CHAPTER2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

STUDENT PERFORMANCE

Galiher (2006) and Darling (2005), used GPA to measure student performance because the
main focus in the student performance for the particular semester. Some other researchers
used test results or previous year result since they are studying performance for the specific
subject or year (Hijazi and Naqvi, 2006 and Hake, 1998). Many researchers have discussed the
different factors that affect the student academic performance in their research. There are
twotypes of factors that affect the students‘ academic performance. These are internal and
external classroom factors and these factors strongly affect the students‘ performance. Internal
classroom factors includes students competence in English, class schedules, class size, English
text books, class test results, learning facilities, homework, environment of the class,
complexity of the course material, teachers role in the class, technology used in the class and
exams systems. External classroom factors include extracurricular activities, family problems,
work andfinancial, social and other problems. Research studies shows that students‘
performance dependson many factors such as learning facilities, gender and age differences,
etc. that can affect student performance (Hansen, Joe B., 2000). Harb and El-Shaarawi (2006)
found that the most important factor with positive effect on students' performance is Parental
Involvement. (http://www.journalofbusiness.org/index.php/GJMBR/article/viewFile/721/651)
 CHAPTER2
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

In his widely cited paper, Romer (1993) is one of the first few authors to explore the
relationship between student attendance and exam performance. A number of factors have
contributed to declining class attendances around the world in the last 15 years. The major
reasons given by students for non-attendance include assessment pressures, poor delivery of
lectures, timing of lectures, and work commitments (Newman-Ford, Lloyd & Thomas, 2009). In
recent times, students have found a need to seek employment while studying on a part-time
basis due to financial constraints. The numbers of part-time and mature students has also risen
sharply. The use of information technology also means that information that used to be
obtained from sitting through lectures can be obtained at the click of a mouse. Indeed, web-
based learning approaches have become the order of the day. Given all these developments
that either makes it impossible or unnecessary for students to attend classes, the question that
needs to be asked is whether absenteeism affects students‘ academic performance. Research
on this subject seems to provide aconsensus that students who miss classes perform poorly
compared to those who attend classes (Devadoss& Foltz, 1996; Durden& Ellis, 1995; Romer,
1993; Park & Kerr, 1990; Schmidt, 1983). Based on these findings a number of stakeholders
have called for mandatory class attendance. Although the existing evidence points to a strong
correlation between attendance and academic performance, none of the studies cited above
demonstrate a causal effect. The inability of these cross-sectional studies to isolate attendance
from a myriad of confounding student characteristics (e.g. levels of motivation, intelligence,
prior learning, and time-management skills) is a major limiting factor to the utility of these
findings (Rodgers & Rodgers, 2003). Durden and Ellis, (1995) controlled for student differences
in back motivation, and reported a nonlinear effect of attendance on learning, that is, a few
absences do not lead to poor grades but excessive absenteeism does. Educational services are
often not tangible and are difficult to measure because they result in the form of
transformation of knowledge, life skills and behavior modifications of learners (Tsinidou,
Gerogiannis, & Fitsilis, 2010). So there is no commonly agreed upon definition of quality that is
applied to education field. The definition of quality of education varies from culture to culture
(Michael, 1998). The environment and the personal characteristics of learners play an
important role in their academic success. The school personnel, members of the families and
communities provide help and support to students for the quality of their academic
performance. This social assistance has a crucial role for the accomplishment of performance
goals of students at school (Goddard, 2003). Besides the social structure, parents‘ involvement
in their child‘s education increases the rate of academic success of their child(Furstenberg &
Hughes, 1995).
 CHAPTER2
MEDIA/TECHNOLOGY

Education encounters, in modern times, challenges in all aspects of social, economic &
cultural life; the most important of which are over-population, over-knowledge, education
philosophydevelopment & the change of teacher‘s role, the spread of illiteracy, lack of the staff
& the technological development & mass media (Aloraini, 2005, p. 30 –32). This drove the
teaching staff to use the modern teaching technologies to face some of the main problems,
which education & its productivity encounter, by increasing the learning level which may be
achieved through providing equivalent opportunities for all people whenever & wherever they
are, while taking into account the individual differences between learners (Wilkinson, 1986, p.
13 & Abdg El-Halim Said, 1997, p. 19). To improve the educational productivity, some of the
teaching staff sought to mainstream technology within education, developing traditional
techniques & using new educational methods (Al-A‘ny, 2000). Mainstreaming the technological
media within what is called‗‗Multimedia‘‘ is the pattern which led to infinite applications of
computer technologies. The concept of this technology came into being with the appearance of
sound cards, then compact disks, then came the use of digital camera, then the video which
made computer an essential educational tool. Nowadays, multimedia expanded to become a
field on its own. The concept of multimedia technology is broad & it has infinite usage fields; it
is a profound element as an educational technology in addition to its use in medical &
statistical domains & in establishing databases. Moreover, the entertainment sector is one of
the sectors that hadthe lion‘s share in using this technology.

Interaction is the main element in multimedia technology as most of its applications are
characterized by interaction. Consequently, multimedia programs may provide a more
effective & more influential experiment than using each technology separately. The researcher
thinks that multimedia is one of the best educational techniques because it addresses more
than one sense simultaneously, as it addresses the senses of sight & hearing. Multimedia
programs provide different stimuli in their presentations which include a number of elements
some of which are (Aloraini, 2005, p. 55 – 75): Texts, spoken words, sound & music, graphics,
animations and still pictures. These elements were mainstreamed in a comprehensive
presentation so as to provide effective education, which in turn will support the participation of
the different senses of the learners in diverse syllabi. (Hadmin,2000)round, abilit
 CHAPTER2
PHYSICAL

Mahar (2006), Habitual physical activity is vital for enhancing overall health. Lifestyle
behaviors adopted in childhood tend to track into adulthood, and more active children tend to
be more active as adults than their sedentary peers, thus aiding in the prevention of diseases
such as obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and other health problems.
Unfortunately, physical activity among children and adolescents has declined, and increasing
numbers of children are spending more time in sedentary activities. A review of the literature
reveals that few studies have been conducted to evaluate the physical activity levels of
elementary school children during a typical school day. Likewise, few studies have been
conducted to evaluate the effects of physical activity on the classroom behavior of elementary
school children. Additional research is also needed to evaluate the effectiveness of classroom-
based physical activity programs on on-task behavior and academic performance. Because on-
task behavior can be directly linked to physical activity that is performed immediately
preceding the observation period, it may be the most appropriate variable to evaluate relative
to academic performance. Test performance is influenced by factors other than physical
activity performed at school and usually can be linked directly to physical activity behavior.
Additional information on the effectiveness of classroom-based physical activity programs on
academic performance (e.g., standardized tests and grades) can, however, provide a stronger
rationale for why school systems should make policy changes to require more physical activity
during the school day. Finally, it is recommended that students be tracked for several years to
evaluate the chronic effects of a classroom-based physical activity program on physical activity
levels, body composition, and academic performance.
 CHAPTER2
SOCIAL

From Wikipedia (2009), the term psychosocial refers to one in psychological development
in and interaction with a social environment. The individual is not necessarily fully aware of this
relationship with his or her environment. In 2004, Barker and Garvin Doxas stress that a
learning environment includes physical surroundings, psychosocial or emotional components,
social and cultural influence that exist in a learning situation. Ozay, et.al (2004) also pointed out
that classroom environment factors have been found to be particularly influential on student
results. Learning Theories.com (2012, April 12), exemplifies on Vygotsky‘s Social

Development Theory that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of
cognitive development. Such occurs first between the child and other people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological). Other people can
beconceptualized as the ―The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)‖. The MKO refers to anyone
who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a
particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, and
could also be peers. The Developmental and Social Factors emphasize that learning is
influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relationships, and communication with others.
Learning is often enhanced when children have an opportunity to interact with and collaborate
with others on instructional tasks. In these situations, children have opportunities for
perspective taking and