Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
p. V ll
CONTENTS
6dltorlallntrodllctlotl
PARTI
The democratic nature of Philosophy for Children
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mqUlry
Danen Chetty and Judith Suissa
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authority in a co ml11unity of philoso phical inquiry
Olivier Miehaud and Riku Viilitalo
PARTII
Children and childhood in Philosophy for Children
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PART III
What is philosophical about Philosophy for Children?
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Catherine C. McCall and Ed Weijers
PARTIV
The cornrnunity of inquiry in action: episternology and pedagogy
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PARTV
The aesthetics of Philosophy for Children: bodies and spaces
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17 Drama, gestures and philosophy in the classroom: playing with
philosophy to support an education for Jife
Laura D'Olimpio and Christoph Teschers
PARTVI
Philosophical texts and Philosophy for Children
PARTVII
Philosophy in schools
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24 What's philosophy got to do with it? A chieving synergy between
philosophy and education in teach er preparatio n
p. x
PARTVIII
Research directions and methods in Philosophy for Children
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Index
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Professor at the School ofEducation, University of Cape Town (South
Africa), where she convened the 16th ICPIC Conference in 2013. She
studied with Matthew Lipman and Ann Margaret Sharp in the US, is
currently president of rCPIC and leads the Southern Africa n P4C
network. Karin is the author of Teachirtg Philosophy with Picture Books
(1992), The Posthumart Child: Educatiortal Trartsfonnatiort through
Philosophy with Picturebooks (20 16) artd (with J. Hayrtes) Storywise:
Thirtkirtg through Stories (2002) artd Picturebooks, Pedagogy artd Philosophy
(2 012).
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CONTRIBUTORS
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Philosophy in the School of Historical and Philosophical Inquiry at the
Universiry of Queensland (Australia), where he teaches political
philosophy, philosophy and education, environmental philosophy, and
philosophy as a way of life. His interests indude demo cratic education
and citizenship, conmmniry of inquiry in educational discourse, and
the theory and practice of collaborative inquiry-based philosophy. He
is co-author (with M . Freakley and L. Tilt MacSporran) of Values
Education in Schools (2008), Ethics and the Community of Inquiry (2006),
and Engaging with Ethics (2000).
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the University of the Azores (Portugal). She coordinates a post-
graduate course in Philosophy for Children and offers Philosophy for
Children sessions in a private schoo!. She holds Levels 1 and 2 of P4C
certification from the Society for the Advancement of Philosoprucal
Enquiry and Reflection in Education (SAPERE) in the UK. Presently,
her main research focuses on the etrucal dimension of Prulosophy for
Children, as well as on Environmental Philosophy.
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of Philosophy in Schoo/s.
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education.
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]ennifer Glaser is Founder and Co-Director of the Israel Center for
Philosophy in Education - 'Philosophy for Life', and Founder and
Director ofEngaging Texts, a crass-communal network developing the
educational practice of philosophical inquiry in Jewish education (USA;
www.engagingtexts.co m). She holds a PhD in Philosophy and a
teaching degree. In the 1980s she was a leader of the Philosophy for
Children movement in Australia. She is a past president of the
International Council of Philosophical Inquiry with Children (ICPIC)
and currently serves on the ICPIC executive committee. Her research
interests include personal identity and group membership, pluralism,
hermeneutics, and children's philosophical thinking.
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related research. She recently edited Schools as Thinking Communities
(2014), which reviews a range of approaches to developing thinking,
including P4C.
.
Patricia Hannam IS County Inspector! Adviser for religious
education, history and philosophy in Hampshire (UK). She holds a
PhD in Education, an MA in Education, and a BA in philosophy. She
educates teachers in Philosophy for Children from teaching novices to
mentoring new teacher-educators. Her research interests include
educational theory, religious education in plural contexts, and P4C in
the public sphere. She is the author (with E . Echeverria) of Philosophy
with Teenagers: Nurturing Moral Imagination for the 21st Century (2009).
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Joanna Haynes holds a PhD in Philosophy for Children and is
Associate Professor in Education Studies at Plymouth University
Institute of Education (UK). Her research interests inelude democratic
and community education. She is author of Children as Philosophers
(2002; 2008), which has been published in Spanish, Greek and Korean,
and co-edited (with S. Gibson) Engaging Education: Perspectives on
Participation and Inclusion (2009). She co-authored (with K. Murris)
Picturebooks, Pedagogy and Philosophy (2012) and (with K. Gale and M.
Parker) Philosophy and Education: An Introduction to Key Questions and
Themes (2014).
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Philosophy/English. In 2001 she was awarded a Best Practice Research
Scholarship to research P4C and how children learn. Her other
research interests include whole school P4C, including philosophy
through the curriculum. Lizzy co-edited (with N. Chandley) Philosophy
jor Chíldren through the Secondary Currículum (2012) .
Sue Lyle holds a PhD in Education and has been a teacher and teacher
educator for 42 years. She is a senior trainer for SAPERE in the VK
and has led an extensive programme ofP4C in South Wales. Recently
retired fron"! Head of Continuing Professional Development at Swansea
Metropolitan Vniversity, where she continues to supervise PhD
students, she now leads her own company, Dialogue Exchange, to
promote dialogic approaches to leaming and teaching in schools. Her
research interests indude dialogic talk, teaching as storytelling and
children's rights.
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State University with Matthew Lipman, she later created the MPhil
and PhD in Philosophical Tnquiry at Glasgow University. She authored
the Guided Socratic Discussion Curriculum (2005- 2011) and Transforming
Thinking: Philosoplúcal Inquiry in Ihe Primary and Secondary Classroom
(2009) .
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Karin Murris holds a PhD in Philosophy with C hildren and is
Professor at th e School of Education, University of Cape Town (South
Africa), where she convened the 16th fC PIC Conference in 2013. She
studied with Matthew Lipman and Ann Margaret Sharp in the US, is
currently president of ¡C PIC and leads the So uthern African P4C
network. Karin is the author of Teaching Philosophy with Picture Books
(1992), The Posthumarl Child: Edu cational Transformation through
Philosophy with Picturebooks (20 16) and (with J. Hayn es) Storywise:
Thinking through Stories (2002) and Picturebooks, Pedagogy and Philosophy
(20 12) .
Patricia Nevers is originaJly from the United States and holds a PhD
in Molecular Genetics. She worked in research in ge netics and the
sociology of science before switching to education. She is a retired
professor of biology education from the University of Hamburg
(Germ any), where she specialized in both environmental educatio n and
incorporating PmKJlP4C into science classes. She and her colleagu es
also investigated children' s m o ral attitudes towards nature using
philosophical disc ussions as a research too!.
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researcher at the SInAPSi Centre at the University of Naples Federico
II (rtaly). Since 2013 he has held the post of vice-president of rCPIc.
The author or co-editor of several books, his main areas of research are
the educational implications of the epistemological debates within the
Vienna Circle; the tradition of American Pragmatism, with a special
focus on Dewey's reflection on education, community and science; the
curriculum of Philosophy for Children; and education and
cosmopolitanism.
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Sites in Edueation (2014) and Mindful Teaehing and Learning (2015), as
well as several articles examining equity and parity in pedagogical
contexts.
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Dubuc, and L.J. Splitter) Places foy Thinking (1999).
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p.X1X
Roger Sutcliffe taught at both primary and secondary leve! for halfhis
career, before spending the second half as a consultant specializing in
Philosophy for Children and the teaching of thinking. H e is an
Associate Lecturer in Teaching Philosophy at Heythrop College,
London (UK). He was a co-founder, and subsequently Chair, of
SAPERE, and served two terms as President of ICPIC. He was co-
author (with S. Williams) of The Philosophy Club (1994) and of
Newswise: Thinking thyough the News, a current affairs resource.
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American Overseas School of Rome (Italy), where she teaches theory
of knowledge and history. Originally from the United States, she
completed a PhD in Education at the University of Washington and
served as Philosophy for Children fellow at the University of
Washington's Center for Philosophy for Children. Alain's research
interests indude critical mixed race studies, critical race theory,
Philosophy for Children and multicultural education.
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with the agency of teachers in the practice ofPhilosophy for Children.
p.xx
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Arthur W 01f, Master of Arts in Education, is a PhD candidate at the
Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia (Canada),
Associate Director of the Vancouver InstÍtute for Philosophy with
Children, and Associate Director of the Think Fun P4C Summer
Camps. Originally from the Netherlands, he worked at the P4C
institute in South Korea and at UNESCO on teaching philosophy in
education and the Asia-Arab philosophical dialogues. He is the author
of several artides and his research interests include GiUes Deleuze, art
and pedagogy, P4C, and cultural analysis.
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EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
Philosophy for Children: an educational and
philosophical movement
This collection of scholarly work offers a range of critical accounts of th eori es,
persp ectives and practices of Philosophy for Children (P4C) 1 Now half a century
old, the influ en ce and reach of P4C has become a significant educational and
philosophical movement. Today, Philosophy for Children is practiced, interpreted,
debated, researched and recreated in more than 60 countries around the world.
Since Matthew Lipman and Ann Margaret Sharp established the Institute for the
Advancement of Philosophy for Children (JAPC) at Montclair State University in
1974, P4C and the associated p edagogy of 'community of enquiry /inquiry' have
been taken up in nurseries and kindergartens, secular and religious schools,
children's shelters, yo uth groups, teacher education departments, universities, and
government edu cation departments around the world. P4C has become
in creasingly popular as an approach to community, adult, higher, further and
informal education. It has spawned a considerable literature on theory and practice;
it has been the focus of research studies and impact evaluatiol1S. As well as having
interna tional networks, su ch as the International Council of Philosophical Inquiry
with Children (ICPIC), P4C is grounded in the existen ce of many national and
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regional centers that train, support and bring practitioners, philosophers and
teacher educators together to share and theorize practice. P4C has caused quite a
stir in the media as the voices of children philosophizing are broadcast. In the
documentary seri es Th e Transformers (1990), Lipman was presented by the BBC as
a major pioneer in education, alongside Feuerstein and Vygotsky. Academics and
educators have som etimes reacted with hostility to the idea that children can do
complex, abstract reasoning and 'real' philosophy. On th e other hand, the
movem ent has been a major contributor to the em ergin g field of Philosophy of
Cmldhood, as children's philosophical practice has given rise to new
understa ndings of the m eanin gs of childhood, adulthood and, indeed, of
philosophy.
This b ook sets o ut to pro vide insights into the key pmlosophical and edu cational
debates that ha ve been provoked by bringing pmlosop hy to school classrooms and
other learning co ntexts, and bringing children 's voices into moral and political
arenas and to philosophy. The book olfers a wide variety of criti cal perspectives o n
this diverse and controversial field, in order to gen erate new discussions and to
identifY emerging questions and themes. The existen ce of P4C in so many places
and contexts around the globe makes a genuinely international reader on
Philosophy for C hildren possible. Tms collection on communities of philosopmcal
inquiry is accessible, engagin g and provocative for establish ed practitioners and
scholars of P4C around the world, as well as for new students, postgraduates,
researchers and critics. In tms volume, P4C is presented as creative, dynamic,
complex, problema tic and socially critica!. It is shown to be a growing field of
inquiry that poses deep questions about teaching, learning and sch ooling, and that
has a profound contribution to make to broader debates about childhood,
education, community and democracy.
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this volume include tcach ers and infornlal educators, postgraduate students,
researchers, teac her educators and university- based lecturers and professors.
A ccordingly, the chapters are written in different styles and voices and they seek to
put P4C to work in many different ways.
There is a stron g need fo r this collection of writing at this point in time . In the
last few years, th e increased interest in P4C theory fro m practition ers, students,
research crs, professional edu cators and academics in diverse fi elds h as been evident
in a number of areas of activity:
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Children: Th e Concept of Child frO/ll a Philosophical Perspective (2009); Ca therin e
MeCall 's Transforming 77únking (2009); Eva Marsal, T akari Dobaslu and
Barbara W eber's edited book Children Phi/osophiz e Wor/dwide: Th eoretica/ and
Practica/ Concepts (2009); Peter Costello's edited book Philosophy in Chi/drm's
Literature (2012); Jana Mohr Lone's Tile Phi/osophical Child (2012); Joanna
H aynes and Karin Murris's Picturebooks, Pedagog)' and Phi/osoph)' (20 12); Nancy
Vansieleghem and David Kenn edy's edited book Phi/osophy fo r Children in
Transition: Problems and Prospects (2012); Jana Mohr Lone and Roberta
[sraeloff's edited book Phi/osophy and Education: Introducing Philosoph)' to Young
People (2012); Sara Goering, Nicholas Shudak and Thomas Wartenburg's
edited book Philosop")' in Schools (2013); Monica Glina's edited book Philosophy
fo r, with and of Chi/drm (2013); El ena Theodoropoulou's edited book
<D1'\ooo<pia, q>1'\ooo<pia, Eioal EKEi; KávovlOC; q>1'\oooq>ia flE lO llQlBlá
[Philosoph)', philosoph)', are )'ou there? Doing philosoph)' ",ith chi/dren] (2013);
Walter O. Kohan's Philosoph)' and C hildh ood: Critical Perspectives and Affi,mative
Practices (2014); Mari e-Pi erre Grosjean's edited book La phi/osop/tie au c",ur de
/'éducation auto,,, de Matthe", L'jmran [Philosophy at th e heart of education
according ro Matthew Lipman] (20 16); Jana Mohr Lone and Michael D.
Burroughs' Phi/osoph)' in Education: Questioning and Dialogue in Schoo/s (20 16);
Karin Murris The Posth",,,an Child: Educational Transfomwtio n thmugh Philosoph)'
with Picturebooks (2016); and Maughn Gregory and M egan La verry's
forth coming anthology, In Co,."",unit)' of Inquiry with Anll Margaret Sharp:
P/tilosophy, Childhood and Education.
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2 The publi catio n of special issues of academic journals focu sing exdusively on
P4C or including pap ers on P4C and guest edited by leading scholars in P4C.
Th ey indude: Special [ssue: Philosophy for C hildren (2000), InquÍly: C ritical
17únking Aaoss the Disciplines 19(2); Special lssue: Philosophy for Children
(2006), Cifted EducatÍon International 22(2/3); Special [ssue: Philosophy for
C hildren (2009), Farhang, Journa/ of the Iran Institute fo r Humanities and C ultural
Studies (IHCS) 22(69); Special [ssue: Philosophy for C hildren in Transition:
Problems and Prospects (20 11), J ournal of Phi/osophy of Education 45 (2): ii, 171-
397; Special Issu e: Educating Philoso phically: Educational Theory of
Philosophy for Children (2011 ), Educationa/ Phi/osoph )' and Til eo,y 43 (5): 413-
548; Special ¡ssue: The Child as Educator (2013), Studies in Philosoph)' and
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Education 32(3); Special Issue: John D ewey and the C hild as Philosopher
(2012 ), Education and Culture: TheJ ournal oJtheJo /1I1 D ewey Society 28(2); and
Special Section: Precollege Ethics Education (2014), Teaehing Ethics 14(2): 19-
96.
3 International conferences, symposia and seminars, such as: ICPIC conferen ces
since 1985 and then every two years, most recently in Italy (2009), Korea
(2011 ), South Africa (2013) and C anada (2015); other international
conferences in Graz, Austria (annually) and Rio de J an eiro (annually); M exico
C ity (annually); the biennial conference of the North American Associati on for
Community o fInquiry (NAACI); the IAPC symposium at M endham, New
J ersey (annually); a strand on P4C at World Philosophy conferen ces held in
Paris (2009) and Tehran (2011 ); and IAPC sessions at the American
Philosophical Association Annual M eeting (2008 to present). M any of the
national and regio nal centers also organize regular conferences and seminars. In
addition, P4C has been taken up in initial teach er education and in philosophy
departments in many institutions and there is a hu ge demand for courses for
practicing teach ers. Scares of masters and doctoral dissertations on P4C have
been publish ed, including empirical and philosophi cal studies.
4 The publication of empirical research funded by majar scientific and
educational grantors, su ch as th at of SAPERE 2014
(https:/ / educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/ evaluation/ proj ects/ philosophy-
for- children/ ); K.J. T opping and S Trickey (2007) Collaborative Philosophical
Enquiry for School C hildren: Cognitive Gains at Two-year Follow-up, British
Journal of Educational Psyehology 77: 78 1- 796; Anna O. Soter et al. (2008) What
the Discourse Tells Us: Talk and Indicators of High -Ievel C omprehension,
IntemationalJ ournal oJ Educa/ional R eseareh 47: 372- 391; P . Karen Murphy, et al.
(2009) Examining the Effects of C lassroom Discussion on Students'
Comprehension of T ext: A M eta-Analysis, Journal oJ Educational Psyehology
101 (3): 740-764; and A. R eznitskaya, M . Glina, B. Carolan, O. Micha ud, j.
Rogers and L. Sequeira (2012) Examining Transfer Effects &om Dialogic
Discussions lO New Tasks and Contexts, Contel1lporary Edueational Psyehology
37: 288-306.
In a signifi cant fi eld such as this, there is enormollS valu e in produ cing landmark
collections as the theory and practice is developed over time and in different
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settings, and as it responds and interacts with other ideas and practices . Though
there ha ve been a few internatio nal antholo gies of sch olarly essays on P4C in the
p ast, none has attempted the kind of comprehensive overview of issues and
p ositions published in this In temational Han dboo k, the first of its kind in the field of
P4C. It is particularl y time!y at this mo m ent, when the deaths of leadin g fi gures
M atthew Lipman, Ann Sharp and Gareth Matthew s have led to deep reflection o n
their influen ce and gi ven rise to n ew thinking. ¡n their introdu ctio n to th e specia!
issue of the Journal of Philosophy of EducatioY! on the them e of philosophy for
childre n in transition , Vansielegh em and Kennedy (20 11) talk abOllt fi rs t and
second gen eratio n thinkers in the fi eld of P4C. That an alysis und erlin es the value
of capturing this momentum by creating a landmark collection of writing at this
. . .
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M exico , N etherlands, New Z ealand, P ortugal, Scotland , South Africa, Taiw an ,
the USA (a ran ge of states) and Wales . The m ajority of the chapters have be en
written collaboratively in order to promote critical dialogu e in the writing process
and to include the widest possible range of authors from different edu eation
practiee settings . N evertheless, trus collection does not fully refleet the diversity of
practitioners, either in the P4C movem ent or in edu cation in general, and w e
believe th ere is still l11uch w ork to do in all sph eres of educati on to challen ge the
dominance of North over South and the exeessive prominence of some voices
over the marginalization of others.
This collection of original works was created through a complex pro eess of
recruitment and review. C ontributio ns were elicited via o pen ca lIs through all the
major P4C and Philosophy of Education international networks. C ontributors
w ere invited to work collaboratively, to engage with both early and seminal tex ts
and with crities of P 4C, in producin g ehapters that provide an overvi ew of specific
them es and refleet the enquiring and dialogieal character of P4C. W e set out to
recruit authors to a refl exive proj ect that expli citly and deliberately works with th e
tensio ns and diversity in the fi eld to make academie progress and stren gth en
thinking. Extended abstracts were subj ect to double blind peer review by an
international panel of 26 review ers. After a process of selection, draft chapters w ere
also subj eet to th e sam e blind review process. In the third phase the editors
en gaged in further review and dialogue with authors to arrive at the final seleetion.
p.XXV
The ad vent of Philosophy for Children in the northeastern United Statcs in the
late 1960s and earl y 1970s w as part of a broader intensity of interest in high school
philosophy in that region, whieh was itself part of a tradition of philosophy in
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secondary education in many parts of the world, dating back hundreds of years
(Morgan and Perry 1958). In the United States, a Center for High School
Philosop hy was establish ed in 1971. At the Center's first Summer lnstitute for high
school teachers in 1973, Gareth Matthews, from the University of Massachusetts
Amherst, presented a paper entitled 'Philosophy and Children's Literature,' in
which he defended the claim that '[W] hat philosophers do (in rather disciplined
and sustained ways) is much doser than is usually appreciated to what at least some
children rather naturally do' (Matthews 1976: 14-15). The Center's first Progress
Report also notes that, 'Early in the project Matthew Lipman of Montelair State
College telephoned the Proj ect Director regarding his experimental work with
philosophy for elementary school aged children. H e also sent a copy of his novel,
Han-y Stottlemeier's Discovery . . . along with an accompanying teacher's guide'
(Bosley 1975: 29).
Now widely regarded as the founder of the Philosophy for Children movement,
Lipman had begun work on his first philosophical novel for children in 1968 and
left a professorship at Columbia University in 1972 to work full- time on the new
project at Montelair State College (now University). Lipman has written about
several factors that prompted his invention of what he ca11ed 'Philosophy for
Children' (see Lipman 1976, 2008; Johnson 1995), but this story is less we11-
known:
'When dld you feel,' ¡ asked myself, ' . . . that [children] had the capacity to do
philosophy?' ... 1 thought of ane incident rhat 1 w i11 mcntion. Abaur ... cight years
befare 1 met H arry Stottlemeier, .. . [my] two year oId son was taking a bath and said ,
'Dad, \Vauld you hand me my pyjamas?' 1 said 'Sure' and 1 handed th em to him and as
1 did 1 noticed they were inside out. He raok th cm and \Vith a glint in his eye Jnd a sIy
grin said 'Ha , jypamas.' ... Tú me, 1 trunk ir was a turnÍng point. 1 had bcen [or years
interested in children's art and 1 thOllght here is a dimension of childhood power and
creativity that is completely missed by the people who think that children begin with
intellectual weakness and then gradllally mOllnt IIp to hjgher and higher echelons of
strength and undcrstanding.
The success of Lipman's first classroom experiment with his novel in 1970-1971
convinced him 'that philosophy can and should be part of the entire length of a
child's education. [n a sense this is a kind of tautology, because it is abundantly
elear that children hunger for meaning, and get turned off by education w hen it
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ceases to be meaningful to them' (Lipman 1976: 39). In November, 1973 Lipman
convened a Conference on Pre-college Philosophy at Montelair, attended by more
than 250 educators from eleme ntary and secondary schools, colleges, and
universities. The report on this conference (Lipman 1972) was the first publication
on Philosophy for Children in an academic joumal. It was also at this conference
that Lipman m et a new faculty memb er from Montelair's College of Education,
Ann M argaret Sharp, who had recently completed her doctoral dissertatíon on
Nietzsche's view of the teacher as liberator (see Sharp 1976). The two became life-
long collaborators and co-founded the Institute for the Advancem ent of
Philosophy for Children (IAPC) at Montelair in 1974.
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p.XXVI
An equally important part of Lipman and Sharp's approach is the m ethod of the
community of philosophical inquiry, which Lipman (2003: 101- 3) described as
having five stages:
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to deepen and expand the students' inquiry.]
5 Encouragingfurther responses [These include, e.g. students' self-assessment of
philosophy practice, art projects and action proj ects.]
Lipman and Sharp took the controversial position that teachers with no formal
philosop hy education could be prepared to engage their students in m eaningful ,
rigorous philosophical inquiry. The first IAPC workshops for teachers were held in
several public schools in Newark, New J ersey in 1975. The foUowing year,
workshops were held at Fordham, Rutgers, Harvard and Yale to prepare professors
of philosophy and education to work with teach ers in their areas (Lipman 1986).
At Montclair, Lipman and Sharp's professio nal development program s evolved into
undergraduate and graduate courses, and Masters and doctoral degree programs,
and today numerous universities around the world offer similar courses and
programs in Philosophy for C hildren .
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children's Iiterature and picturebooks to become an important curricular resource,
alternative to the [APC curriculum (Murris 1992; Wartenberg 2009; H ayn es and
M urris 2012). Though diverse in materials, methods and aims, each of these
approaches engages children or yo ung people in som e kind of philosophical
di alogue. In the research literature these approaches are variously referred to by
phrases like 'Philosophy for C hildren (P4C),' 'Philosophy with C hildren ,'
' ... with C hildren and Adolescents,' 'Philosophy in Schools' and 'Philosophy for
y oung P eople,' to distin guish them from text-based high school philosophy
COlmes patterned on introdu ctory college COutses.
p .:KXVll
The Handbook is divided into eight Parts, each having an organizing principie that
connects the chapters contained within it. These principies are info tmed by
scholarship in P4C and well-known strands of academic philosophy. [n Table 0.1,
som e of these connections have been made explicito
Each part contains chapters that in turn connect with other parts (and chapters).
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Sonletinles th ere is a clear connection, because sinlilar questions are raised.
However, the contexts of these qu estions might be different or they might be
answered from different perspecti ves. Also , certain philosophical concepts in th ese
qllestions keep retllrning throllghout the Hartdbook. Below are som e key qllestions
that are expli citly addressed in the Handbook and are often raised in P4C training
and teacher edu cation, and by critics of P4C. Each question can be picked up in a
corresponding part of one's choi ce; no linear reading is reqllired. W e urge the
reader to regard ea eh to pic as a thread intricately interwoven with th e other
threads, together creating a rich tapestry ofP4C theory and practice.
• To what extent does P4C educate for demo cratic citizenship and pluralism?
(Parts I, IV)
• What is th e nature of allthority in the facilitation and practice of P4C? (Parts I,
IV)
• Who is responsible for important decisions in communities of inqlliry? (Parts I,
IV , VlI)
• Is th e coml11unity of inquiry about talk, actio n, or both? (Parts I, Il , V)
p.XXVIlI
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Handbook P4C topio Acadern;, piIiJosophy
Metaph~ic s
Ontology
Pan 4: Thc cornmunity of inquiJY ln action: epistcmology lnd pedJgogy E.pisternology
Me-t:aphysio
OntoJo!.")'
Philrnophy of mind
Ethics
P:ut 5: 'fhe- 3esthebC3 of P4C: bocUes :u:Kl $p.1Cd Ac.'Ithetics
Omo1ogy
Mt"taphysio
Eputcmology
Part C: Philosophicai texts 3:nd P4C Phi Josophy of bnguagc
Acnhctia
OntoJogy
Me-bph)'l!iic5
E.pist('mology
Pan 7: Philmophy in Khooll Epistcmology
PhilO!ioph)' oflanguagc
Part 8: RC5e.Jrch dircctiom 3.nd methods in P4C Philosophy of bnguJ.gc
Epi:nemoJogy
OntoJo!,"Y
Aesthetio
Ethics
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• Do children have something special to offer education' (Part Il, JIJ)
• What is distinctive about a philosophical m ethod - as opposed to religious,
scientific, and so on ? (Palts JIJ, IV, VJIJ)
• What m akes a question philosophical? (Parts JIJ , VJIJ)
• What is philosophical progress? (Parts III, VI , VIII)
p.X-XLX
Part Il continues with the epistemic, p edagogical and political role of the
facilitator. lt investigates the important, as weU as controversial, influ ence ofPiaget
CopYll9hted materiaJ
and Vygotsky on education and views of child:adult relationships. Opening up
distinctive ways in w hich children make m eaning throu gh fantasy and play, it pays
tribute to the distin ctive role P4C has played in estabJishing philosoph y of
childhood as a distinct fi eld of inquiry that troubles the adult/ child binary.
Part III picks up th e idea again that children are able ro do philosophy, through
the analysis of a well-known broadcast documentary of a philosophical inquiry
with six-year-olds (part of Th e Transfo rmers series mentioned abo ve) . Key to
deciding wh ether people of any age can do philosophy are the notions of a
'philoso phical attitude,' 'prulosophy as a way of Jife,' 'philosophizing' and
'philosophy as a body of knowledge' (the distinction between the last two is
picked up again in Part VI with a proposal to use academic texts for
philosophizing). Frameworks for measuring epistemi c progress are offered by some
autho", in this section, while others are critical of the lcgitimacy of the very
acti vity of developing m ethods for deciding what is, and what is not philosophical.
Part V picks up again the important role of emotions by focusing on the energy
that is provoked through embodied, affective and situated engagement in P4C as a
lived experience. Broadening the scope of traditional P4C sessions as per Lipman's
five-stage model sketched aboye, philosophical inquiry that uses the arts and drama
as 'texts' offers opportunities to examine creative and expressive forms of
philosophical meaning m aking.
p.xxx
Part VI continues the theme of texts for philosophical inquiry by exploring the
various edu cational materials that can be used for inquiry, ranging from the P4C
curriculum with its specially written philosophical novels and teachers ' manuals, to
picturebooks and folktal es, canonical religious texts, and traditional philosophical
CopYll9hted materiaJ
texts. Intricately linked to making phjlosophical progress and w hat it means to do
'real' philosophy, this part of the Handbook connects explicitly with concerns about
educational curriculum and how the same texts can be used for both: teaching a
school subject and doing philosophy.
Part VII continues with the difficult but rewarding relationship between
philosophy and education. T h e authors in this section d escribe and evaluate
various models that exist for bringing phjlosophy into scho ols, either through
infusion into existing school subjects, or by introducing it as a dedicated subj ect.
As in Part VI in the case of the teaching of literacy, one of the arguments here is
that P4C offers something distinctly different and makes us rethink what
'knowledge' and 'Ieaming' mean, through the notion of the philosophical teacher.
Part VIII ofrers opporturuties ro engage with examples of very different research
approaches in P4C, with research outcomes of interest not only ro P4Cers, but
also to oth er psychologists, social scientists and humanities scholars. The very last
chapter provokes us ro unlearn what we have leamed (including from this
Handbook) and to invent and improvise each educational encounter afresh.
Note
1 'Philosophy for Children ' was th e name Matth ew Lipman gave to the program he
develop ed \Vith Ann M argaret Sharp. Others have llsed that name to refer to approa ches to
doing philosophy with children and teenagers unrelated to the Lipman/ Sharp method , and
others wha use or adapt the Li pman/ Sharp method use other names such as 'philosoph y
with children,' or 'philosophy in schools.'
References
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Evans, C. (1976). Philosophy with C hildren: Sorne Experi ences and Som e
R eflections. M etaphilosoph y 7 (1): 53-69.
Gregory, M. (2011 ). Philosophy for Children and its C rities: A M endham
Dialogue. Jou mal of Plúlosoph y of Education 45 (2): 199- 219.
H ayn es, J. and Murris, K. (2012). Picturebooks, Pedagogy and Plúlosophy. N ew Y ork:
Routledge Research in Education .
Johnson, T.W. (1 995). Discip/eship or Pi/grimage? The Edu cator's Quest fo r Phi/osoph)'.
Albany, NY: The State University ofNew York Press .
Lipman , M. (1 972). C onferen ce on Pre- C ollege Philosophy. Jouma l of Critical
Analysis 4 (3): 116-30.
Lipman , M . (1976). Philosophy for C hildren. Metaphilosoph)' 7 (1): 17- 39.
Lipman , M. (1986). Philosophy for Children : So m e Background Infonnation.
U npublish ed Manuscript. Montclair, NJ: In stitute for th e Advancem ent of
Philosophy for Children , Montclair State College.
Lipman, M . (1991). Dinner R emarks. COIifere/lce Report, Victoria n P!úlosoph y for
Children A ssociation, Uni versity of M elboume, pp. 17- 18.
Lipman , M. (2003). Thinking in Edu cation. C ambridge: Cambridge University
Press .
Lipman , M. (2008). A Lije Teaching Thinking. M ontclair, NJ: Institute for the
Advancem ent of Philosophy for Children, Montclair State College .
Matthews, G. (1976). Philosophy and C hildren 's Literature. M etaphilosophy 7(1):
7- 16.
p.XXXl
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·.
p . XXXll
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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p .l
PARTI
The democratic nature of Philosophy
for Children
Introduction
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freedom, plurality and action in the political philosophy of Hannah
Arendt. They argue that the co mmunity of philosophical inquiry is a
model of educational praxis which can advance conditions necessary for
democracy, because of its invitation to participants to think deeply and
listen to each other in a form of open and intentional deliberation,
understood as growing over time, and strengthening the possibility for
good judgment. They ilJustrate this argument with accounts of P4C
projects in the UK, in Mexico and in a numb er of Latin American
co untries: applications of CPI in schooling, youth and community
contexts.
p.2
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through a Col approach and wider issues of young people's
participation in a democracy, Makaiau reflects on the relationships
between social justice, classroom dialogue and a community of action.
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p. 3
1
THE COMMUNITY OF
PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (P4C)
A pedagogical proposal for advancing
democracy
Introduction
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individualistic notions of autonol11Y (Code 2006), but also for
advancing the conditions necessary for social justice and especially
freedol11 (Arendt 1998) to be possible. Lipl11an's (for example 1998a)
and Sharp's (for example 2009) view, which we support, was that
philosophy, because of its capacity to enable people to think more
deeply (Lipman 1998a: 7), would help to form the necessary social
dispositions in children and young people that would enable them to
improve their capacity to make good judgments (see Sharp 2007), and
consequently the capacity for decision making necessary in a
democracy.
Building the argument for the CPI from Lipman and Sharp and their
view that it should be understood as democratic praxis, by drawing on
Dewey and Arendt, this chapter concludes that the CPI can make a
significant difference to the Jife of a plural democracy. Through
examples, we demonstrate that the CPI can equip children and young
people with the tools to become more critical and to develop a more
social and global consciousness (Hannam and Echeverria 2009), thus
enabling thel11 to enter the world of adults to take an active role in 'the
shaping of a democratic society' (Sharp 1993: 343)
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'instlUmentalist tendencies in the educational use of philosophy' (Biesta
2011: 317), or as Vansieleghem (2005) expresses it a possible
'instlUmentalized nature' (p. 19) of the CPI. Murris (2008: 675)
considers Lipman to have shared this concern. Although it is not
possible in the confines of this chapter to enter into the full discussion
here, the problem turns in part around whether the CPI should be
understood in instlUmentalist terms. This is because of concem that an
instrumentalized view, where outcomes are pre-determined and thus
possibly linked with coercive tendencies, cannot be congruent with an
educative process aiming to advance democratic ways ofbeing.
p.4
This chapter argues that the CPI, in the Lipman/S harp tradition (see
for example Lipman 1988, 1993a, 1998a, 2003; and Sharp 1993, 2007),
sometimes known as 'Philosophy for Children' or 'P4C,' is best
understood as an educative praxis with democratic purposes. By praxis
we mean an intervention that intentionally opens up the conditions for
change, and the deliberate change intended is to enable children and
young people to exist in the world as an integral part of a well-
informed democratic citizenry. Our point is that the process at work in
the CPI, especially the extended dialogue inquiring into a philosophical
question, can contribute to the cultivation of a well-informed
democratic citizenry. This is because of its capacity ro engage people of
all ages in conceptual controversy, through clear thinking in dialogue
with others, and ultimately it is because philosophy is a 'hom of plenty'
(see Lipman 1998a: 6) with these kinds of facets. The authors
understand citizenship as a way of existing in a plural democracy, rather
than something to be possessed in a phenomenological sense.
Democratic living is therefore understood as a way of living that
connects individuals to each other and their society, and to an
awareness of the need for social reconstlUction. The authors share
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Lipman's (see for example Lipman 1998a, 2003) and Sharp's intention
for the ePI to be understood as democratic education and not only as
education for democracy. We understand education for democracy as
something with a presupposed and agreed set of values, beliefs, morals
and perceptions to be talked about and learnt in scho01 (see Burgh
2010) . The ePI we understand rather as an opportuniry for peop1e to
CopYll9hted materiaJ
praxis', Sharp (1993: 342) indicates she regards the 'reflective
. ,
communal actlOn itself as a 'nleans of personal and moral
transformation' (ibid.) leading to a growth in the emotional maturity
(Sharp 2007) necessary for democratic living. It is clear, however, that
Lipman also saw the CPI as representing 'education of the fnture as a
form of life that has not yet been realized and as a kind of praxis' (1988:
17). Nevertheless, the question remains as to whether this is an
intentional outcome of CPls. For if this outcome is in some way
contri ved, there remains a risk of the accusation of coercion and this
being education for a fixed idea of democracy rather than democratic
education. At this point we look to Arendt to see whether her work on
speech and action can help us explain how the inquiry itself is enabling
'political' action (Arendt 1998). Arendt develops an argument
distinguishing action from work or labour. W ork and labour, although
necessary for life, are not enough since it is 'men and not Man' (p. 7)
who live on the earth; it is action that enables each of our uniqueness to
existo For 'if men were endlessly reproducible repetitions of the same
model, whose nature or essence was the same for all and as predictable
as the nature or essence of any other thing' we would be replicas and
not human beings. So it is that she insists that '(p )Iurality is the
condition of human action because we are all the same, that is, human,
in such a way that nobody is ever the same as anyone else who ever
lived, lives, or willlive' (p. 8). It is precisely this plurality that is found
in the CPI and because of this, action is possible.
p.s
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private account' (Dewey 1999: 75). Thus there is an interesting
consequence of bringing Dewey's thinking together with Arendt. It
becomes possible to conceptualize the testing of ideas through speech
in the dialogue, by the unique people comprising the plurality which is
the CPI, and understood in Arendtian terms as action. Further, since it
is action in the condition of plurality that makes the political space
possible, the CPI can itself be understood as part of the public or
political sphere.
CopYll9hted materiaJ
Arendt 1961, 1998), and will result in personal and polítical
transformation (Sharp 1993) as discussed above (Sharp 2007) .
p.6
CopYll9hted materiaJ
the criti cal co ndition necessary for fre edom's existence in the world is
speech and ac tion in plurality (Arendt 1998). This makes an important
difference to the way the individual child or yo ung p erso n is
understood in the ePI and, through reference to Arendt' s idea of
action, en ables us to give an account of why the work that philosophy
do es in the ePI is deliberate in its intentions but not coe rcive in its
outcomes. Each uniqu e child in the ePI is understood as an
irreplaceable human being who in the company of their peers can
make their beginnings in the world of others, that is, the public sphere.
The assertion we make he re is that the ePI can be a d emocratic
educative space, be it a school o r som e other place. Furtherrnore, it is a
place where freedom can come to exist in the world because uniqu e
human b eings are able to speak and act together in the condition of
plurality.
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religious horizon. During this time, every major educational reform
through the twentieth and into the twenty-first century in England has
maintained a special position of religious edllcation as a compulsory
subject in the curriculum of all maintained schools in England for
children aged 5-18 years of age . It is to be 'broadly Christian' in nature
but not distinctive of any particular Christian denomination. Religious
education in a plural democracy lends itself to an inquiring and
philosophical approach because of the way it can open dialogue abollt
matters that are important to people, but abollt which they do not
agree. Democratic education, in a world where truth of all kinds is
contestable, needs to enable young people to dialogue, discern and
engage confidently with different points of view. Religious education
in non-religious contexts condllcted through inquiry can help yOllng
people develop their own sense of belonging and worldview. Indeed,
work in the county of Hampshire, UK (see Hannam 2012; Hampshire
County Council 2011; Hampshire, Portsmollth, Southampton and Isle
ofWight County Councils 2016) has embedded this into its practice in
aH public schools.
p.7
The second example is in the context of 'The Beast', the train that
goes from the border of Guatemala to the border with the United
States. Every year more and more children take this journey. Most of
them don't make it to the USA, falling prey to criminals for drug
trafficking or the sex trade. The trigger for democratic edllcation
throllgh the CPI with these children was a docllmentary film by
Rebecca Camisa called Whiel! Way Home (2009). The educational
centre Tanesque and CELAFIN developed a manual with discussion
plans and exercises in the Lipman / Sharp tradition to be used after
watching the documentary fUm. The project was sllpported by the
SertuH FOllndation in México, the Ford FOllndation and DIF (a
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government agency for children and the family) linking closely with a
range of people engaged in social action directly and indirectly linked
with the care for the safety of child migrants. Adults were trained in
facilitating the CPI in 15 different regions of México where
unaccompanied minors are at risk. There was also work in Guatemala,
Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua, all countries known to have a
high risk of children and young people migrating, due to lack of
opportunities in their region. The objective was to work with as many
at-risk children and adolescents as possible. Through engaging in the
CPI the intention was to ensure these children and young people were
better equipped ro make choices in their lives, see alternatives and
predict the consequences of those choices 1 Evaluation of this and
similar projects is ongoing.
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Teachers in Mexico accessed the Diploma training offered by the
Mexican Federation of Philosophy for Children, and teachers in UK
were trained through the UK organization SAPERE 3 During the
eight years of the project students and teachers &om both schools had
opportunities to meet in either Mexico or the VK. During each visit,
time was set aside for phiJosophical enquiries in two Ianguages,
developing the themes of the Iinking. The effectiveness of the Iinking
was monitored by the British Council, who funded continuing work in
the linking through the DFID 4 Global Schools Partnersrups, based at
the time in Scotland. Teachers working in the Jinking found students
to have been changed by these experiences, to become more confident
and self-reflective. Sorne have been able to move on and become
involved in a connected proJect of the International Y outh Congress,
which is discussed next.
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questions emerged about the survival of unsustainabl e civilizations, or
what kind of human social organization should be adopted now in the
face of globalization. The ePI was an educativ e space where
contemporary philosophical concems of a social, political and
environl11ental nature were explored. By working in community,
'doing philosophy' together, sharing and inquiring, participants
reflected deeply and rigorously about the experience of and future for
human kind. The intemational and intercultural nature of the summer
y outh eongress, where the focus issues were frequentIy those most
pressing to the well-being of p eople and the planet in different parts of
.
the world, gave umque opportunities for participants to share
democratic visions across boundaries of co ntinental perception,
fommlating considered positions on crucial matters. Vicky, who
attended the congress in 2007 and was part of the school linking
project, explains this well: 'as I have heard other people's experien ces
and ideas, these have in tum shaped l11y own and allowed me to
consider questions from many different points of view, and I have
found this a very important part of the person I am today' (quoted in
Hannam 2009).
p.S
This cbapter has sought to present a case for the ePI understood as a
del110cratic edu cative space tbat can exist in many contexts, and is
capable of advancing the conditions for democratic ways of living. W e
have substantiated Lipman and Sharp's assertion that the ePI is a form
of praxis; tbat is to say it intentionally aims to bring abo ut change . We
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make two interconnected points in concluding this chapter. One is in
reJation to the relationship between education and democracy in terms
of freedom and action, arguing against instrumentalist critique of P4C;
the second is to do wirh the implications this has for the role of the
teacher in the CPI, placing attention upon teacher:child relationships
rather than skills to be leamt.
p.9
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Notes
1 SAPERE is the Society for the Advancem ent of Philosophi cal Enquiry and
R eflection in Education and is the organization that accredits training in the
C PI in the UK.
-5 CELAFIN is the Latin Ameri can Centre for Philosophy for Children, and the
base for the Summer Youth Congress whilst in San Cristóbal de las Casas.
!i A ' Milpa' is a tradition al sustainable system of companion- planting
agri culture, where areas of forest are cut in rotation , planted for a fe w years
and then left to rest and regenerate. This happens in a cycle that ensures
co ntinuing fertility of the land as well as quaüty environment for other
wildlife. Regeneration of trees is rapid due to the chmatic co nditions.
References
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Philosophy of Education. Special Issue: Philosophy for Children in
Transition: Problems and Prospects 45(2): 305-19.
Burgh, G. (20 10). Citizenship as a Learning Process: Democratic
Education without Foundationalism. In D.R.j. Macer and Saad Zoy
(Eds), Asian-Arab Philosophical Dialogues on Globaliz ation, Democracy
and Human Rights (pp. 59-69). Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO,
R egional Unit for Social and Human Sciences in Asia and the
Pacifico
Code, L. (2006). Ecological Thinking: The Politics of Epistemic Location.
New York: Oxford University Press.
De la Garza, T. (1995). Educación y Democracia. Madrid: Visor
Distribuciones.
Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and Education. New York: The Free Press
(Mamullan) .
Dewey, J. (1999). Individualism Old and New. New York: Prometheus
Books.
Dewey, J. (2007). Human Nature and Conduct: An lntroduction to Social
Psychology. New York: Cosimo, lnc.
EcheverrÍa, E. and T. D e la Garza (2013). El Mundo De Filosona para
Niños. In R.A R ezola (Ed.), Otra educación es posible. Barcelona:
Laertes.
Gregory, M.R. (2005). Practicing Democracy: Social Intelligence and
Philosophical Practíce. The lntemational Joumal of Applied Philosophy
16(1 ): 161-74.
Gregory, M. (2011). Philosophy for Children and Its Critics: a
Mendham Dialogue. Joumal of Philosophy of Education 45(2): 199-
219.
Hampshire County Council (20 11 ). Living Difference Revised 2011: The
Agreed Syllabus for Religious Education in Hampshire, Portsmouth and
Southampton. Winchester: Hampshire County Council.
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Hampshire, Portsmouth, Southampton and Isle of Wight County
Councils (2016). Living Difference The Agreed Syllabus for
[JI:
p.I O
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Lipman, M. (1998b). Teaching Students to Think Reasonably: Some
Findings of the Philosophy for Children Programo The Clearing
Hou se, 71(5) : 277- 280.
Lipman, M . (2003). Thinking in Education (2nd edition). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Murris, K.S. (2008) . Philosophy with Children, the Stingray and the
Educative Value of Disequilibrium. JO/unal of Philosophy of Education
42(3-4): 667-85.
Rojas, V.A. (Ed). (in press). Filosofía para niiios: práctica educativa y
contexto social. Bogotá, Colombia: Corporación universitaria Minuto
de Dios.
Sharp, A.M . (1993). The Community of Inquiry: Education for
Democracy. In M. Lipman (Ed.), Thinking Children and Education
(337- 345). Dubuque, lA: Kendal/ Hunt.
Sharp, A.M. (2007). Education of the Emotions in the Classroom
Community of Inquiry. Gified Education International 22(2-3): 248-
57 .
Sharp, A. (2009). Foreword to P. Hannam and E. Echeverria,
Philosophy with Teenagers: Nurturing a Moral Imagination for the 21st
Century . London: Continuum.
Sharp, A.M. and L.J. Splitter (1995) . Teaching fOY Better Thinking.
Melbourne, Australia: ACER.
Thompson, A.G. and E. Echeverria (1987). Philosophy for Children: A
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8(1): 44- 52.
Vansieleghem, N. (2005) . Philosophy for Children as the Wind of
Thinking. Journal of Philosophy of Education 39(1): 19- 35 .
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p.l 1
2
'NO GO AREAS'
Racism and discomfort in the community of
• •
mqmry
Context
Darren
A search thro ugh the literature relating to Philosophy for C hildren yields
very few pap ers with the terrns ' race ', ' racism' o r 'multiculturalism ' in
th e titl e. D espite th e frequ ent references to id entity, diversity, Justice and
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equality both within the P4C literature and as conference themes, work
that dea!s explicitly with race/ racism remains rare. Tace Vigliante focuses
on the social status of Australian Aboriginal people and argues that
Australian pre-service teachers 'must engage in philosophical inquiry
with their peers into both the aim of education and the notion of socia!
justice' (Vigliante 2005 : 109). Writing in the USA and focusing on
multiculturalism, Wendy Turgeon notes that, 'Often what we mean by
"multicultural" is simply different from the mainstream. However, that
rarely, if ever, includes Caucasian or the historically dominant European
cultures and peoples' (Turgeon 2005: 97). However, neither Turgeon
nor Vigliante give attention to the racial identity of the majority of
teachers of philosophy for children in the nations in which they write .
Writing of their considerable experience of leading P4C courses for
teachers in the UK, Joanna Haynes and Karin Murris write that for
teachers on P4C courses, 'Race and racism often crop up as problematic
"no go" areas' (Haynes and Murris 2012 : 128). My experiences of
writing and presenting on Philosophy for Children and race in the UK
and internationally, as someone racialized as 'other than white', lead me
to suggest that, for many P4C practitioners, race is also a 'no go area' .
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p.12
Example 1: Darren
Ten years ago, I began to raise sorne concerns about 'doing' P4C with
children in racially diverse classrooms with other P4C practitioners, al!
racialized as white. 1 offered a number of questions that 1 thought
important for considering how the community of inquiry deals with race
and racismo Sorne examples would be:
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to minority concerns?
• What does it m ean for a fac ilitator to claim to be n eutral whilst
op erating w ithin an institution and broader society that is no t?
• Can guide!ines intended to ensure po!iteness and co-op eration
pennit expressions of anger at injustice?
• What justifies the lack of materials w ritten from a racialiy minoritized
viewpoint am ongst P 4C m aterials?
• Is there an assumption within so m e P4C !iterature that people
regarded as 'reasonable' do not p erp etuate racism ?
P eo ple resp ond ed in individual w ays, but over time 1 ca m e to notice two
broad categories of responses. The first w as a restatem ent of P4C
principIes, including often the very ones 1 h ad referred to as po tentially
problematic in my exampl es. T h ese respo nses resulted in m e feelin g
increasingly fru strated as they tended n ot to connec t directly with my
voiced concerns and presented a P4C orthodoxy as a 'barrier' to having
to engage with th em . Looking back , m y interlocutor m ay h ave assumed
that my concerns w ere m erely due to a lack o f understanding o n my
part, althou gh 1 som etimes thou ght that they were aware that 1 already
knew many of the things th ey we re telling m e. T he seco nd response was
ve ry diffe rent. It was simply an invitation for m e to continu e to talk,
alo ng th e lines of 'Tell m e more . . . ' . T his resp onse tended to lead to a
rich er, shared philosophical inquiry into the qu estio ns 1 w as raising.
p.13
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differen ces in dealing with the discomfort caused by disc ussions around
.
raCIsm o
'Whiteness'
M any of the resp onses from exp erienced P4 C praCtltlOners are in line
w ith depictions of ' white talk ', whi ch criti cal whiten ess sch olars have
theorized as discursive strategies for avoiding such disc omfort. Mclntyre
(1997) offers as examples of 'white talk' : 'derailing the conversation,
evading qu estions, dismissing counter arguments, withdrawing from the
discussion , rem ainin g sil ent, interruptin g sp eakers and topics, and
colluding with each o ther in creating a "c ulture of nicen ess" that m ade it
very difficult to "read" the w hite world.' R eviewing empirical research
into discussions around race invo lving teacher ca ndidates racialized as
w hite , Levine-Rasky (2000 : 265) concludes that 'resistan ce, denial,
hostility, ignorance, and defensiven ess are consistent thronghout the
studies.'
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through our society without a sense of ourselves as racialized subj ects' (p.
62) - to think about how their whiteness may involve forms of privilege
(see McIntosh 1998) th at uphold a structural system of racial injustice.
Yet as several theo rists acknowledge (see AIU11ed 2007; Applebaum
2010; Probyn- Rapsey 2007; Yancy 2012; DiAngelo 2011), a frequent
co nsequence of educa tors prompting white students, even , and
particularly, those who do not co nsciously hold racist views, to
acknowledge their own whiteness and its role in the ongoing reality of
racism , is th at they exp erience a form of discomfort, often leading th em
to adopt strategies such as those described aboye to avoid o r retrea t from
the 'interruption' (Di Angelo 2011 : 57) that has occurred.
Just as Socrates felt that it was necessary to create a tension in the mind so
that individuals could rise from the bondage of myths and half- truths to the
unfettered reahn of creative analysis and objective appraisal, so 111U St we see
the need for non-violent gadflies to crea te the kind of tension in society that
will help men rise from the dark depths of prejudice and racism to the
majesti c heights of understanding and brotherhood .
p.14
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(King, 1996, cited in Leonardo and Porter 2010: 145)
'Can yo u tell m e more" may indi cate a request for greater context, a
wish to empathize (we make no claims at this point about the eapacity to
empathize) and a susp ension of judgm ent. On hearin g som ething
un familiar, 'can you tell m e more?' signals a willingness ro be a listen er.
It is not a restatement of one's own position, which can b e a retreat to
["1miliarity and relative certainty, nor is it a redirecting of the line of
inquiry onto more comfortabl e terrain. It signals interest, and a
willingness to 'stay' with the subJ ect and, by extens io n, th e sp eaker.
Unlike 'why?', 'can you tell m e more? ' is not a demand for justification.
P ersons racialized as 'other than white' are often expected to justity
themselves more than w hite people: 'Why do you use sound like that,
look like that, feel like that, see things like that . . . " where 'that' is
o utside of w hite nonnativity. W e are not suggesting that su eh questions
should n ever b e asked, rather that we should consider which qu estions
are left unasked. We are also not ruling out that sometim es questions are
asked not in a spirit of inquiry or intellectual curiosity but rather as an
assertion of relative power. Who asks the questions and who answers
them is worth considering in public and classroo m dialogue. It is also
important to note the consequ ences of avoiding certain questions and
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compreh ended often dep ends on the distance we need to 'travel'. In the
classroom this distan ce is informed by who our fellow students are, w ho
o ur teach er is and w hat th e subj ect of discussion appears to be to each of
uso Who speaks and w ho speaks back is important to recognize, as is w ho
sp eaks w ith 'comInon sense' and w ho speaks against 'common sen se' .
Speaking against comrnon sense may m ean sayin g something
unco mmon. This might require more time for elucidation and more
time for consideratio n. As Biesta notes (2011: 317), 'A p edagogy
focusing on exposure and interruptio n is a p edagogy that may bring
about h esitation, an experi ence of not kn owing, an exp erien ce that
makes us stop rather than that it rush es us into the pse udo-security of
qu estions , hypothesis, reasons, examples, distinctions, connections,
implications, inten tions, criteria, an d co nsistency.'
Example 2: Judith
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'putting subjectivity into the picture'. Yet J also wanted them to appreciate that
acknowledging the importance of positionality does not entail that all theoretical
concepts and daims are 'just social constructions'. To illustrate this point, J
described my experience of reading Toni Morrison's novel, Beloved. You could
say, J explained, that there is a sense in which J, a middle class White woman,
can never really know what it was like to grow up as a poor Black wOl11an in the
reality Morrisorl describes. Yet is there not some way in which Morrison can speak
to me, through her words, in which J can relate to the ideas, perceptions, truth aud
experiences captured in her writing?
At the end cif the dass, one student, a Black woman, came up to me. She
poli te/y said she disagreed with me; in spite cif what we had diswssed, it was stiU
fundamentally true that J could never, as a White woman, really understand what
it was like ta be a Black woman. J lis tened to what she was saying and tried to
difend the idea that there was something mare that we could say, samething that
reflected the significance af shared meaning, the possibility af communication across
difference, and the core feminist commitment to women's experience. We parted
anúcably and J suggested same further reading.
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1999 : 341- 2) . This m eans that for any philosophical inquiry to engage
studen ts in a m eaningful way within a classroom setting, and for its
critical potential to b e expl ored , a level of attunem ent to these personal,
political, som atic and affective elem ents is required of the teach er. This
co uld be conceptualize d as part of the ability to listen; a p oint that plays a
central role in th e training o f P4C practitioners. Lipman , Sharp and
Oscanyan (1977: 78- 9) draw attention to the tenden cy of trained
teachers to fail to no tice the philosophical significan ce and possibilities
fo r furth er phil osophical insight in w hat m ay at first glance seem to be
m erely a throwaway or 'cute' comm ent by the child. T h e won-y here is
that the teacher will either no t really ' h ear' th e rem ark at all, or will
interpret it in terms of h er own p ersp ective. Likewise, Murris and
H ayn es have em phasized , in th eir w o rk, the imp ortan ce of fac ilitators
being abl e to 'listen w itho ut prejudice - not as th ough we already know
and understand w hat is about to b e said ' (H aynes and Murris, 2013).
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student's comments as a familiar point about standpoint epistemology;
one which I had encountered on difIerent occasions and in some of the
relevant literature, and which I had therefore anticipated in preparing for
the class. 1 did not see her cornment as mainly about who she was or
who 1 was, but rather as a general claim about knowledge. 1 thus saw it
as my role to counter this with a philosophical challenge. My attention
was not focused on considering the ways in which the entire situation
was imbued with experiential, personal, personal-political, physical and
afIective elements to do with our difIerently racialized subjectivities.
Acknowledging this during my teaching may have made me more able
to create a climate in which this student or other students in the class
were not uncomfortable raising issues to do with race. This would ha ve
required, critically, a willingness to enter a 'no go area' on my part,
foregrounding my own potential discomfort as a pedagogically fmitful
element of this move, rather than, or at least prior to, extending an
invitation to the student to 'tell me more', thereby positioning her as
knowledge holder. For as bell hooks notes, 'Often if there is one Ion e
person of color in the classroom she or he is objectified by others and
forced to assume the role of native infomunt' (hooks 1994: 43). Thus
the power asymmetry at play when we invite people to make themselves
vulnerable needs to be considered. Nicholas Burbules, in issuing a
waming against viewing dialogic pedagogy as unproblematically
emancipatory, points out that 'The point is not that these commitments
are never fair expectations to have of participants to a dialogue; it is to
acknowledge that for many parties, under specific circumstances, they
represent a kind of entrapment, a kind of co-optation, in which some
persons have more to lose than do others' (Burbules 2000: 19).
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practice can reflect, re-inscribe, challenge and question social meanings
around racial privilege and oppression. This applies even when the
ostensive 'topic' of our teaching is not one to do with race or injustice
per se. We suggest that Yancy's (2012) comment that philosophical
academic spaces 'are, in so many ways, continuous with everyday,
politically invested, racially grounded, prejudicial, social spaces' may also
apply to philosophical communities of inquiry. In this sense, racial
assumptions can be left uninterrupted and undisrupted.
• •
Applebaum discusses how 'being an anti-racist white • • • IS a proJect
that always requires another step and does not end in a white person's
having "arrived" in the form of an idyllic anti-racist' (Applebaum 2015:
11). Had 1 given Morrison 's writing and the context in which it was
written due consideration, it is possible that 1 would have 'used' it in my
teaching in a different way, rather than merely referring to it as an
example of 'a novel by a Black woman writer'; for as Morrison herself
has stated on several occasions, she writes with Black audiences in mind.
And in the case of her novel Beloved, this means that 'The narrative
forces African- American readers to recall experiences so horrible that
they were not oruy omitted from the narrative of American history, but
repressed in personal memory as well (Travis 1998 : 76).
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Children. Early Child Development and Care 183(8): 1,084- 100.
hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to Transgress. London: Routledge.
Johnson, H .B. and Shapiro, T.M. (2003). Good Neighborhoods, Good
Schools: Race and th e 'Good' Choices. In A.W. Doane and E.
Bonilla-Silva (Eds.), White Out: The Continuing Sigrtificance of Racism
(pp. 173-88). New York: Routledge.
K ennedy, D. (1999). Philosophy for Children and the R econstruction of
Philosophy. M etaphilosophy 30(4): 338-59.
Kennedy, D. and Kennedy, N. (2011 ). Community of Philosophical
Inquiry as a Discursive Structure, and its Rol e in School CurriculuI11
Design. J ournal of Philosophy of Education 45(2): 265-83.
King, M.L. , Jr (1996). Letter from a Birmingham Jail. In M. Asanta and
A. Abarry (Eds), African Intellectual Heritage: A Book of Sources (pp . 740-
50). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Leonardo, Z. and Porter, R.K. (2010). Pedagogy of Fear: Toward a
Fanonian Theory of 'Safety' in R ace Dialogue. Race Ethnicity and
Education 13(2): 139-57.
Levine-Rasky, e. (2000). The practic e of whiteness among teacher
candidates. International Studies in Sociology of Educatíon 10(3) : 263- 84.
Lipman, M. (2003) . Thinking in Education. Cambridge: C ambridge
U ni versity Press .
Lipman, M ., Sharp, A.M. and O scanyan, F.S. (1977). Philosophy in the
Classroom . Upper Montclair, NJ: IAPe.
M acMullan, T. (2015). Facing up to Ignorance and Privilege: Philosophy
of Whiteness as Public Intellectualism. Plúlosophy Compass 1(9): 646-
60.
McIntosh (1998). White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack. In
P .S. Roth enberg (Ed. ), Raee, Class, and Gender in the United States: An
Integrated Study (4th edition) (pp. 165-9). N ew York: St. Martin's
Press.
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In this chapter 1 draw from thirteen years of teaching high school social studies to
e1aborate on connections bet\veen P4C and deliberative pedagogy, and to explain
how the Philosophy for Children Hawai 'i (p4cHI) approach aims to create democratic
experiences in multicultural schools. The chapter is organized into three sections. First 1
discuss the difference between traditional fonTIS of democratic education and Horton
and Freire's (1990) notion of a citizen's education. Second, I offer the p4cHI
approach to deliberative pedagogy as a resource for translating the ideals of a citizen's
edu catían ¡nto a working claSSrOOlTI practice. Third, 1 share findings that enlerged
from my qualitative case study on the impact of p4cHI on student learning in a high
school Ethnic Studies coUJ:se (Makaiau 2010). The conclusion reflects on my
experiences and desire to advance the pedagogy towards philosophical C0111l11ulllties of
aetioll (popp 1981).
p.20
In many of the c1assrooms that I've observed the answer to this question is often
shallow and contri ved. C ivics education in the USA is typically interpreted as
instructing students about given citizen knowledge, infornlation, skills , and val ues
(Vinson 2006). Teachers typically pro vide direct instruction on political philosophies
and the bureaucratic role of citizens and elected officials in demacrarie governnl ents.
Lessons often inc1ude memorizing the three branches of government, defining the
separation of powers, and learning about how a bill becomes a law. In these lessons,
denl0cracy is presented as a set of facts that students need to 111enlorize for their civics
exam, and teaching consists of lecturing and c10sed questioning from the textbook.
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Respectful and ethical civic relationships
One of the definin g features of p4cHI is students and teachers wo rking together to
co-create intellectually safe dassroom cOl11muniti es of inquiry. In Ethnic Studies, I
started this wo rk frOI11 th e outset by writing Jackson's (2001) definition of intellectual
safety (p. 460) on the board. I made m yself vulnerable and used examples from my
own !ife to illustrate why [ be!ieve dassrooms should not only be physically safe, but
intellectually safe as wel1. From there, my students and I worked collectively to think
about the type of dassroom environment that we wanted to create. We listed
exanlples and co unter-examples, [ronl our di verse backgrounds and experiences to
help us explain w hat intellectual safety would look like in the context of ollr
classroom. When our concept map was complete, we ilude the agreement to do our
best to put our words into practice.
Based on the analysis of their dass reflections, this process appeared cri tical for
students' development of respectful and ethical civic relationships.
These ways ofbeing with one another did not always come easy. One student wrote:
In the be!:,>inning of this Ethnic Studies class, it was one of the first times 1 became aware of
whae it feels like to be discriminated. We were going around the cirele talking aboue
eehnicity and one of my c1assmares said to me, '{ thought you were Asían.' T his borhered
me because he assumed that I \Vas just Asian when in my own mind 1 was thinking of
myself as Hawaiian. R.ight at [hat moment 1 realized it hurts to be discriminated by other
people.
(Freshllla/I Nlale St/ldC/lt 2007)
Through experiences like these, we found out the hard way that the establishment
and maintenance of an intellectually safe learning environment is an ongoing process.
This is an important take-away for p4cHI practitioners like me, w ho - in our m..ission
to create a lnore just and equitable civil society - 111USt re111ember that civic
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together, we extended our thinking about this problem during final classroom
deliberations of the sem ester.
p.25
In the full report of this study (Makaiau 20 10) I offer an in-depth look at the impact
of p4cHI 0 11 student learning in a lluinstreanl high sehool so cial studies CQurse and the
w ays in w hi ch this approach w orks to realize Horto n and Freire's (1990) na tia n of a
citize n's educatian. Th e research aims to provide a window 1nto the w ays in whi ch
philosophy, when conceptuali zed as an activity rather than a school subj ect, can be
used by teach ers to establish deliberative and democratic procedures for m aking
classraam decisions, and engage students in philosophical inquiry as pan of their
regular educati a n coursework. It is a strong case that adds ta th e scholarship of
previo us researchers w ho questione d practitioners' abilities to incorpo rate P4C into
the pre-set curriculum (H aynes 2007), integrate P4C into a11 stages of the civic action
process (Gregory 2004), and use P4C as a method for th e democratic reconstruction
of class room managem ent (p. 171 ). Ba und by a 'snapsha t' (Makaiau 2010: 37)
l11e thodology, this study is limited because it does not exam.ine whether or no t p4cHI
had a lasting in1pact on students in their lives beyond the classroom. Longitudinal
research in this area is needed.
Concluding thoughts
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4
AUTHORITY, DEMOCRACY AND
PHILOSOPHY
The nature and role of authority in a
community of philosophical inquiry
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telling him what to do and not to do, what to think and not to think.
Authority is the antithesis of proper education, which aims to create a
virtuous and free human being. Education without authority is the
only worthwhile option, as promoted in the Summerhill school
experiment (Neill and Lamb 1996). The teacher, by refraining from
directly shaping students, gives them the opportunity to make
decisions, learn to use their autonomy and be invested in their learning.
If the traditional model may be labelled as teacher-centred, this one
may be seen as radically student-centred.2.
p.29
From the traditional model, we should keep the idea that the teacher
has a role to playas an authority figure in the classroom, and from the
anarchist model, the fact that education has to start from children' s
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effacing' (Gregory 2008). Splitter and Sharp emphasize and develop this
point by stating that the teacher should be 'a model of the tools and
procedures of inquiry and what might b e called scholarly ignorance,
that is, the self-conscious display of genuine curiosity and puzzlem ent
rather than a sense of always being "right'" (1995: 140). This
procedural authority of the teacher in CPI is also related to a certain
subject, for CPI is not in fact an inquiry into just any so rt of matter,
but rather into matters of a philosophical nature. In its content and
practice, philosophy, at least as it is understood in P4C, is based on a
p eculiar relationship to authority because it values uncertainty and
fallibility. Since philosophical concepts are ilTemediably open to
discussion , it is impossible to reach a final answer on th e subjects
discussed (Castoriadis 1991; Hadot 2002; Gregory 2008). This idea is
transmitted in P4C through the notion that philosophical concepts are
by nature contestable; we may reach sorne temporary agreement on
them, but they may be reopened to inquiry with time or on the basis
of new arguments or evidence (Lipman 2003). The prerequisite of CPI
is that the subject of discussion is open to inquiry. Neither teacher nor
student can ever claim to have the 'ultimate' or 'complete' answer and
therefore n either can hold authority in such a way. Consequently, the
procedural authority of the teacher is not only bound to the format of
the community of inquiry, but also to its content (philosophy), which
must not be closed authoritatively.
p.3!
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edll eation of these two allthors and the kind of alltho rity linked to them is
mll eh more complex than we have olltlin ed here. H owever, this a reading of
them that has been often made (Rosenow 1993; Tubbs 2005; Miehaud
2012).
3 H ere we can o n1y refer to the gllalitative stlldy by Olivi er Miehalld (20 13).
References
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mediates and models the process of philosophical enquiry. H er chapter
also indicates philosophical critiqu es of the very notion of
developmentalism as a deficit disco urse which positions children as
lacking skills or knowledge.
p.36
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as agents in the process of their own development. The teacher's role
was no longer to stamp in knowledge, but to provide a suitably
challenging learning environment likely to elicit developmental
growth. The nature of students' thinking, and the demands that co uld
be placed on it at difIerent ages, were defined som ewhat rigidly
accorcling to the sequence of stages in the development of reasoning
outlined by Piaget, and considered by him to be innate.
p.38
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too question the dominant educational discourse based on
developmental psychology, which is assumed to represent universal
'scientific' truths about human development. Like Burman (2008), they
are concerned about its potential for structural domination, oppression
and inJustice. Other possible discourses, they maintain, should be
considered, asking, for example, 'What would it mean if pedagogical
practice was to embody the ethics of an encounter, treating the Alterity
of the Other with respect, rather than making the Other into the
Same' (Dahlberg and Moss 2004: viii).
pAO
Piaget's stage theory was not only a concern for philosophers. For
many psychologists, the reality ofPiaget's stages was always in question.
Well known examples related to early cruldhood are Bruner (1966) and
Donaldson (1978) and there have been several others. Flavell (1977:
115) wrote that 'the higher the Piagetian stage, the less inevitable its
full attainment by normal individuals al1 human
across
environments ... '; Gage and Berliner (1988: 120) claimed that 'Only
a small percentage of the general population appears to have formal
operational abilities as Piaget defined them'. The notion of invariant
age-related developmental stages determined by human biology is now
generally rejected in psychology. Since the 1990s, if not before, it is the
aspect of Piaget's theory that is considered the least valuable by most
psychologists. With regard to younger children, Meadows (1993: 29-
30) writes that: 'It seems likely that ... the difference between younger
and older children will turn out to be that the former can do what the
latter can; but only sometimes, only under favourable conditions, only
with help, only without distractions, only up to a point, without so
much efficiency, without so much self-control, without so much
awareness of the implications, without so much certainty ... '. As a
science, psychology can do no more than offer provisional theories and
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community of enquiry pedagogy (Lipman 1991a, 1991 b).
p.42
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the community is considered essential. Both the facilitator and the
participants will be changed by the encounter.
Feuerstein's other criteria for MLE, not al! of which are necessarily
present in all situations, indude: the generation of feelings of
competence and optirnism, the encouragement of self-regulation, goal
setting and sharing, the recognition of individual differences and
perspectives, the creation of a sense of belonging, and of being a
modifiable entity capable of enjoying and responding to challenge. In
the best of enquiry dialogues, most of these criteria would be met,
although the facilitator might not frame her behaviour in trus way.
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In ]. Russell (Ed.), Philosophical Perspectives on Developmental
Psychology. Oxford: Blackwell.
Matthews, G.B. (1994). The Philosophy of Childhood. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Matthews, G.B. (2009). Philosophy and Developmental Psychology:
Outgrowing the Deficit Conception of Childhood. In H . Siegel
(Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Meadows, S. (1993). The Child as Thinker. London: Routledge.
Murris, K. (2000). Can Children do Philosophy? J ournal of Philosophy of
Education 34(2): 261- 76.
Murris, K. (2016). The Posthuman Child: Educational Transformation
through Philosophy with Picture Books. London: Routledge.
Newman, F. and Holzman, L. (1993). Lev Vygotsky: Revolutionary
Scientist. London: Routledge.
Peirce, C.S. (1877). The Fixation ofBelief. In]' Buchler (Ed.) (1955)
Philosophica1 Writings of Peirce (pp. 5-22). N ew York: Dover
Publications.
Piaget,]. (1959). The Language and Thought of the Child (3rd edition).
London: Routledge.
Piaget,]. (197 1). The Science of Education and the Psychology of the Child.
London: Longman.
Piaget, ]. and Inhelder, B. (1969). The Psychology of the Child. New
York: Basic Books.
Sharp, A.M. (1995). Philosophy for Children and the Development of
Ethical Values. Early Childhood Deve/opment and Care 107: 45- 55.
Splitter, L. and Sharp, A.M. (1995). Teaching for Better Thinking.
Melbourne, Australia: ACER.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1962) . Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT
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rest of his days w hispering in a com er w ith three or four lads, and never
u tter anything free or high or spirited.
p.47
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time' - the latter focuses on time as experience, duration, intensity,
lived time and non-linear directionality (see Heraclitus 2001: fr. 52).
Building on the Greek notion of aion, Friedrich Nietzsche (2003)
proposed that we think time as the etemal retum of the same, a circular
notion. In sorne Andean cultures, the past is ahead because it is what
we can see, the future is behind because we cannot see it, and the
present descends upon us from aboye. If we alJow for such different
understandings of temporality, childhood may be understood, not as a
series of stages of life but as a dimension of lived experience - specifically,
the aionic - thus deconstructing the notion of growth and
development as a steady, non-reversible process of extinguishing
childhood. This leads to deconstructing the strict binary 'adult/ child' as
well, and to reconstructing educational discourses and the institutions
over which those discourses have historically exerted hegemonic
power.
p.49
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educational discourses of childhood formation cannot but represent an
intrinsically unsuccessful attempt to forget or foreclose on our initial
debt to indeterrninacy - the inhuman from which every human being
arrives in childhood and to which our actual, chronological childhood
condition testifies. The political task of the difIerent fonTIS of human
expression, including education, is to preserve and nurture that
.
testlmony.
p.51
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Kohan, W. (2015b). The Inventive Schoolrnaster: Sirnon Rodriguez. Trans.
ViekiJones andJ.T. Wozruak. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Lewis, T . and Jasinsky, 1. (201 5). The Educational Community as In-
tentional Community. Studies in Philosophy and Education 35(4): 371-
83.
Liddell, H. and Seott, R. (1966). A Creek English Lexicon. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Lindsay, C. (1992). Corporality, Ethies, Experimentation: Lyotard in
the Eighties. Philosophy Today 36(4): 389-401.
Lipman, M . (1981). Developing Philosophies of Childhood. Thinking:
TheJoumal of Philosophy foy Children 2(3- 4): 4- 7.
Lipman, M . (1988). Philosophy Coes to School. Philadelphia: T emple
University Press.
Lipman, M., ed. (1993) . Thinking Children and Education. Dubuque, lA:
Kendall.
Ni etzsche, F. (2003). The Cenealogy of Moyals. N ew York: Dover.
Lyotard, J.-F. (1988a). Le Postmodeme expliqué aux enfants. Paris:
Gallimard.
Lyotard, J.-F. (1988b). L' Inhurnain . Paris: Galilee.
Lyotard, J.-F, (1992). Mainmise. Philosophy Today 36 (4) : 419- 27.
Matthews, G. (1996). The Philosophy of Childhood. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Plato (1989). Th e Collected Dialogues. Edith Hamilton and Huntington
Caims (Eds), Prineeton: Prineeton University Press.
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the growing story belonging to the larger classrool11 cOl11munity. Their
conversations are embodied enactments of philosophical co nc epts that
are explored collaboratively with facilitator(s) who have sensitive
philosophical ears.
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'only a game for beautiful princesses' or that an 'ogre with sharp teeth
is a baddie'. Through their imaginary play (e.g. pretending to be a
beautiful princess and what would happen if they were su eh a person)
children already express curiosity about abstract concepts such as
'beauty', 'identity' and 'power'. The children are experiencing in an
embodied way concepts that are recognized as philosoprucal problems
(when philosophers try to define them). The children play different
philosophical positions out in the stories they create and in their
interactions with each other. For example, they experience that you
can be beautiful, but find out that even as a princess you can have very
little power over the ogre with sharp teeth.
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adds the vocabulary of philosophical concepts in the same way she
might introduce words such as 'triangle' or 'ochre'. Her interactions
challenge children to think about such things as power: 'Can you have
leadership in an ant colony? Who decides the rules for ant society?'
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p.60
References
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p.63
PART III
What is philosophical about
Philosophy for Children?
Introduction
.
Grounded m different analytical, pragmatist and continental
philosophical traditions this section engages with philosophically
conflicting ideas about not only what counts as 'philosophy' and
'philosophical progress' in P4C, but also what provokes researchers and
practitioners to (re)consider the dominant focus and desire to develop
methods for establishing the essence of a philosophical question.
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(rather than scientific, economic, psychological or historical progress).
For the rest of this chapter 1 will use 'epistemic philosophical progress'
and 'epistemic progress in P4C' interchangeably.
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To understand epistemic progress in P4C we also need to understand
the kind of knowledge , meaning or understanding that is sought by
addressing a philosophical problem; we must understand the epistemic
aim of P4C. What sort of epistemic improvement do we seek? Do
participants seek better ideas or truth? Do they want to clarify,
understand or solve? This episternic aim gives their inquiry a direction
and a purpose, and they can make epistemic philosophical progress from
the problem and towards this epistemie aim. My foeus here is on the
specific episternic aim of P4C, rather than the epistemology of P4C in
general. Others have diseussed the nature of knowledge and truth
involved in the collaborative philosophical inquiry of P4C (for
example, Bleazby 2013; MeCall 2009; Rollins l 1995).
p.67
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position without also advocating some other epistemic aim.
However, many seem to be influenced by this tradition of dialogue,
and we can better understand the other four positions by
contrasting them with this tradition.
p.68
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1 2 3 5
.------------------------------.
On9 absolute e ",stemic aim No apislemic aim
Right aod wrongoonceplions Befiar and worse conceptions. Equafly good conceplioos
Absolute , final, certain ReasoneG:l, rellective PersoooJ, rélative cooceptions
judgerntlnts
Utteral dBscription 01 wortd Answerable lo lile worId Private co-ncep oons
Objacti"" InlBrsubjoclive Subjective
Concaptioos corrnspond to tha Public, social o:::l' I'mrainls on No external oon:41 aints on ttua
one mality lusually seeking conc9ptions Ibu! no! necessarily privale ,co/lCeptions (and nol
consenslJS) seeldng conser.sus) seeking canser.sus)
p.69
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The direction of inquiry (the paths we can take)
p.70
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a milestone, even though there is rarely agreement about whether we
have reached the epistemic aun. For example, it is often clear whether
we have given a plausible reason or a counter-example, even though it
is rarely clear if we have resolved the problem we were inquiring
about.
The following five steps indicate a simple and general path of inquiry
in P4C, and the series of milestones for making progress along this
path.J. Other accounts ofP4C with different epistemic aims may have a
different account of the path of inquiry and different milestones, or
they may emphasise some milestones over others. We make progre ss by
articulating a problem as a question, then hypothesising resolutions,
then elaborating these possible resolutions and then evaluating the
possibilities, before judging which best resolves the problem. For some
of the steps 1 have also indicated some more specific miles tones from
the different accounts of P4C 1 illustrated aboye, and 1 give more
details about these specific milestones (described in brackets) in the lists
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the painting. Can we just take a moment and come back
to ]ack's co mment earlier about Rachel 's metaphor of a
'sad' circus. jack, do you want to add anything here?
Jack: W eU, maybe there' s something in it, but 1 still think it
miss es the point. 1 partly agree with people's
comments ... it's kinda sad, but sad's not a good word
here. I'm stiU bothered by the idea of a circus.
Teacher: Can you say why?
W e discussed jack's point here about staying focussed and how when
we use analogies and metaphors, sometimes we can go in different
directions with our thinking. Sorne students were keen to point out
that this wasn't ne cessarily distracting and there was agreement that we
moved forward in our thinking. Lipman (1988: 180) reminds us of
P eirce's claim that ampliative reasoning, of which metaphor is an
example, corresponds to an 'evolving world': 'it bursts the bounds of
the known and breaks the barriers that our literal knowledge imposes
on us'. This is what art can do for us when we are open to it beyond
the restraints of representation.
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Madrid. Available at
http: // www. museoreinaso fi a.es/ en/ collection/ artwo rk/ guernica.
Sharp, A.M. (1997a) The aesthetic dimension of the community of
inquiry. Inquiry: critical thinking across the disciplines 17(1) , 67- 77.
Sharp, A.M . (1997b) The sacred as relationship in the community of
inquiry. In: Palsson, H. , Siguroardottir, B. and Nelson, B. (Eds)
Philosophy for Children on top of the world. Akureyri , Iceland:
University of Akureyri, 5- 19.
Sharp, A.M. (2007) The classroom co mmunity of inquiry as ritual :
how we can cultivate wisdom. Critical and Creative Thinking: the
Australasian Journal of Philosophy in Education 15(1), 3- 14.
Shusterman, R. (2006) Thinking through the body , edu cating for the
Humanities : A plea for somaesthetics. Th e Journal of Aesthetic
Education 40(1), 1-21.
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book.
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You have either reached a page thal is unava ilable for viel'iing or reached your viel'iing limil for lhis
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p.260
INDEX
absolutism 114-15
academic j o urnals xxiii, 167
Academy 94
Achinstein, B. 223
acti on 5., 13.; deliberati ve pedagogy 23- 5., 25- Q; warrants for actions
113- 14, 115, 116
active m eanin g making 35 , 40
Adam s, P . 165
adu lt epistemic privilege 54
adulth ood 48
aesth eti c edu cati on 145- Q
aesth etic experi ence 135, 137- 44, 146
aestheti c space fo r inquiry 135- Q, 153- 60
Africa n Ameri can students 223 , 224
Agamb en, G . 49- 50
aiol1 49
akhem y 194-5.
anarchist model of authority 28- 2, 32
App lebaum , B. 16
Arendt, H . 5., Q, 181
argum entati on, logical 41
Aristotle 172; philosophical friendship 94- ,}
art, as experience 135, 137- 44, 146
art ofliving 148- 51
aspirational eros 135- 2, 153 , 155- 2.
assemblages 54, 59
Australia 204, 246- 2.; development ofP4C materials 161 , 163- 70
Australian Council for Educational R esearch (ACER) 165
Australian Institute ofPhilosophy for Children (AIPe) 165
autarchic theory 96- 2
authority 2, 27- 33; shared 29- 32
Baccalaureate 204
Baehr, J. 104, 106
Bandura, A. 156
Baumfield, V. 119, 245 , 246
Beardsley, M . 237
'Beast, The' 7
becoming 155
becoming-child 49- 50
behaviourist learning theory 37
beliefs 105; warrants for 113- 14, 11 5, 116
Beloved (Morrison) 15 , 16
Bereiter, C. 194
Bible 183- -6
Biesta, G. 14, 175
Bildung 149
biology 192-4
Black, M . 237
Blackwell, D.M. 223
blessing 184- ,}
Bohmian dialogu e 67 , 68
Copyllghted material
brain 85- -9
Brenifier, O. 130
bridging 43
British Council schools linking project Z
Buranda State School, Brisbane 168- 2
Burbules, N. 16
Burgh, G. 245- 2 , 246-~
Burman, E. 39
Callicles 46- -8
Calvert, K. 192
Cam, P. 75 , 167, 168, 170
Camisa, R. 7
Canada 231- 2
canon 183
canonical text 162, 183- 2
caring thinking 128 , 129, 130, 148
cats 192
Center for High School Philosophy xxv
p. 26 ¡
Central America Z
chemistry 194- 2
Chetty, D. 222- 3
child blindness 54
child migrants Z
childhood: developmental psychology 35 , 37-45; education,
philosophy and 35 , 46-52; majoritarian and minoritarian views of
48- 50
China 232
citizen' s education 2 , 19- 26
Copyllghted material
citizenship :1:
civic relationships 22- 3
civics educarÍon 20
closed questions 76, 78
cognitive dissonance 245- 2 , 248
collaboration 121 ; collaborative problem-solving 195- 7
Collins, C. 202- 3, 211 , 214
common understanding 67
communication 96- .8.; non-verbal 148 , 224
communities of action 25
community 96- 8 ; reasonableness as thinking as a community 127- 9
community ball 23
community of gestures 148
conllilUnity of inquiry (Col) 42, 219- 20 ; aesthetic education 145- 2 ;
citizen's education 2, 19- 26 ; intellectual safety and academic
challenge 231 ; racisl11 and discol11fort in 1, 11- 18; teachers'
professional learning in a classrool11 Col 102, 119- 26
cOl11l11unity ofphilosophical inquiry (CoPI or CPI) xxvi, 1, } - 1O , 41 ,
47 , 67; Chair 84- 91 , 92 ; democratic nature of } - 5.; herl11en eutic
perspective on questioning in 63, 74- 82; nature and role of authority
2, 27- 33 ; as a palil11psest 64, 93- 100; philosophical position 5- 6;
Socrates fay Six Yeay Olds 63- :1:, 84- 91
cOl11pulsory subject, philosophy as 204
conceptual analysis 7 1
con ceptual understanding 206
Confucius 230
co nstructivisl11 206
construcrÍvist developl11ental theory 37- .8., 38- 41
content, philosophical 213
Convention on the Rights of the Child 120
co-philosop hizing 94-5
Copyllghted material
creative thinking 128 , 150, 237, 238- 2., 242- ;2
creativity 232- 3; promoting 192- 4
Critical & Creative Thinking 167
critical dispo sition 75
criticalliteracy 176- 2
critical posthumanism 173--1
critical thinking 107, 128, 176- 7, 248 ; in kindergarten and e!em entary
school 217- 18, 236- 44; model of the developmental process of
238- 41 , 242- ;2; nature of 237-~; programs 106; Siege!'s
epistemology 113- 15
culture: acknowledging or deconstructing 231- 2; cultural renewal
161- 2, 180- 8
curation of aspirational eros 157- 2.
curriculum: early years 59- 60; models for including philosophy 189,
201- .5.; national curricula 59, 201 ; P4C curriculum xxvi, 17 1- .5.;
philosophical teaching across the whole curriculum 189- 90, 205- 7
curriculum and supporting materials 16 1, 163- 70
Dahlberg, G. 39
Dalai Lama 23
Darwin, C. 193
Davis, M . 258
de Bolla, P. 138
de Haan, C. 167
dedicated P4C / philosophical inquiry sessions 203- 1
deep learning 203
deep reflectiv e thinking 249- 51
Deleuze, G. 49- 50
deliberation 1 , .5., 23- .5.
deliberative pedagogy 2., 19- 26
democratic education 19- 20, 25 , 27 , 47 ; CPI 1, ;2- 10
Copyllghted material
Descartes, R. 85 , 11 2, 114
developmental psychology 35 , 37--45
developmentalism 172
developmentality 172
Dewey,]. 125 , 145, 151, 206, 208, 248; art as experience 137- .8., 140 ,
146; authority in education 29; community/conununication 96- 1 ,
131 ; demo cracy 4; dialogue 98; human individuality 180; inquiry 5,
38 , 250; pragmatist epistemology 11 1, 11 2- 13, 114, 115, 122;
psychologizing the subject 124; refl ective m ethod 237
Di Angelo, R. 17
dialectics 95 , 97 , 98
dialogical critical thinking (DCT) 217- 18, 236--44; model of
developmental process of 238- 41 , 242- 2
dialogue 48, 83- :1, 258 ; Bohmian 67, 68; deliberative pedagogy 23- 5.;
h ermeneutic 67, 68, 69 ; inquiry dialogue 41 , 153- :1; Socratic 67, 68,
69
didactical questions 79
Diotima 77 , 1 54
direction of inquiry 69- 70
discomfort 1 , 11- 18
discovery learning 40
discursive symbols 192
distan ce 255- -6
disturbance, valuable 122- 2
D'Olimpio , L. 167
p.262
Copyllghted material
drama 135, 145- 52
drama tic play 55- 2.
dualism 85- 6
Copyllghted material
epistel11ic responsibility 106- 1
epistel11ic-scientifie stan ee 95
epistel11ically virtuous age nts 101 , 103- 10
epistel11olo gical perspee tives 239- 40 , 241, 242-~
epistel11ology, pragl11atist 10 1, 11 1- 18
equality, axiol11 of 255 , 256 , 258
equilibratio n 41
eros 154-5; aspirational 135- fi, 153 , 155- 2.
essen tialisl11 xxv
ethical civic relationships 22- ~
ethnic studies course 21- .5.
ethni eity 217 , 220, 22 1- 4, 225
experience: art as 135, 137- 44, 146; philosophieal 77- 9
exp ert readers 176- 1
eye contact 231- 2
Copyllghted material
freedom Q, II
Freire, P. 20, 26
fri endship: groups 24-5 ; philosophical 94-5
fu sion of horizons 78
Fynes-Clinton, L. 248- 2
habituation 150- 1
Hamrick, W. 146
H arry Stottlemeier's Discovery (Lipman) xxvi, 38 , 43 , 147, 166
Hattie, J. 121
Hausberg, A. 193-1:
Hawai'i 2., 19- 26
Haynes, J. 11 , 13, 122, 145
hermeneutic dialogue 67, 68 , 69
hemleneuti cs 162, 182- 2
higher-order questioning 247- 11
higher-order thinking 41 , 173
Copyllghted material
Hispanic students 223 , 224
historicallayers 64, 93- 100
hooks, b . 16, 159
horizon 77- 8
horizontal conversations 162, 182
Horton, M. 20, 26
Hull, K. 157
humanism 175
p.263
Copyllghted material
inquiry values 101, 115- 16
Institute for the Advancement ofPhilosophy for Children (IAPC) xxi ,
xxvi, 95 , 132- 3, 187; curriculum materials 145, 164, 166, 169
institutional racism 24, 224
integration of philosophy into the curriculum 202
intellectual challenge 231
intellectual courage 106- 1, 108
intellectual safety 21, 22- 3, 231
intellectual standards 116
interactive online learning Journal 217 , 227- 35
intercultural tension 231- -2
internalization 173
International Academy ofEducation 122
international conferences xxiii
International Council ofPhilosophical Inquiry with Children (ICPIC)
.
XXl
jackson, T. 228
Jacotot, J. 255 , 257
Japan 233
Jewish education 162 , 182- 2
Journal of Philosophy in 5chools 167
judgment: emotions and 130- 1 ; good 104-5, 130, 237; mediating
judgments 70
kairos 49
Kennedy, C. 246- .8.
Copyllghted material
Kennedy, D. 15, 39, 96 , 148 , 200
khronos 48- -9
kindergarten 21 7- 18, 236- 44
King, M.L.,Jr 13- 14
KIUght, S. 202- } , 211 , 21 4
Kugel, J. 185
Kuhn, T.S. 115- 16
Landsberg, P. 94
Langer, S. 192
Latin America 256- -7
Laverty, M. 204
Law, S. 182
leadership 58- 9
learning/ study skills 205
Lech ¡'cha 186
Lift Off 166
Lindop, C. 166, 167
Lipman, M. 35 , 93, 96, 115, 121, 153, 158, 165, 174, 180, 203 , 205,
208; approach ro education 37-~ , 40; art 138, 139, 143; childhood
and philosophy 46, 4 7-~; Col 119, 124, 146, 219- 20; CPI xxvii , 41 ;
critical thinking 237; democratic education 25 ; democracy 256;
emotions 131 ; Harry Stottlemeier's Diswvery xxv, 38, 43, 147, 166;
¡APC xxi, xxiii, 145 , 164; invention 257- 8; Lipman and Sharp's
synthesis 96, 98; mediating judgments 70; metacognition 44, 156;
origins of the P4C movement xxiv- xxv, 200- 1 ; P4C curriculum
164, 171- 2., 173 ; philosophical dialogue 83 ; Pixie 129; progress of
inquiry 70; questions 75 ; reasonableness 104 , 127- 8, 130, 157;
religious education 182; standards 69; Suki 138, 146; teacher
education 254- .5.; translation 132
listening 14, 15
Copyllghted material
literacy 175- 2
logical argumentation 41
logical thinking 237 , 238- 2., 241 , 242- .1
loving attitude 147
Lyotard, J.-F. 49- 50
MacColl, S. 167
MacIntyre, A. 180
Makaiau, A.S. 206
manuals 171- -2
Martín Alcoff, L. 219
mathematics 189, 191- 2, 195- 2
Matthews, G. xxiv, xxv, xxvii, 38- 2., 56, 172
M cCall, C. 69
M cC utcheon, L. 167
McGaw, B. 165
McIntyre, A. 13
M cKee, D. 222
M ead, G .H. 96, 173
Meadows, S. 40
meaning 78- 2.; children as active meaning makers 35 , 40; co nceptual
understanding 206; meaning-centred nature of J ewish education
182- 6; m eaningful conceptions 67 , 68
p.264
Copyllghted material
Menter, I. 121
Merleau-Ponty, M. 156
metacognition 44, 107- li, 156
metacognitive growth 156
metacognitive thinking 238- 2 , 242- }
meta-emotions 129- 33
metaphor 142- }
methodological pragmatism 117
Mexico: IntemationaI Youth Conference 7- 8; schools linking project 7
midrash 182- -3
milestones 70- 2
Miller, C. 206
Millett, S. 150
mind- brain relationship 85- 6
mirror effect 119, 120
modelling, mathematical 196
models ofP4C in schools 189, 20 1- ,'2
Mohr Lone, J. 75
Montclair Conference on Pre-college Philosophy xxvii
Moore, R. 145
moral development 38- 2
moral imagination 39, 56
moral order 28, 30
morality 147
Morrison, T. 15, 16
Moss, P. 39
motivation 154; aspirational eros 135- Q, 153 , 155- 2
multiculturalism 11
multidimensional thinking 128
multiple perspectives 23
MuY/eh Kids 166
Copyllghted material
Murris, K. 11, 13, 39 , 85 , 122, 123, 13 1, 166
Paley, V.G. 54
palimpsest 64, 93- 100
paper doubt 250- 1
participation 28
Paul, R. 116
Peirce, CS. 12, 114, 115, 237, 248; cornmunity of scientific inquiry
38 , 41 , 97; genuine and paper doubt 250- 1 ; pragmatist epistemology
11 2; sentiments oflogic 129
Copyllghted material
perfonnance 147- 51
pervasive qualities 139- 40
P eterson, A. 167
phenomenolo gical growth 156
philosophical attitude 76, 77 ; cultivating 79- 80
philosophical experience 77- 2.
philosophical fri endship 94- 2
philosophical play 36, 53- 61
philosophical problem 66, 71
philosophical qu es tions 75, 76- 2.
philosophical stories-as- text (novels) 164- 2, 167, 169, 171- 2.
philosophical teaching 189- 90, 205- 1
philosophizing 63- :,L 84-91 , 177 ; in maths and science classes 189,
19 1- 9; philosophizing-together 94- 5
Philosophizing w ith C hildren about Nature (PhiNa) program 197
philosophy: childhood, education and 35 , 46- 52; epistemic
philosophical progress 63 , 65- 73 ; philosophical analysis of in
philosophy with children 63- 4, 83- 92; synergy with edu cation in
teacher education 190, 2 11- 14
philosophy by children 53- 1
Philosophy for Children (P4C) xxi-xxxi; historical development of
xxv-xxvii; rnisrepresentation of xxiv
Phil osoph y for Children (P4C) curriculum xxvii, 171- 5
Philosophy for Children Hawai'i approach (P 4cHI ) 2, 19- 26, 228 ;
International Journaling and Self-Study Proj ect 217 , 227- 35
philosophy with children 63- 1 , 83- 92
Philo50phy with Kids series 167
Philoso th on 163
phronesis (practi cal w isdom) 108, 148- 2.
Piaget, J. 35 , 37- 41
Picasso, P. 135 , 137 , 140- 1
Copyllghted material
picture books 161 , 165- Q, 167, 168, 171- 2 , 222 ; selection 174-2
Pixie (Lipman) 129
p.265
Plain Vanilla 23
Plato 28 , 46- 2 , 77 , 80, 164, 172, 253 ; Academy 94
PLATO (Philosophy Learning and Teaching Organization) 204
play 36, 53- 61
plurality 2 , Q
Popp, lA. 25
positionality 217 , 219- 26
positive dissonance 122- 3
post-egocentricity 239- 40, 242
post-relativism/ pre-intersubJectivity 239- 40, 242
power 56- 2 ; distributed 23
pragmatism 67 , 101 , 146; inquiry as sociallife 96- 8; methodological
117
pragmatist epistemology 10 1, 111- 18
praxis 1- 2, ª
pre-relativism 239- 40, 242
presentative symbols 192- 3, 194
primary schools 246- ª
Pritchard, M. 128- 2
problem-solving, collaborative 195- 2
procedural authority 30- 1
process, philosophical 213
professional development 121- 2 , 233, 234
professionallearning 102, 119- 26
progress, epistemic philosophical 63, 65- 73
protectionism 181- 2
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pseudo-concepts 42
psychological growth 155- Q
psychologlcal questions 75
psychologizing the subject 124
pushing for depth 71
Question Quadrant 75
questiomng 14; in a CPI 63, 74- 82 ; higher-order 247- 12
Quinn, V. 124
race and racism 2.; and discomfort in the Col 1 , 11- 18; institutional
racism 24, 224; positionality 217, 220, 221-4 , 225
Rainville, N. 221- 2.
Ranciere, J. 255- Q, 257
rational justification 114
readers 175- 1
readin ess to question 77- 9
reasonableness : aspirational eros 156- 1 ; and emotions 102, 127- 34;
episternic virtues and 103- 5.
reasons, giving 70- 1
reconstmction of thinking 249- 50
red clover 192
regulative ideal, truth as 114-15
relational ontology 176
relationships, civic 22- ;2.
relativism 113- 14, 11 4- 15, 239-40, 242
reliabiJity 103-4
religiou s education: identity constmction and cultural renewal 161- 2.,
180- -8·, UK -6- -7
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resistance, teachers' 210- 11
resource materials: development in Australia 161 , 163- 70; picture
books 161, 165- Q, 167, 168, 171- 2, 222
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respect 119; respectful and ethical civic relationships 22- 1.
responsibility 103- 1
responsible thinking 238- 2., 242- 1.
rhetorical questions 79
rhetorics of play 53
Ricoeur, P. 183
risk 232
Roberts, R.e. 106
Rodriguez, S. 51, 256- 7
role play 55- 7
Rortian conversation 67, 68
Rorty, R. 130
Rousseau, J.-J. 28
SAPERE 7, 201
Schmid, w. 148- 9, 150
scholarship of teaching and learning (SoTL) 227- ª
Scholl, R. 245- 2
school linking project Z
Schwab, J. 155 , 158
science: inquiry-based 246- ª ; philosophizing with children in science
classes 189 , 191- 2, 197
Seashore Louis, K. 122
sec urity 232
self- efficacy 155- 6
self- evaluation 132- -3
self-reflection 149, 150- 1 , 209- 10
self-regulated we 131- 1.
self-study 209- 10; p4cHI International Journaling and Self-Study
Project 217, 227- 35
Sendak, M. 53
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