
2008).
The following discussion points will focus on violence against women, which is a
worldwide issue.
9.5.1 Violence against Women

Violence against women can be either intimate partner violence or sexual
aggression.
(a) Intimate Partner Violence

This refers to the threat of an act of physical violence whether to control or
dominate oneÊs partner in the context of a dating or marital relationship
(Hewstone et al., 2008). Mirrlees-Black (1999) found that 23 percent of
women and 15 percent of men in the UK reported that they had
experienced violence from an intimate partner at some point in their lives.
Romkens (1997) has found 21 percent of women and 7 percent of men

reported having experienced assault by spouses at least once in their lives
(as cited in Hewstone et al., 2008). The sources of data came from official
crime statistics and research collecting self-reports using the Conflict
Tactics Scales, the instrument for measuring intimate partner violence.

Statistics from WomenÊs Aid Organisation (WAO) shows that 39 percent of

Malaysian women are estimated to have been abused by their partners. In
1989, 1.8 million or 39% of women over the age 15 were beaten by their
husbands or boyfriends and only 909 women actually reported violence to
the police.
In 1985, a Joint Action Group (JAG), comprising five womenÊs

organisations (including WAO), a trade union, university and consumersÊ
associations, and individual women, was set up to fight violence against
women.
JAG declared domestic violence a „social concern‰ and called for the
enactment of a Domestic Violence Act (DVA) in Malaysia. The Act was
passed by parliament in 1994, but two years later, has yet to be
implemented.
After eleven years of workshops, campaigning and negotiations, DVA was

finally implemented on 1st June 1996. Below are the statistics of violence against
women by the Royal Malaysian Police (PDRM) from the year 2000 until 2007 as
shown in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2: Statistics of Violence against Women in Malaysia
Year
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Violence
Domestic Violence 3468 3107 2755 2555 3101 3093 3264 3756
Rape 1217 1386 1431 1479 1760 1931 2454 3098
Incest 213 246 306 254 334 295 332 360
Abuse of Domestic Workers 56 66 39 40 66 37 45 39
Child Abuse 146 150 123 119 148 189 141 196
Source: http://www.wao.org.my/research/domesticviolence.htm
(b) Sexual Aggression

Sexual aggression includes a range of forced sexual activities, such as
sexual intercourse, oral sex, kissing, using forceful strategies, unwanted
sexual attention in the form of sexual harassment, stalking and improper
phone calls (as cited in Hewstone et al., 2008).

The consequences of sexual aggression, which is committed mostly by men

on the female victims, are severe, cruel and lifelong. Some of the rape
victims develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They also have to
cope with the reactions of others.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Discuss what message the pictures above convey in relation to violence

and aggression.
 Prejudice is a widespread phenomenon present in every society in the world.
 Social psychologists define prejudice as a negative attitude towards the

members of some social group based on their group membership.
 Stereotyping is the cognitive component of the prejudiced attitude.

Discrimination, which is the behavioural component of the prejudiced
attitude, is an unjustified negative action directed towards group members
who are the targets of prejudice.
 Discrimination can be obvious, but often occurs in more indirect forms such
as tokenism or reverse discrimination.
 Modern forms of prejudice are aversive racism, ambivalent racism and

modern racism.
 Authoritarian personality and social dominance theory are personality-based

explanations for prejudice.

 The realistic conflict theory suggests that prejudice results from competition
for limited resources between social groups.
 Social identity theory explains how striving for a positive social identity
leads to various inter-group behaviours including prejudice.
 Aggression is the intentional act of harm towards others. The range of

methods to study aggression is limited because of the harmful nature of
aggression.
 The main methods of studying aggression are observation under natural

conditions, laboratory experiments and collection of reports of aggressive
behaviour in the form of self-reports, peer nominations or statistical data.
 Biological theories emphasise the role of genetic and hormonal factors

accounting for differences in aggressive behaviour.
 Psychological perspectives focus on the affective and cognitive reactions to

aggression-causing stimuli and the way in which they lead to aggressive
behaviour.
 Another theory suggests that aggression is a form of learned behaviour

through direct reinforcement and observational learning.
 The general aggression model involves an integrative framework of the

psychological theories of aggression, which suggests that aggression is
activated by a wide range of input variables that influence arousal, affective
and cognitions.
 Domestic violence such as intimate partner violence and sexual aggression

are widespread forms of aggression in everyday life. They can lead to lasting
and severe negative effects on the victimÊs psychological functioning and
well-being.

Aggressive behaviour Intimate partner violence

Aggressive cues Modelling
Aggressive script Modern racism
Ambivalent racism Out-group
Antisocial aggression Peer nomination
Archival records Positive distinctiveness
Attributional ambiguity Positive interdependence
Aversive racism Prejudice
Cognitive neo-association Prosocial aggression
Direct reinforcement Reverse discrimination
Discrimination Sanction aggression
Displaced Self-fulfilling prophecy
Drive theory of aggression Self-report
Ethnocentrism Sexual aggression
Excitation transfer Social discrimination
Frustration-aggression hypotheses Steam-boiler model
General aggression model Stereotypes
Hostile aggression Superordinate goal
In-group Tokenism
Institutionalised discrimination Weapon effect
Instrumental aggression

1. Discrimination involves unfair treatment of others, treatment not based on

the content of their character, but on their membership in a group.
2. Prejudice is associating a group of people with certain characteristics.
3. Stereotypes often over-emphasise certain attributes and it involves thinking

about a person as a member of a group.
4. Social dominance orientation is the degree of individual acceptance and

desire for group-based social hierarchy and the domination of inferior
groups.
5. According to the realistic conflict theory, aggression between groups is

caused by direct competition for limited resources.
6. Aggression is any form of behaviour that is intended to hurt, harm or to

injure another individual.
7. Ethnocentrism is the belief that the in-group is superior to others.
8. Hostile aggression is motivated by someoneÊs desire to express positive

feelings on others.
Allyn & Bacon.
Mifflin Company.
Publishing Ltd.

Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S. L., & Cialdini, R. B. (2002). Social psychology:

Unraveling the mystery. USA: Pearson Education Company.
Reverse discrimination. (2010). Encyclopedia Britannica.
Retrieved April 28, 2010, from: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/

topic/500438/reverse-discrimination
Prentice Hall.

Topic  Affiliation,
10 Attraction,
Love and
Prosocial
Behaviour
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Describe what is it that drives people to interact socially with others;
2. Explain why we often rapidly find ourselves liking some people more
than others;
3. Identify several love styles;
4. Identify explanations for prosocial behaviour from different
theoretical perspectives;
5. Explain the importance of relationships between individuals, social
norms and values, and how personal characteristics relate to this; and
6. Explain the act of bystanders and situational elements of helping
behaviour.

TOPIC 10 AFFILIATION, ATTRACTION, LOVE AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR  163
 INTRODUCTION
„Loneliness and the feeling of being unwanted is the most terrible poverty.‰
Mother Teresa
The issues covered in this topic are quite important as they touch on the essential
elements of human life, as captured by the quote. The human need for affiliation
stems from our evolutionary past, when joining others in facing danger,
enhanced our chances of survival.
This topic will discuss the need to interact with others; factors of affection; love
styles, love emotions; and human relationships in prosocial and helping
behaviour. This topic will also look into prosocial behaviour from different
theoretical perspectives; the importance of relationships between individuals;
social norms and values; acts of bystanders; and situational elements of helping
behaviour.
10.1 AFFILIATION
Affiliation is a necessary first step in the formation of a social relationship. People
tend to associate with others who have faced similar situations or experiences.
Human beings have the basic need to associate with others and by affiliation we
mean the tendency to seek out the company of others and the desire to establish
social contract with others (Brehm et al., 2002; Hewstone et al., 2008).
According to the homeostatic model, affiliation is a drive, where people look for
an optimal range of social contact until the drive is fulfilled (Hewstone et al.,
2008; Brehm et al., 2002). When there is excess social contact, they seek out
privacy to restore the optimum level of affiliation. Therefore, individuals are
different in the strength of their need for affiliation.
10.2 THEORIES OF AFFILIATION

Theories of affiliation can be categorised into three. The following are the
explanations for each of the theories:
(a) Schachter Stress-shared Theory

Schachter (1959) found that research samples under threat of receiving an
electric shock preferred to be in the company of someone in the same
situation, rather than someone in a different situation. He also theorised
that external threat triggers fear and motivates people to affiliate (Baron et
al., 2002; Hewstone et al., 2008).

164  TOPIC 10 AFFILIATION, ATTRACTION, LOVE AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
For example, during the Iraq war, most of the citizens welcomed others
who had become victims in the war and chased away the American
soldiers. The fear created by the war united the Iraqi people and
strengthened their relationships.
(b) Attachment Theory

This theory, founded by John Bowlby (Goldberg, Muir & Kerr, 2000), has
both evolutionary and psychoanalytic foundations. Attachment theory
suggests that affiliation is a natural tendency. For instance, the
development of secure infant-caregiver attachment in childhood is the basis
for the ability to maintain stable and intimate relationships in adulthood
Basically, when a child or an infant knows that that he or she can depend
on the parents or the caregiver, it will give a sense of security to the child.
The attachment or bonding formed between the parents and the child is the
foundation that will determine the development and the potential of the
child in the future (Goldberg, Muir & Kerr, 2000).
If the attachment is strong, the child will grow up to be good in handling

problems, have high self-esteem, and able to lead his or her life
independently.
However, if the bonding is not that strong, the child will face certain
difficulties or problems in his or her life, have low self-esteem and may
become dependent on others.
For example, babies are equipped with a set of built-in behaviours such as
crying and smiling which helps keep the parent nearby and lead to higher
chances of survival and increased level of protection, thus making the
attachment stronger.
(c) Stress Reduction and Social Support Theory

Social support can contribute to stress reduction. Social support means the
feeling of being supported by others, usually divided into four dimensions:
(i) Emotional Support

It refers to support in the form of being loved and appreciated.
(ii) Appraisal Support

It refers to support in the form of getting feedback and social
comparison on how to evaluate things.

(iii) Informational Support

It refers to support in the form of providing advice and guidance on
how to handle situations.
(iv) Instrumental Support

It refers to support in the form of providing financial help or services
or receiving support and help (Hewstone et al., 2008; Taylor et al.,
2003).
Thus, numerous studies have found that social support, and interpersonal
exchanges in which one person gives help to another, is beneficial in terms of
stress reduction.
The buffer effects of social support refer to the positive feelings experienced by
people who perceive themselves as supported by others and are therefore less
affected by stressful events than those who feel unsupported (Hewstone et al.,
2008).
Many studies have found that when people are in a stressful situation and they
assume themselves to have little social support, they experience many more
physical symptoms such as headaches, insomnia and weight problems.
10.3 FACTORS AFFECTING ATTRACTION

Factors affecting attraction are crucial as they play a huge role in human
interaction. Below are the factors that affect attraction:
(a) Proximity
The proximity or propinquity effect supports the view that the more we see
and interact with individuals, the more likely they are to become closer to
us, such as friends and colleagues.
The propinquity effect works because of familiarity or what Robert Zajonc

(1968) called the mere exposure effect, that is the more we are exposed to a
stimulus, the more we like it (Taylor et al., 2003; Aronson et al., 2005).
People we live or work with become familiar to us and the familiarity can
enhance interpersonal attraction.
Therefore, the more familiar we become with someone, the closer the
relationship is going to be. According to Cognitive Dissonance Theory
which was mentioned in Topic 5, people strive to maintain harmony and
consistency in their attitudes.

For example, a man may decide to discontinue his relationship with his
lover as he is going to further his studies in a foreign land. Due to the
distance, he fears that he might not be able to commit himself in the
relationship.
(b) Similarity
Similarities between individuals can be in the form of attitudes, values,
personality characteristics or demographic characteristics. The
aforementioned factors can be a powerful cause of attraction and liking.
In talking about similarities, the most notable similarity that exists is

attitudinal similarity, which is about the sharing of beliefs, opinions, likes
and dislikes. When explored further on reasons why similarity is
important, two main reasons were mentioned (Delamater & Myers, 2007):
(i) The desire for consistency between our attitudes and perceptions;
and
(ii) The preference for rewarding or beneficial experiences.
(c) Complementarity
Compared to similarity, which is a more powerful predictor of attraction,
complementarity means people are attracted to individuals who are their
opposites (Aronson et al., 2005).
For example, if an individual is very temperamental, he or she will more

likely find a partner who is very patient and understanding.
(d) Reciprocal Liking

In contrast to complementarity, reciprocal liking is when we like others
who behave as if they like us. When someone shows interest in us or
displays liking towards us, we will be interested and like the person as
well.
For example, when we greet a person nicely and the person greets us back
in a nicer way, it shows that both parties are interested in each other.
(e) Physical Attractiveness

Furthermore, physical attractiveness also plays an important role in
attraction. People often assume that physical attractiveness is associated
with other desirable characteristics which are influenced by their cultural
values.

One problem associated with having beauty as a social asset is that people,
notably women, feel pressured to keep up their appearance and often are
not satisfied with their looks. The concept of beauty in women is not the
same among cultures. However, people from a wide range of cultures
share some standards of beauty.
For example, a veiled-woman is regarded as beautiful in certain Arabic

countries but in the West, this woman would be regarded as unattractive
and not fully showing her beauty.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Source of images: http://images.google.com.my/images
Research has found that people agree on what is considered as physical

attractiveness in the human face. Discuss the facial features of physical
attractiveness in the pictures above.
Theories of Attraction
Theories of attraction are essential in the field of social psychology. Below are the
two theories which focus on attraction:
(a) Social Exchange Theory

This theory, founded by George Homans, John Thibaut, Harold Kelley and
Peter Blau (Emerson, 2010), are mostly about the concepts of reward, cost,
outcome and comparison level. This theory proposes that how we feel
about our relationship is related to our perception of the rewards and the
costs we get from the relationship.

For example, we favour some people because we perceive our

communicating with them has some advantages. This means we want to
know the comparison level of peopleÊs expectations of the relationship, or
whether it can be sustained (Aronson et al., 2005).
Furthermore, a comparison level for alternatives is also important in a

relationship as it reveals peopleÊs expectations about the level of reward
and punishment in the relationship.
For example, how happy they would be in other relationships, the kind of
relationships they deserve or the likelihood of having a healthier
relationship with someone else.
(b) Equity Theory

Sometimes, rewards and costs are not the most important factors in a
relationship as pointed out by the Equity Theory, founded by J. Stacy
Adams (Miner, 2005). According to this theory, the main element of
agreement in a relationship is the amount of equity.
Equity theory states that the balance is what counts (Aronson et al., 2005;
Brehm et al., 2002). We are happiest when the ratio of rewards and costs we
experience is roughly the same to the ratio of rewards and costs the other
person experiences, such as comparing our balance of effort and rewards.
For example, when people feel fairly treated they are more likely to be
motivated; when they feel unfairly treated, they are highly prone to
feelings of disaffection and demotivation. Therefore, gratification is the best
when there is a balance in the ratio between advantages and contributions
for both persons.
10.4 LOVE
In exchange relationships, people are oriented towards rewards and immediate
benefits, while in communal relationships; partners are responsive to each otherÊs
needs without regard for any benefits.
People with secure attachment styles have more satisfying romantic relationships
than those with insecure styles. Attachment style refers to the way people
typically interact with significant others (Brehm et al., 2002).

There are different types of love. Researchers have identified six different ways
people commonly define love as shown in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Types of Love
Love Styles Explanations
Romantic Love Romantic love is an all-consuming emotional experience. In this

type, love at first sight is typical and physical attraction is
essential. A romantic lover might say that „My lover and I have
the right physical chemistry between us‰.
Possessive Love This type of lover is emotionally intense, jealous and obsessed
with the beloved. The possessive lover is highly dependent on
the beloved and fears rejection. They might say that „when my
lover doesnÊt pay attention to me, I feel sick all over‰.
Best-friend love This type of love is a comfortable intimacy that grows out of
companionship, mutual sharing and self-disclosure. A best-
friend lover is thoughtful, warm and companionate. They might
say that „my most satisfying love relationships have developed
from good friendships‰.
Pragmatic Love This is the love that goes shopping for a suitable mate and all it
asks is that the relationship works well, that the two partners be
compatible and satisfy each otherÊs basic needs. The practical
lover seeks satisfaction rather than excitement. They might say
that „one consideration in choosing a partner is how he or she
will reflect on my career‰.
Altruistic Love Altruistic love is unconditionally caring, giving and forgiving. It

is a duty to love the loved one with no strings attached. An
altruistic lover might say that „I cannot be happy unless I place
my loverÊs happiness before my own‰.
Game-playing Love In this love, the person plays love as others play tennis or chess,
to enjoy the love game and to win it. No relationship lasts for
long and usually ends when the partner becomes boring or too
serious. A game player might say that „I enjoy playing the game
of love with a number of different partners‰.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Researchers have identified six different ways that people commonly
define love (Lee, 1973). Based on Table 10.1 identify the elements that
are involved in it.

According to the SternbergÊs Triangular Theory of Love as shown in Figure 10.1,

there are eight subtypes of love (seven different forms of love and an eighth
combination that results in non-love) produced by the combinations of intimacy,
passion and commitment (Baron et al., 2008).
Basically present in all classifications of love are:
(a) Passionate Love

It is a strong, emotional and erotic state of positive assimilation in another
person.
(b) Companionate Love

This is less intense compared to passionate love but in some respects, more
deep and more lasting (Brehm et al., 2002; Taylor et al., 2003). It rests on
mutual trust, intimacy, affection, caring, commitment, friendship and
willingness to share feelings.
Figure 10.1: SternbergÊs triangular theory of love

Source: Adapted from Brehm et al., 2002
SELF-CHECK 10.2
Based on Figure 10.1, what are the components involved in the theory?

10.5 WHY PEOPLE HELP AND THEORIES OF

HELPING
There are several theories related to the concept of „help‰ and shown in Figure
10.2 are those theories essential to understand this fundamental concept:
Figure 10.2: Theories of helping
(a) Evolutionary Perspective

Prosocial behaviour means any act performed with the intention to benefit
other people. According to the evolutionary perspective, people are more
likely to help those who are genetically closer to themselves, such as family
members, but also to help individuals who are not genetically related, such
as friends.
The Theory of Kin Selection which was developed by William Hamilton,

suggests that natural selection favours those who support and provide help
to their relatives; thus enhancing inclusive fitness. (Hewstone et al., 2008).

The reproductive success or inclusive fitness, is dependent on the

distribution of the personÊs genes in the next generation. Inclusive fitness
refers to the survival of oneÊs own genes in oneÊs own offspring and in any
relatives one helps. It is an evolutionary tendency to look out for oneself,
oneÊs offspring and close relatives so that oneÊs genes will survive (Aronson
et al., 2005; Hewstone et al., 2008).
For example, an uncle who is willing to donate half of his liver in order to
save his nieceÊs life. Without the liver, the girl will die, which eventually
means the possibility of the girl not living and having her own children, or
the continuation of the family line.
Another theory is called reciprocal altruism, which assumes that people

will support another person if they expect that he or she will respond pro-
socially. The repayment of the favour in the future is anticipated.
Thus, prosocial behaviour is rooted in a cycle of give and take. Helping

someone can be in our best interests because it increases the likelihood that
the other person will help us when we need it. In addition, reciprocity is
also identified as a universal cultural norm.
According to Gouldner (1960), the norm of reciprocity, which is believed to

exist in all cultures, includes two prescriptions (Hewstone et al., 2008):
(i) People should help those who have helped them; and
(ii) They should not hurt those who have helped them.
(b) Psychological Perspective

The psychological approach shows that mood and personality contribute to
prosocial behaviour and some forms of helping are motivated altruistically.
Current moods may motivate oneÊs willingness to respond prosocially to
the needs of others.
The positive relationship between a good mood and helping others was
confirmed in a meta-analysis by Carlson, Charlin and Miller (1988), based
on 61 positive mood versus neutral mood comparisons (Hewstone et al,
2008). Therefore, helping is fostered by a positive mood.
Sadness is associated with a low willingness to help others, while

interpersonal guilt is associated with a high level of prosocial behaviour.
Interpersonal guilt refers to the negative feelings about oneself as a
consequence of the knowledge that one is responsible for the damage done
to others.
The influence of guilt on helping can be explained by people who try to

compensate for their negative feelings by doing good deeds, which is
known as Negative-State-Relief Hypothesis (Hewstone et al., 2008).
(c) Social Exchange Perspective

The Social Exchange Theory assumes that helping is motivated by a desire
to maximise rewards, which may be external or internal, and minimise
oneÊs costs. The difference from the evolutionary perspective is that, Social
Exchange Theory does not trace this desire back to our evolutionary roots
nor does it assume that the desire is genetically based (Myers, 2008).
(d) Social Norms

Social norms are also a significant factor that contributes to helping
behaviour. The reciprocity norm, which is an expectation that people will
help those who have helped them, stimulates people to help those who
have helped them.
The social-responsibility norm, which is an expectation that people will

help those needing help, stimulates people to help needy people, even if
they cannot give back (Myers, 2008).
(e) Attribution Theory

According to this theory, people are more helpful to those who seem to
suffer, through no fault of their own and so deserve to receive help (Taylor
et al., 2003). Helping behaviour is determined in part by the potential
helper's attributions and emotions regarding the behaviour that requires
help. People also make inferences about the causes of the personÊs needs.
Furthermore, attributions also affect our emotional reaction to the person in

need. Therefore, people feel sympathy and concern for a person who has
suffered through no fault of his or her own and people express irritation
and disapproval toward individuals who are responsible for their own
problems (Taylor et al., 2003).
For example, when someone is involved in a car accident, we may interpret

the cause as stemming from the driverÊs behaviour or as the result of
situational factors such as the conditions of the road, car-related problems
or bad weather.

(f) Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

When we feel empathy for someone in need of help, it means we are
putting ourselves in the shoes of another person and experiencing events
and emotions the way that person experiences them.
Empathy is an emotional reaction that includes feelings of compassion,

sympathy and concern. Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis proposes that some
prosocial acts are motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need.
According to C. Daniel Batson (1991), helping behaviour depends first on

whether we feel empathy for the person who needs help (Aronson, 2005;
Baron et al., 2008). If we do, we will help despite not gaining anything from
it. The goal is to relieve the other personÊs suffering, not to gain any benefit
for ourselves.
(g) Interpersonal Perspective

The types of relationship also affect the helping behaviour. People tend to
help in communal than in exchange relationships, especially when they
believe they are acting in their own interests and guided by norms of social
responsibility and fairness.
The exchange relationships involve strangers and, or acquaintances, while

communal relationships involve friends, family or romantic partners
In exchange relationships, people strive for maximal rewards, whereas, in

communal relationships, people are concerned with the otherÊs welfare.
People in exchange relationships were found to respond positively to
repayments for given benefits. Moreover, people in communal
relationships are more helpful than people in exchange relationships if no
mutual give-and-take is expected.
For example, a mother does not expect material rewards when she gives
help to her children compared to giving help to her employer.
10.5.1 Prosocial Behaviour and Personal

Characteristics
Social psychologists are concerned with prosocial behaviour which is motivated
by altruism or altruistic people who are willing to help another person even if it
makes an impact on the helper. Altruistic people are motivated by the desire to
increase anotherÊs welfare.

There are three basic drives which are primary to prosocial behaviour (Aronson
et al., 2005):
(a) Evolutionary Psychology

According to evolutionary psychology, helping is an inborn reaction to
promote the welfare of those genetically similar to us. The relevant terms
that are inter-connected to evolutionary psychology are:
(i) Kinship Selection

People who protect their own genes by helping their close relatives.
(ii) Reciprocal Altruism

People who give also receive something in exchange.
(iii) Group Selection

Members of a social group who help each other to survive.
(b) Social Exchange Theory

This theory suggests that the rewards of helping often are more important
than the costs of helping, so helping is for our own self-interest.
(c) Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

According to the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis, under certain conditions,
powerful feelings of empathy and compassion for the victim cause
altruistic giving. Taking the perspective of someone in need is the first step
toward altruism.
Therefore, prosocial behaviour is not determined by a single factor. Both

personal and situational factors can be reasons to help.
As shown in Figure 10.3, there are four fundamental factors which

contribute to prosocial behaviour:
Figure 10.3: Four factors of prosocial behaviour

(i) Personality
One of the personalities that is devoted to helping others is the
altruistic personality; individuals who own this personality are more
helpful than others. (Brehm et al., 2002).
(ii) Gender
The helping behaviour pattern among men and women are not the
same. Generally, each gender helps in their own way; men in brave,
courageous ways and women in a lasting-commitment ways.
(iii) Culture
In comparison to community of individualistic cultures, members of
interdependent cultures are different in their response towards
others. They are likely to help people they view as members of in-
group and less likely to help people they view as members of an out-
group (Aronson et al., 2005).
(iv) Mood
Mood can also affect prosocial behaviour. For example, good moods
can increase our helping behaviour when they make us realise the
positive side of other people, which will encourage us to help them.
Bad moods increase helping behaviour because of the Negative-State

Relief Hypothesis (Aronson et al., 2005). This hypothesis refers to the
idea that people help because they want to reduce their own pain and
misery; so as when they help someone, they will feel delighted and
blessed.
Therefore, being in a good or bad mood can increase helping

behaviour, compared to being in a neutral mood.
10.5.2 Prosocial Behaviour and Situational

Determinants
Prosocial behaviour can be created by social elements such as rural or urban
environments but prosocial behaviour is more likely to occur in the rural
environments.
According to Stanley Milgram (1970), urban areas provide people with so much
encouragement and stimulation that they keep to themselves to avoid being
influenced. He called this phenomenon as Urban Overload Hypothesis (Aronson
et al., 2005).

Therefore, there should be more stimulation in small areas in order to promote

helping, sharing and other prosocial behaviour.
There are two main factors which contribute to unwillingness to help someone:
(a) Bystander Effect

The bystander effect refers to the social phenomena where the presence of
other people reduces helping behaviour. People do not offer help in an
emergency situation when other people are present.
Due to diffusion of responsibility, the more bystanders there are, the less
likely people will give help and the greater the delay would be in receiving
help (Baron et al., 2008).
Diffusion of responsibility happens when a single bystander feels that the

responsibility for giving help is focused on him or her (Hewstone et al.,
2008). Sometimes, bystanders are not sure how to respond and try to figure
out what should be done, thus their hesitation and unresponsiveness affect
other bystanders as well.
(b) Fear of Embarrassment

Another factor that might reduce the willingness to help is the fear of
embarrassment. The presence of other bystanders triggers uncomfortable
feelings and makes someone more conscious of his or her action.
According to Latane and Darley (1970), a potential helper must make five
decisions or cognitive steps before giving help to someone as shown in
Figure 10.4 (Aronson et al., 2005):

Figure 10.4: Cognitive steps taken before giving help
(i) Be Attentive
People should pay attention and be aware of an emergency situation.
(ii) Avoid Pluralistic Ignorance

Pluralistic ignorance can occur if everyone assumes that nothing is
wrong because no one else looks concerned or worried. Therefore, a
potential helper should correctly interpret the event as an emergency.
(iii) Avoid Diffusion of Responsibility

A diffusion of responsibility created by the presence of several
bystanders may lead us to think that it is not our responsibility to act.
Diffusion of responsibility is the phenomenon whereby each
bystanderÊs sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of
witnesses increases. Therefore, a potential helper should assume
personal responsibility in order to provide help.
(iv) Be Knowledgeable
A potential helper must have the required knowledge to be able to
act. In other words, he or she must have some knowledge of how to
help.
(v) Make the Decision to Help

A potential helper must also make the decision to help the person in
need. He or she must implement the help.

ACTIVITY 10.2
Some people regularly donate their services such as people who donate
blood and those who become volunteers. Discuss how their persistent
helpfulness is related to what has been discussed above.
 Affiliation is the desire to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships.

One factor that strongly arouses our need for affiliation is stress.
 Proximity sets the stage for social interaction where friends are most likely to
be attached when they live near to each other.
 In relation to the mere exposure effect, the more often people see someone,
the more they come to like him or her.
 In all cultures, people usually respond more favourably to men and women
who are physically attractive.
 There are six love styles; romantic love, possessive love, best-friend love,
pragmatic love, altruistic love and game-playing love.
 Evolutionary Theory emphasises three ways in which helping could become

an innate and universal behavioural tendency; kinship selection, reciprocal
altruism and group selection.
 Psychological perspectives emphasise the importance of mood and

personality that contribute to prosocial behaviour while some forms of
behaviour are motivated by altruism.
 Social Exchange Theory suggests that helping is motivated by a desire to

maximise rewards and minimise oneÊs costs.
 Social norms such as the reciprocity norm and the social-responsibility norm
also contribute to prosocial behaviour.

 Attribution Theory assumes that people are more helpful to those who seem
to suffer through no fault of their own and so deserve to be given help.
 According to the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis, taking the perspective of a

person perceived to be in need creates a desire to help. When we feel
empathy, we will help despite not gaining anything in return.
 In exchange relationships, people are oriented towards rewards while in

communal relationships, people are responsive to each otherÊs needs.
 Prosocial behaviour is multidetermined where both personal and situational

factors can contribute to helping behaviour.
 Altruistic personality, gender, cultural background, mood, rural or urban

environments are factors affecting prosocial behaviour.
 The bystander effect, diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance are

terms involved in helping behaviour especially in the presence of
bystanders.

Affiliation Interpersonal guilt

Altruistic love Kin selection
Attachment style Mere exposure effect
Best-friend love Negative-state-relief hypotheses
Buffer effects Norm of reciprocity
Bystander effect Passionate love
Communal relationship Pluralistic ignorance
Companionate love Possessive love
Complementarity Pragmatic love
Diffusion of responsibility Propinquity effect
Emotional support Prosocial behaviour
Empathy Reciprocal altruism
Empathy-altruism hypotheses Reciprocity norm
Exchange relationship Romantic love
Game-playing love Social support
Homeostatic model Social-responsibility norm
Inclusive fitness SternbergÊs triangular theory of love
Informational support Urban overload hypotheses
Instrumental support

1. Individuals with altruistic personalities are more helpful than others.
2. The helping behaviour pattern among men and women is the same.
3. Social support can contribute to even more stress.
4. Appraisal support refers to support in the form of being loved and

appreciated.
5. Reciprocal Liking is when someone shows interest in us, and we become

interested and like the person as well.
6. Buffer effects of social support refers to people who perceive themselves as

being supported and less affected by stressful events than those who feel
unsupported.
7. Information support refers to support in the form of providing financial

help or services or receiving support and help.
8. According to Gouldner (1960), the norm of reciprocity, which is believed

not to exist in all cultures, includes two prescriptions.
Allyn & Bacon.
Mifflin Company.
Thomson Wadsworth.

Emerson, R. M. (2010). Social Exchange Theory. Annual Reviews

Retrieved April 29, 2010, from: http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/
Publishing Ltd.
Goldberg, S., Muir, R., & Kerr, J. (2000). Attachment theory: Social,
developmental, and clinical perspectives. Retrieved April 29, 2010, from:
http://books.google.com.my/
Miner J. B. (2005). Organisational behavior one: Essential theories of motivation

and leadership. Retrieved April 29, 2010, from: http://books.google.
com.my/
Myers, D. G. (2008). Social psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Prentice Hall.

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1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
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Faculty of Applied Social Sciences

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Azlina Abu Bakar @ Mohd

Moderator: Dr Wong Huey Siew

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, April 2010

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Topic 1 Introduction to Social Psychology 1

Topic 2 Social Cognition and Social Thinking 20

Topic 3 Social Knowledge and the Self 38

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Topic 5 Persuasion and Attitude Change 67

Topic 6 Social Influence 83

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Topic 7 People in Groups and Inter-Group Behaviour 100

Topic 8 Leadership and Decision Making 119

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Topic 9 Prejudice, Aggression and Discrimination 138

Topic 10 Affiliation, Attraction, Love and Prosocial Behaviour 162

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Explain the nature of social psychology and the theories involved;

2. Differentiate the various aspects of social psychology;

3. Describe the limitation of social psychology in solving human problems;

4. Discuss how we think, influence and relate to one another.

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Topic 4 explains the nature, model, structure, functions and measurement of

Topic 5 explains multiple subjects such as the persuasion process, attitude

Topic 6 describes the types of social influence, obedience to authority, studies to

Topic 7 explains group processes, group structures, context of intergroup

Topic 8 discusses theories, styles and types of leadership. Group decision

Topic 9 touches on the subjects of prejudice, discrimination and aggression.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

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Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

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1.1 WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY?

„Social psychology is the scientific study of how people think about,

We can thus gather that social psychology is a study of ourselves as humans; of

(a) Social Thinking

Human attitudes are shaped by behaviour. For example, a studentÊs

(b) Social Influence

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For example, childrenÊs behaviour can be influenced by their parentsÊ

(c) Social Relations

(a) The process of how people define their social world;

1. Discuss the social influences in the context of Malaysian society.

2. What is the role of social psychology in MalaysiaÊs development?

1.2 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS RELATION

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(a) Social Psychology and Personality Psychology

For example, personality psychologists would be interested in personality

Social psychologists believe that social influences have a great impact on

For example, social psychologists found that reminding people of their