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Long-term potentiation The ability of neurons to modify their structure and in which the modulating and regulated events overlap in
(LTP). A long-lasting and function as a result of activity is critical for normal devel- time. Metaplasticity entails an extensive range of mecha-
activity-dependent increase in opment, learning and responding to brain damage and nisms, many of which overlap with the mechanisms of
synaptic efficacy. Canonically it
neurological disease. At the synaptic level, neural activity conventional plasticity. This overlap, plus the fact that
requires activation of the
NMDAR subtype of glutamate
can generate persistent forms of synaptic plasticity, such plasticity and metaplasticity can be induced simultane-
receptors; however, different as long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression ously, poses a considerable challenge for metaplasticity
forms of LTP caused by the (LTD). There is now a wealth of data indicating that LTP research in terms of experimental design and interpreta-
activation of other receptor and LTD mechanisms are used to retain new informa- tion. Nonetheless, there has been substantial progress
subtypes also occur.
tion in activated networks of neurons1,2. Safeguards must in understanding metaplasticity over the past decade.
Long-term depression therefore be in place to prevent the saturation of LTP In this Review, paradigms for inducing metaplasticity
(LTD). The converse of LTP: in or LTD, which could ultimately compromise the ability and other associated mechanisms will be detailed, fol-
LTD there is a long-lasting and of networks to discriminate events and store informa- lowed by a consideration of the behavioural and clinical
activity-dependent decrease in
tion and, in the case of extreme levels of LTP, lead to implications of these processes.
synaptic efficacy.
excitotoxicity.
Excitotoxicity How is the proper balance of LTP and LTD main- NMDA-receptor-mediated metaplasticity
Cellular toxicity involving the tained? Various intercellular signalling molecules A common paradigm for experimentally inducing
activation of glutamate — including catecholamines, GABA (γ-aminobutyric metaplasticity involves pharmacological or synaptic
receptors in the CNS. Excessive
activation of these receptors
acid), acetylcholine, cytokines and hormones — directly activation of NMDA (N‑methyl‑d-aspartate) receptors
by high concentrations of regulate the degree of LTP and LTD that can be induced. (NMDARs). NMDAR activation is a key trigger for LTP
glutamate or by neurotoxins However, a different kind of regulation that persists induction; however, it has also been shown to trigger
leads to cell death. across time also exists. Here, neural activity at one point metaplastic changes that inhibit subsequent induction
in time can change cells or synapses such that their abil- of LTP5–8 (FIG. 1a). This effect is restricted to the activated
Tetanus
A bout of HFS used to elicit
ity to exhibit LTP or LTD after a later bout of activity synapses and slowly decays over 60–90 minutes5. The
activity-dependent synaptic is altered. This form of plasticity regulation has been capacity to induce LTP can be recovered by increas-
plasticity. The frequency and termed metaplasticity3,4. The ‘meta’ part of the term ing the tetanus stimulus intensity, indicating that the
duration of the stimulation reflects the higher-order nature of the plasticity — that NMDAR priming stimulation elevates the threshold
varies across protocols.
is, the plasticity of synaptic plasticity. for LTP rather than completely inhibiting it5. However,
Essentially, metaplasticity entails a change in the even when LTP is induced by strong or repeated tetanic
Department of Psychology
and the Brain Health and physiological or biochemical state of neurons or syn- stimulation, priming synaptic activity can inhibit its per-
Repair Research Centre, apses that alters their ability to generate synaptic plas- sistence8,9. The inhibition of LTP by priming synaptic
University of Otago, BOX 56, ticity. A key feature of metaplasticity is that this change activity depends on the activation of NMDARs, adeno-
Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand. outlasts the triggering (priming) bout of activity and sine A2 receptors, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase
e-mail:
cabraham@psy.otago.ac.nz
persists at least until a second bout of activity induces (p38 MAPK) and the protein phosphatases 1A, 2A and
doi:10.1038/nrn2356 LTP or LTD (BOX 1). This distinguishes metaplasticity calcineurin8–11. Importantly, the inhibition of LTP can-
Published online 10 April 2008 from more conventional forms of plasticity modulation not be explained as simply a saturation of potentiation
processes by the priming stimulation12, as it can occur of glutamate at single dendritic spines cause LTDNMDAR
even when the priming stimulation does not cause any and a reduction in Ca2+ entry through the receptor chan-
detectable change in basal synaptic transmission5,8,13. nels20–22. Both nitric oxide (NO) and protein kinase C
NMDAR activation can also facilitate the subsequent (PKC) mediate the LTDNMDAR. These findings are sup-
induction of LTD14 (FIG. 1a). The LTD facilitation can be ported by the fact that NMDAR activation increases
generated by low-frequency priming stimulation14,15, is NO production, which can in turn suppress NMDAR
restricted to the activated synapses and lasts for 60–90 currents23,24, and by the fact that pharmacological acti-
minutes in vitro16 (it lasts longer in vivo14). The effect of vation of PKC by phorbol esters causes a dispersal of
priming on LTD can occur rapidly enough to contribute NMDARs from synaptic to extrasynaptic sites25,26, which
to the induction of LTD by conventional low-frequency might also be a prelude to receptor endocytosis19,27. Both
stimulation (LFS) protocols16. Again, the priming stimu- NO and PKC have been linked to NMDAR-mediated
lation can facilitate LTD without itself causing persistent metaplasticity23,28–31, as has p38 MAPK31,32.
synaptic plasticity. Despite the attractiveness of this hypothesis, there is
The expression mechanisms that underlie NMDAR- no direct evidence that LTDNMDAR mediates metaplastic
mediated metaplasticity are not well understood. It has inhibition of LTP. Furthermore, other mechanisms are
been reported that prior induction of LTP reduces the almost certainly involved. For example, the apparently
Uncaging postsynaptic voltage threshold for subsequent LTD NMDAR-dependent saturation of LTP by repeated high-
The release of a molecule from and elevates it for further LTP17, but it is not clear frequency stimulation (HFS) protocols actually reflects
a photolabile binding partner what mechanisms mediate these effects or whether an inhibition of further LTP, which can be recovered by
known as a cage. Cages
similar changes occur following non-plasticity-inducing using stronger stimuli during the HFS33, by waiting for the
typically inhibit the biological
activity of the bound (‘caged’) priming stimulation. metaplasticity to decay34 or by stimulating β-adrenergic
molecule. A brief flash of light It has been suggested that NMDAR activation results receptors35. This form of metaplasticity is not mediated
of the appropriate wavelength in LTD of NMDAR currents (LTDNMDAR), which are by NO or by a reduction in NMDAR currents35.
can photochemically disrupt crucial for the induction of conventional LTD and LTP Downstream of NMDAR activation there are many
the structure of the binding
partner and render the now
and are known to be highly plastic in their function and other potential sites of metaplasticity expression. Ca2+-
uncaged molecule biologically localization (for reviews, see Refs 18,19). In support of dependent kinases and phosphatases are central to plas-
active. this hypothesis, both LFS and low-frequency uncaging ticity processes, and priming stimulation could alter the
trap calmodulin and prevent it from activating other a ‘molecular switch’ that abrogates the need for these
enzymes. Indeed, knocking out another binding partner receptors to be activated during subsequent stimulation
of calmodulin, RC3 (also known as neurogranin), led to in order to generate persistent LTP60. The priming stimu-
a decrease in the LTP threshold43. lation affects LTP only at primed synapses and lasts for
An alternative aCaMKII autophosphorylation site at least an hour61. The signalling cascade that is involved
that might mediate the inhibition of LTP is Thr305/ in this switch-setting includes the activation of mGluR5,
Thr306. Priming stimulation of lateral perforant path aCaMKII and PKC62–64.
synapses in the dentate gyrus prevented subsequent LTP Similarly, prior pharmacological or HFS priming of
induction for up to 18 hours, without affecting LTD44. group 1 mGluRs — which by itself does not notably affect
Mutation of Thr305/Thr306 to prevent aCaMKII auto- synaptic efficacy — converts a decaying form of LTP into
phosphorylation at these sites completely blocked the a longer lasting form55,57,65, an effect that is particularly
metaplasticity. The mutation did not affect metaplastic- prominent in the ventral hippocampus66. The effects of
ity in medial perforant path synapses, consistent with this priming stimulation are mediated by the activation
the lack of dependence of LTP on aCaMKII in this input of PLC55, the release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores and
pathway45. the entry of Ca2+ through store-operated Ca2+ channels
in the plasma membrane66,67 (FIG. 1c). Direct priming
mGluR-mediated metaplasticity activation of the ryanodine receptors that regulate Ca2+
In contrast to the inhibitory effects of NMDAR priming release from intracellular stores also facilitates subsequent
on LTP, activation of group 1 metabotropic glutamate LTP67. Ultimately, these pathways lead to the stimulation
receptors (mGluRs) facilitates both the induction and of local protein synthesis at the synapse65, with the newly
the persistence of subsequent LTP in area CA1 (FIG. 1a). synthesized proteins being kept in reserve for enhanc-
The increased induction is not input specific and seems ing the persistence of subsequently generated LTP. The
to be mediated in part by a long-term downregulation pathway that leads from mGluR stimulation to local
of the Ca2+-activated K+ current that underlies the slow protein synthesis probably entails activation of the pro-
afterhyperpolarization (slow AHP)46. This has the effect tein kinase mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR),
of enhancing the level of depolarization that is reached which facilitates the translation of terminal oligo
during HFS (FIG. 1b). The reduction in the slow AHP is pyrimidine mRNAs68, as this pathway is also triggered
mediated by a non-classical mGluR signalling pathway during mGluR-dependent LTD68 and during a protein-
that does not involve phospholipase C (PLC), PKC or synthesis-dependent late phase of LTP69. Although it is
the release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores47, but which not clear which newly synthesized proteins contribute to
is regulated by the degree of Tyr phosphorylation of one the priming of LTP, candidates include elongation factor
or more unknown regulatory proteins48 (FIG. 1b). 1α70, αCaMKII71, elongation factor 2, ribosomal protein
The enhancement of LTP induction by mGluR acti- S6 and poly‑A binding protein 1 (Ref. 69).
vation might also be mediated by increased trafficking Priming stimulation of mGluRs affects the plasticity
Calcium/calmodulin- of AMPARs to the extrasynaptic membrane as a result of of medial perforant path synapses in the dentate gyrus,
dependent protein kinase II
PKA-mediated phosphorylation of Ser845 of the GluR1 but the effects are opposite to those described above for
(CaMKII). A multi-functional
serine/threonine kinase that is subunit49,50. This primes the AMPARs for entry into and CA1. In the dentate gyrus, prior activation of group 1
activated by a Ca2+/calmodulin capture in the postsynaptic density during subsequent or group 2 mGluRs by HFS inhibits subsequent LTP by
complex. Once activated, synaptic activity. This priming process could be ampli- activating PKC and p38 MAPK mechanisms31. Under
CaMKII can autophosphorylate, fied by mGluR-triggered trafficking of the mRNA for these conditions, the mGluRs might merely be ampli-
leading to autonomous (Ca2+-
independent) activity and
the AMPAR subunits GluR1 and GluR2 into dendrites, fying the function of NMDARs, which also contribute
calmodulin trapping. The α which would expand the pool of receptors that are to the inhibition of LTP31. Priming HFS also inhibits
isoform is a major component available for later insertion51 (FIG. 1b). mGluR-dependent LTD at these synapses, again through
of the postsynaptic density mGluR activation might also facilitate NMDAR function group-1-mGluR- and PKC-dependent mechanisms, but
and a key component of the
or trafficking, as many G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) independently of NMDARs72.
LTP induction process.
are known to amplify NMDAR currents52,53. Indeed,
Slow afterhyperpolarization activation of muscarinic and corticotropin-releasing Heterosynaptic metaplasticity
(slow AHP). A type of factor receptors, which initiate a signalling cascade that is The metaplasticity examples described above are largely
membrane hyperpolarization similar to that which is initiated by group 1 mGluRs, can homosynaptic in nature; that is, the synapses that are
that can last for seconds. It is
mediated by the opening of
also prime hippocampal LTP54–56. However, preliminary activated during the priming stimulation are also those
Ca2+-dependent K+ channels analysis has suggested that an increase in NMDAR func- that show altered plasticity. However, activity at one set
and is generated in response to tion is not responsible for the priming of LTP by mGluRs57. of synapses can also affect subsequent plasticity at neigh-
the firing of one or more In the prefrontal cortex, GPCR facilitation of subsequent bouring synapses. Such heterosynaptic metaplasticity
postsynaptic Na+ or Ca2+
LTP entails dopamine D1 and D2 receptor activation in was predicted by the Bienenstock, Cooper and Munro
action potentials.
concert with NMDAR activation58. The mechanisms that computational model of synaptic plasticity73 (BOX 2),
G-protein-coupled receptors are involved in this form of metaplasticity include D1- in which cell-wide modifications in the threshold for
(GPCRs). A large family of receptor-triggered delivery of GluR1-containing AMPARs LTP induction are driven by the history of postsynaptic
transmembrane receptors that to the extrasynaptic membrane59 (FIG. 1b). cell firing.
couple extracellular signalling
molecules to an intracellular
Independent of its enhancement of LTP induction, Studies in the hippocampus have begun to reveal
signalling cascade which they group 1 mGluR activation can also facilitate the persist- a complex variety of heterosynaptic interactions that
trigger by activating a G protein. ence of LTP. For example, HFS of group 1 mGluRs sets govern LTP induction and persistence. In CA1 in vitro,
strong priming stimulation of one input pathway facili- LTP in one input pathway precedes a weak HFS to a
tated the induction of LTD (and depotentiation) and second, independent pathway, this enables the second
inhibited the induction of LTP in a neighbouring set of pathway to establish a late phase of LTP78 (FIG. 2). This
synapses74,75. This modulation lasted 90–150 minutes process is referred to as synaptic tagging79; molecules
and was not blocked by administration of the NMDAR in the synapses of the second pathway are said to be
antagonist 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV) tagged by the weak stimulation in a way that permits
during the priming stimulation74. A similar effect, which them to capture the proteins that have been synthesized
was also observed in CA1, required extensive stimula- in response to stronger stimulation elsewhere.
tion of the priming pathway and extensive activation of Synaptic tagging is also effective when the regulating
NMDARs and voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels76. The event (the strong HFS) follows the test event (the weak
molecular mechanisms that mediate such heterosynaptic HFS), in which case the temporal ordering of events
inhibitory actions have not yet been investigated. does not fit a metaplasticity paradigm. Nevertheless, this
In the dentate gyrus in vivo, the induction of LTP in shows that synaptic tags can be maintained for several
Depotentiation medial perforant path synapses inhibited subsequent hours post-HFS78, although in vivo they might last for
A reversal of LTP that brings LTP in nearby lateral perforant path synapses, an effect less than 30 minutes80. The tag can be deleted by LFS
synaptic efficacy to a baseline
that lasted for more than 2 days77. In accord with pre- shortly after it is set81, or can be prevented from being
level. There is growing evidence
that this process involves dictions of the BCM model, simply applying antidromic set by prior LFS82 (FIG. 2). The latter protocol affects LTP
mechanisms that are different stimulation to the postsynaptic granule cells in the pres- maintenance both homosynaptically and heterosyn-
to those that mediate LTD. ence of an NMDAR antagonist was sufficient to block aptically and depends on the activation of the protein
LTP. These results suggest that a cell-wide homeostatic phosphatases 1A and 2A, which reduces the ability of
Antidromic stimulation
The activation of neuronal cell
process adjusts plasticity thresholds to keep the overall PKA to participate in tag-setting83,84. Important issues
bodies and dendrites by back- level of synaptic drive to a neuron within a range that that remain to be resolved are the identities of the newly
propagating action potentials permits plasticity to be expressed. synthesized plasticity-related proteins (PRPs), how these
triggered by electrical proteins are captured by the tagged synaptic proteins
stimulation of the cells’ axons.
Synaptic tagging and capture. Despite the appar- and how they promote LTP persistence. Recently a con-
Plasticity-related proteins ent theoretical advantages of restraining the overall stitutively active PKC isoform, protein kinase Mζ, was
(PRPs). Proteins that are amount of LTP that a cell exhibits, there are nonetheless identified as a key PRP. Inhibiting this kinase completely
synthesized in response to mechanisms that mediate cooperative and metaplas- reversed LTP that was made persistent by the tag-and-
synaptic activation or tic upregulation of the persistence of LTP and LTD. capture process85. Synaptic tagging and capture also
postsynaptic activity and that
are necessary for establishing
Normally a weak HFS cannot generate the protein- occur for the late phase of LTD86. Remarkably, it seems
the persistent forms of LTP and synthesis-dependent late phases of LTP. However, if a not to matter whether late-phase LTD or late-phase LTP
LTD. strong HFS that induces protein-synthesis-dependent are induced in the first pathway, as either protocol can
neurological disorders entail learning and memory defi- protein synthesis. Also, both phenomena exhibit short-
cits, and animal models of Alzheimer’s disease156, head term (minutes–hours) and long-term (days) modes of
injury157,158, stroke159, epilepsy160, Down syndrome161, operation. Accordingly, understanding the mechanisms
Fragile X-linked mental retardation syndrome 162, that mediate metaplasticity might help us to generate
Parkinson’s disease163 and Huntington’s disease164 all new hypotheses regarding the molecular mechanisms
show evidence of dsyregulated synaptic plasticity. of IPC and might help us to identify new therapeutic
Furthermore, abnormal conditions such as prolonged targets for experimental testing.
inhibition of synaptic input can lead to alterations in
synaptic receptor complement and ion-channel expres- Implications for network function
sion165. Insofar as these latter changes return neurons Given how robust synaptic plasticity can be, there is a
to a pre-existing level of activity, they can be viewed as clear need for homeostatic controls, to prevent LTP from
being homeostatic in nature. However, as some changes occurring too readily in response to weak stimuli or to
include increased expression of Ca2+-conducting gluta- too great an extent after strong stimuli, with possible
mate receptors/channels, such as NMDARs and GluR2- resultant excitotoxicity. Conversely, metaplasticity can
lacking AMPARs, they could serve a metaplasticity prevent a network from becoming incapacitated by too
function as well19,166,167. Hyperactivity during epilepsy much LTD or by loss of afferent input178. Such controls
also upregulates GluR2-lacking AMPARs, which might have been predicted on theoretical grounds in network
promote pathological levels of plasticity168. Therefore, it models and have been shown empirically to operate
is important to understand regulatory mechanisms such in practice.
as metaplasticity both to gain insight into disease mecha- An important implication of metaplasticity is that
nisms and to provide targets for promoting functional metaplasticity mechanisms can be operative even during
recovery and repair. plasticity induction. Thus, changes to plasticity thresh-
An excellent example of how metaplasticity might olds early during an induction protocol might facilitate
be harnessed for clinical purposes arose from studies plasticity induction by later stimuli16. This seems to hap-
of visual cortex plasticity, which have challenged the pen during learning as well150,151. Thus, metaplasticity
conventional wisdom that the adult visual cortex cannot mechanisms might begin to function relatively quickly
exhibit the experience-dependent plasticity that is seen after their engagement, in order to put synapses and
in juveniles. In fact, a nearly complete capacity for ocular networks into a learning-ready state. The possible co-
dominance shifts is observed in the visual cortex fol- engagement of metaplasticity and plasticity mechanisms
lowing monocular visual deprivation (MD) when adult renders it difficult to ascribe particular molecular changes
animals are given 7 days of dark exposure shortly before induced by conditioning stimulation to one mechanism
the MD169. Furthermore, prior experience with transient or the other. Protein synthesis, for example, can promote
MD, either during development or as an adult, sensitizes plasticity persistence (or memory consolidation) but can
the adult cortex to future bouts of MD, leading to more also raise the threshold for reversing the plasticity (the
rapid and persistent changes170. Importantly, it has been memory) as a metaplasticity mechanism. Subsequent
reported that the loss of visual acuity (amblyopia) that is stimulus patterns or, in the case of memory, environ-
associated with chronic MD can be significantly reversed mental cues might then first have to lower the plasticity
if the animals are given either 3–10 days of dark expo- thresholds at these synapses before additional
Memory consolidation sure before the return of vision to the occluded eye171 or plasticity (learning) can occur. Thus, it needs to be clari-
A protein-synthesis-dependent 2–3 weeks of enriched-environment exposure172. These fied which proteins serve plasticity versus metaplasticity
process of memory
stabilization occuring over
effects presumably occur by reducing plasticity thresh- functions or, alternatively, whether the two outcomes
hours in animals and for up to olds through a return to the juvenile (NR2B-containing) derive from the activation of common effectors.
years in humans that renders form of NMDARs and decreasing the inhibition– A third general contribution that metaplasticity might
the memory resistant to excitation ratio169,172. These exciting experiments sug- make is to the prolongation of memory retention. Models
change.
gest that metaplastic alteration of the threshold of cor- of dynamically learning neural networks have shown that
Amblyopia tical synapses for synaptic change might be a possible incorporating multiple metaplastic states at the learning
Poor vision, usually occurring therapeutic approach to adult amblyopia. nodes of the model helps to keep previously learned
in one eye, that is associated Another consideration is that metaplasticity, by information from being overwritten by new learning179,180.
with a prolonged period of homeostatically preventing the saturation of synaptic It is interesting to note, therefore, that in hippocampal
indistinct visual stimulation or
visual system dysfunction
potentiation, might guard against excitotoxicity or organotypic cultures up to five discrete synaptic states
during development. epilepsy. Indeed, synaptic or pharmacological stimula- have been described, with the number being dependent
tion of glutamate receptors can inhibit the subsequent on both the degree of synaptic efficacy evident at the syn-
Ischaemic preconditioning induction of epileptic seizures173,174. Furthermore, some apse and the history of prior activity that generated that
(IPC). A phenomenon observed
metaplasticity control mechanisms might be part of a level of efficacy181. Furthermore, these postsynaptic states
both clinically and
experimentally whereby a mild larger repertoire of endogenous cellular mechanisms that could be multiplicatively amplified by state-dependent
ischaemic event ‘primes’ a protect against excitotoxicity and death — for example, modulation of plasticity at presynaptic release sites182.
tissue by activating those that are involved in ischaemic preconditioning (IPC)
endogenous cellular protective (for reviews, see REFS 175–177). The induction of IPC Concluding remarks
mechanisms that amelioriate
the neurotoxic outcome of a
bears some similarity to a metaplasticity protocol and Like synaptic plasticity — and, indeed, memory — the
later, more severe ischaemic might entail overlapping signalling molecules and cellu- term metaplasticity refers to a variety of processes
event. lar processes, such as NMDARs, mGluRs, adenosine and that layer over each other. Synapse-specific regulation
provides local control, whereas wider heterosynaptic mechanisms might also prove to have important clini-
and network changes provide more global regulation. cal usefulness, particularly as the more tempting direct
Together, these metaplasticity processes represent a manipulations of plasticity processes are likely to be
major form of adaptation that helps to keep synaptic fraught with severe side-effects. However, with the
efficacy within a dynamic range and larger neural net- multitude of possible mechanisms for study and
works in the appropriate state for learning. However, the the excitement which that generates comes the caution
metaplasticity field is still young, and more extensive that not all plasticity regulation is metaplasticity, and it
studies are required of its molecular mechanisms, their is important to retain rigor in the design and interpre-
effects on network function and their contributions to tation of the experiments that address this fascinating
learning and memory. Harnessing these regulatory and complex topic.
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