ES

Issue 32

A Maharatna Company

CORPORATE PLANNING

Energy Scan Vol. III 2017-18

A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited

INSIDE THIS ISSUE SCAN SPEAK

The World Economic Forum in its report tled 'The Future of Electricity- New Technologies
Future of Electricity…Stored in
Transforming the Grid Edge', released in March 2017, says that mainly three trends are
Batteries .................................... 2
converging to produce game changing disrup ons: Electrifica on (of transport and hea ng
sectors etc.), Decentralisa on and Digitalisa on. The report also points out that the demand
Overview of Electric and Hybrid
for energy storage, excluding pumped hydro, will increase from 400 MWh in 2015 to nearly
Vehicles ..................................... 7
50 GWh in 2025. Lithium-ion ba eries will make up most of the market and those are likely to
become more economical as vast quan es are developed and deployed for use in electric
vehicles, a market where the demand for these ba eries could reach 293 GWh by 2025.

Energy storage is the key component for crea ng sustainable energy future. In recent years,
the rapid growth in renewables has rejuvenated demand for ba ery storage to not only
complement renewables but also act as a reserve for providing peaking power and frequency
regula on. Energy storage technologies have the poten al to offset the intermi ency
problem of renewable energy sources. Energy storage is becoming cheaper with advances in
ba ery technologies and achieving higher capaci es that will allow for large scale
deployment. Tesla, an American company, has ac vated a 100-MW Li-ion ba ery storage
facility in South Australia, which can power over 30,000 homes.

The declining cost of ba eries from $1000 per kWh in 2010 to nearly $250 per kWh now has
helped the deployment of electric vehicles and energy storage. It is expected that 54% of
global car sales would be electric by 2040. The tradi onal automakers in the US and Europe
have invested billions of dollars to advance the technology. China is advancing more
aggressively on EVs. 7 lakh electric cars were sold by China in 2017, according to preliminary
figures. Chinese automakers are expected to produce more than 4.5 million electric vehicles
annually in 2020, compared with about a million from Tesla, as per Interna onal Energy
Agency. India is also showing huge interest in advancement of ba ery technology and
development of suitable ecosystem for EVs. Govt. of India's focus has shi ed to R&D at
ISRO's Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), which built cells for use in its space systems. Its
ba eries have ensured India's iconic satellites work glitch-free in space. The process of
transferring the technology to industry for use in electric vehicles is on.

Against the above backdrop, the current issue of Energy Scan brings you two ar cles: First,
'Future of Electricity…Stored in Ba eries' and second, 'Overview of Electric and Hybrid
Vehicles' as an a empt to keep you informed about the developments taking place in the
energy storage and mobility sectors.

Happy Reading!

The items and the views expressed herein do not purport to be the official news/views of NTPC Management. This magazine is for internal circulation only.
Anything being reproduced or quoted from this magazine will require prior approval of its Editorial Group.
Energy Scan is also available online at NTPC CC Intranet  Departments  Corporate Planning  Energy Scan
A Maharatna Company
Future of Electricity…Stored in Ba eries
Abstract:
The objec ve of this paper is to bring forth the necessity of the ba ery stored energy for smooth grid opera on in view of the current
growth as well as the future penetra on of renewable energy. The paper deals with the advantages of ba ery storage system, its
worldwide recogni on and development, various types of ba eries, its cost economy in the exis ng scenario and the opportuni es
before NTPC to venture into the field of ba ery storage system.
Introduc on
As India is moving towards an energy surplus scenario along
with the huge an cipated capacity addi on in RE, especially
solar and wind, the need of flexible opera on of coal based
plants as well as the smooth opera on of grid due to variable
nature of RE are the major points of concern for Indian power
sector. Due to mismatch in RE genera on and energy demand,
a lot of electricity goes as waste due to non-availability of
op ons to store that energy. Considering the fact that base
load plants do not have the capability to respond quickly to
fluctua ons in the power demand and supply, the ba ery
storage system, now a days, is becoming an a rac ve op on
for balancing power needs of countries across the world. The
very capability of this system for delivering energy during low
frequency condi ons of grid and storing the addi onally
available energy during off-peak hours makes it a reliable
solu on to operate grid at near constant frequency.
Energy storage
Electricity generated from any source, whether tradi onal or
renewable, needs to be consumed instantly. This limita on of
electricity has led to the development of energy storage
technologies. Energy storage technologies provide flexibility
in the use of electricity, for both centralized and decentralized
supply provisions. The energy storage systems facilitate in
balancing supply and demand and in the grid integra on of
unpredictable renewable genera on. At present ,world over
around 1643 energy storage projects have been installed with
an accumulated capacity of 193 GW.
A widely used approach for classifying energy storage systems
is by the form of energy used. Based on the above, the
different types of energy storage are: a) Thermal storage (Ice,
Molten Salt, Hot Water),b) Bulk Gravita onal Storage
(Pumped Hydropower, Gravel),c) Mechanical Storage
(Flywheels, Compressed Air) and d) Chemical Storage
(Ba eries).
Advantage of Energy Storage Power Plant:
• Load Shi ing: Load shi ing is achieved by storage of
energy during periods of low demand and releasing the
stored energy during periods of high demand.
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Energy Scan : A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited
• Manish Jain, DGM(Commercial), manishjain02@ntpc.co.in
• Parimal Piyush, DGM(Commercial), parimalpiyush@ntpc.co.in
• Uninterrupted RE supply: Intermi ency of renewable
energy can be reduced to a great extent with ba ery
storage. RE stored in ba eries can be used to provide
peaking power. This stored power may also be treated as
renewable power for transmission sharing and losses.
• Frequency Stabiliza on: The energy sector in India is
undergoing very stringent regula on to operate on stable
frequency. Energy storage can be used to inject and
absorb power to maintain grid frequency in the face of
fluctua ons in genera on and load.
• Spinning Reserve: Many storage technologies can be
synchronized to grid through their power electronics, so
that they can serve as spinning reserves with minimal to
zero standby losses (unlike the idling generators).
• Voltage Stabiliza on: This ancillary service is used to
maintain transmission voltage within an acceptable range
with the help of reac ve power injec on into the grid
through grid connected inverters.
• Black Start: This service, typically provided by generators,
restores the electric grid following a blackout. Energy
storage could provide this service with much ease.
• Transmission and Distribu on network deconges on: It
is possible to use energy storage to address transmission
capacity constraints created by periods of peak demand
or specific con ngencies.
The scope of this ar cle is limited to “Ba ery Storage
Plant” only.
Ba ery Storage Power Plants
U lity-scale ba eries increasingly compete with natural gas to
provide system flexibility at mes of peak demand. Ba eries
bolster the reach of renewable and this will help renewable
energy reach 74% penetra on in Germany, 38% in the U.S.,
55% in China and 49% in India by 2040.
The response me of the ba ery storage power plants is in the
range of a few milliseconds to few seconds. Ba ery storage
plants thus can dampen the fast oscilla ons that appear when
electric power networks are operated close to their maximum
capacity within seconds.
 A Maharatna Company

Development so far
Since the commissioning of Chino Ba ery Storage Project in
California (14 MW/40 MWh) in 1988, several ba ery storage
plants have been made opera onal and many more are in
pipeline. There are approximately 1000 ba ery storage
projects that have been installed world over with an overall
capacity of 3.4 GW. A unique ba ery storage plant (13 MWh)
in Germany with worn ba eries from electric cars is being
constructed with an expected second life of 10 years, a er
which they will be recycled.
Some of the largest ba ery storage power plants are provided
below:

Owner / Project Power / Energy Technology Location Primary Function

Duke Energy / 36 MW / Advanced Goldsmith, Renewables capacity firming,

Notrees 24 MWh lead acid TX, USA electric energy time-shift;
frequency regulation

Japan Wind 34 MW / Sodium sulfur Rokkasho Renewables capacity firming,

Development' 238 MWh Village, renewables energy time-shift;
Rokkasho ViIlage Japan capacity spinning reserves
Wind Farm

AES / Laurel 32 MW / Lithium-ion EIkins, WV, Frequency regulation

Mountain MWh USA and ramping

GVEA / Battery 27 MW / 6.8 Nickel Fairban ks, Capacity spinning reserves,

Energy Storage MWh cadmium AK, USA grid—connected residential
System (reliability), grid-connected
commercial (reliability & quality)

BYD / Shenzen 20 MW / Lithium-ion Shenzen, Self-regulation of load,

40 MWh China peak shaving

AES / Angamos 20 MW / Lithium-ion Mejillones, Frequency regulation and

MWh Chile capacity spinning reserves

AES / Tait 20 MW / Lithium-ion Moraine, Frequency regulation

unknown OH, USA
NextEra - 20MW / Lithium-ion Iilinios, USA Frequency regulation
Frontier unknown
AES / Los Andes 12 MW / Lithium-ion Atacama, Frequency regulation and
4 MWh Chile capacity spinning reserves

Batteries for Battery Storage Power Plants:
Some commonly used batteries are being discussed here.
• Lithium Ion (LI‐ION) Batteries : by Sony and Asahi Kasei
(1991)
This is a widely used battery for energy-storage
applications from a few kilowatt-hours in residential
systems with rooftop photovoltaic arrays, to multi-
megawatt containerized batteries for the provision of grid
ancillary services.
Advantages ‐ high energy density, high power, high
efficiency, low self-discharge, more no. of charging cycles,
fast response time.
Disadvantages‐ short cycle life, high cost, heat
management issues, flammability and narrow operating
temperatures.
More than 70 projects, capacity totaling approximately
312 MW is presently in operation. System with this kind of
batteries can be used for frequency regulation and for
integrating intermittent renewable generation.
• Nickel‐Cadmium (NI‐CD) Batteries : This is a traditional
battery, invented in 1899. The biggest advantage of this
battery is simplicity in implementation and long life. The
biggest disadvantage of the battery is low energy density.
• Sodium Sulfur (NAS) Batteries: by Ford Motor Company
(1960's)

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Energy Scan : A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited
A Maharatna Company
Disadvantages ‐ Risk of fire, round-trip efficiencies of 70-
90%, high self-discharge/parasitic load values (0.05-
20%)(Parasitic loads are the loads like relays, clocks etc.
consuming DC in offline state of main equipment),less
efficient for infrequent cycling applications as internal
heating element continually consumes energy.
Systems with Sodium Sulphur Technology ranging from 400
kW to 34 MW are deployed for capacity of about 98.1
MW/640 MWh at 26 sites mostly in Japan and U.S.A.
Some other batteries used in battery storage plants are
Sodium-Nickel-Chloride; Vanadium Redox; Iron-Chromium,
Zinc-bromine, Zinc-air Batteries and Lead-acid Batteries.
Cost and Economics of Battery Storage System
There is no simple formula for estimating the cost of storage
resources at this time. Most systems are custom-designed,
built and tailored for very specific, customer-identified
applications and sites, so costs vary significantly. The vital
components' cost of the storage systems are:
• Battery Cell Costs: In 2014, Tesla estimated its battery cell
costs in the range of $200 to $300 per kWh and efforts are
on to drag this cost to $150/KWh by 2025.
• Balance of Systems (BOS) and Construction Costs: (BOS)
components include power electronics (inverters), control
modules, enclosures, interconnection studies and facilities,
Similar report has been published by Lazard and its partner
Enovation also, who predict capital cost decline will continue
across the board in the next five years, with the strongest
decline in lead acid batteries, lithium-ion energy
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Energy Scan : A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited
permitting, installation materials and labor, and
contingencies. The estimate tells that BOS represents 63%
of the total installed cost of commercial energy storage
system, and 74% for a residential system. In addition to BOS
and cell cost, construction cost of 10-15% of the combined
cell and BOS cost is envisaged.
• Land, Permitting and Interconnection: Many project costs,
such as interconnection facilities, step-up transformers,
t ra n s fo r m e r i n s t a l l a t i o n , s w i t c h g e a r, I T a n d
communications, land, are utility and site-specific. In a
contracting agreement these constitute “owner's costs.”
• The life of typical Battery storage plant is about 20 years and
gestation period of 2-3 Years.
Future unfolded:
A 2016 study by the IEA found that since 2010, Lithium-ion
battery costs have followed a similar trend to those
experienced by PV a decade earlier, with learning rates
averaging 22 per cent.
Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) reported that a 100
MW project (which would entail a 400-megawatt-hour
(MWh) battery installation) consisting of batteries,
shipping, installation, and associated necessary hardware
could cost around $169 million.
applications, sodium and long-duration flywheels. The
vanadium flow batteries clock in with an impressive 24
percent average predicted cost decline as well.
 A Maharatna Company

Unsubsidized Levelised cost in $/MWh

Micro-grid Island Commercial and Commercial Residential
Industrial Appliance

Flow battery (V) 728-1107 779-1164

Flow battery (Zn) 845-1286 741-1241 1208-1462 1241-1496

Flow battery (O) 673-1094 789-1245

Flywheel 332-441 643-863 623-1011

Lead Cell 705-1145 648-1612 745-1712 1025-2186

Lithium Ion 372-507 608-923 530-1142 624-1234 890-1476

Sodium 683-1180 580-1367 1506-1837 1476-1668

Zinc 735-1030 515-811

AEMO (Australian Energy Market Operator) South Australian Development in India

Fuel and Technology report indicates that battery storage is
now competitive with other large scale solutions for energy India has launched its first grid-scale battery storage system
balancing. The cost of electricity from various peaking power amid ambitious plans to integrate 175 GW of renewable
plants as per the report is: energy into the power system by 2022.

• Gas peaking plants : $218/MWh
• Solar thermal : $137/MWh
• Pumped hydro : $161/MWh
• Lithium Ion batteries : $216/MWh
Prima facie, the initial capital expenditure on Battery Storage
Power plant looks somewhat costlier. However, by considering
its advantages and future business opportunity associated
with it, this technology may become the front-runner in the
days to come.
Analysts forecast that price of lithium-ion battery modules will
tumble below $200/kWh by 2019, enabling previously
“uneconomical applications” such as the co-location of
battery storage and solar PV to surge. By 2025, the world's
base of cumulative installed storage capacity will reach 52 GW
as per study by HIS Markit. Last year, 1.3 GW of grid-connected
storage was deployed globally, and this rate is poised to
accelerate to 4.7 GW a year by 2020, and 8.8 GW annually by
2025.
The upcoming 10 MW battery storage array at Rohini, Delhi is
a joint project by Mitsubishi and the U.S. energy storage
company AES, which will be operated by Tata Power Delhi
Distribution Ltd. once commissioned. This battery storage
plant would enable better peak load management, add
system flexibility and enhance reliability for the customers.
Opportunity for NTPC
NTPC being a leader in the field of Power Generation has a
major role to play as far as grid integration of renewable
energy is concerned. Govt. of India and Regulators have taken
some significant steps in this direction. Rapid deployment of
RE will pose a huge problem for grid balancing, which battery
storage has the potential to solve. Central Electricity
Regulatory Commission (CERC) has brought out a staff paper
on electricity storage system in January 2017, wherein the
various options including battery storage have been
considered as possible options for storage of energy in future.
This entails an opportunity for NTPC to foray into the battery
storage business.

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Energy Scan : A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited
A Maharatna Company
Some reasons for NTPC to consider this opportunity are:
• NTPC is planning to make a foray in EV charging business.
Allocation of power for charging stations of EVs may also
be thought of.e peak period may be explored as a
business option.
Price at Indian Energy Exchange (1EX) INR / MWh
Price (INR) MWh
Date and Hour No.
MCP Price
(MCP: Maximum Clearing Price)
• It is observed that during off-peak period, electricity is
available at very cheap rate at Power Exchange whereas
during the peak hours, it is available at 4 to 5 times of off-
peak rates. This opportunity may also be tapped.
Charging the batteries during the off-peak period and
selling the stored energy during th
• The charging of batteries may be possible with the
Unrequisitioned Surplus (URS) energy available during
off-peak period and trading the same during peak hours.
• If ancillary services market flourish in a big way in near
future in India, commitment charges may be earned for
providing such services for grid stability along with
incentives for the supply of start-up power during black-
outs etc.
• The battery storage power may also be thought of as an
option to replace DG supplied power to RWAs in urban
areas.
• NTPC may tie-up with big consumers like Railways for serving
its traction, lighting, signaling and other power
requirements from NTPC battery storage plants.
Way Forward
As the implementation of Battery Storage Plant is highly
capital intensive investment, the capital cost recovery of the
same may hamper the development of the concept. Some
steps to make battery storage a viable business are as under:
• To create the space for the technology, the Battery Storage
Service may be considered at par with renewal energy.
• The cost of the plant may be reduced through viability gap
funding (VGF) from Power System Development Fund
(PSDF).
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Energy Scan : A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited
• It may be made compulsory for all big establishments, like
mall, stadium etc. having high consumption of electricity,
to have Battery Storage System with capacity equivalent
to significant percentage of their peak consumption to
flatten the load.
• For all new renewable energy based power plants, battery
storage is to be made mandatory for reliable & sustainable
supply of power from the plant.
• Battery banks may be considered for integration with the
Automatic Grid Control System (AGC) also under secondary
control, so that primary control gets reset quickly for next
response.
• Regulator may bring new regulations on ancillary services to
promote such technology, with commitment charges.
• Amendment in regulations may be required to charge
batteries with URS of power stations owned by the
company.
• The options of beneficiaries consent may also be thought of
to meet their peak demand/exigencies with supply of such
power, after getting the batteries charged with their URS
power, with additional commitment charges.
• Appropriate regulatory frame work for “Storing” the
Electricity.
This is a fast growing service, which is carving its niche due to
its captivity, simplicity, expandability and environment
friendly nature. In future, when cost economics will be in its
favour, it may be a game changer. So drive in to the future
…fully charged.
References :
w w w . c e r c i n d . g o v. i n ; w w w . p o w e r m i n . n i c . i n ;
w w w. c e a . n i c . i n ; w w w. m c k i n s ey. co m . ;
www.energymatters.com.au; www.energysage.com;
www.powermag.com ; www.pse.com
 A Maharatna Company

Overview of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

Dr. K.V. Vidyanandan, AGM (PMI)
kvvidyanandan@ntpc.co.in

Abstract
Introduc on of electric vehicles (EVs) signal the beginning of the end for tradi onal engine vehicles. The major mo vators for shi ing
to EVs are the need for reducing pollu ng engine emissions and reducing dependence on costly oil fuels. By the end of 2016, the global
stock of EVs crossed the two million mark. The growing acceptance of EVs is the outcome of several factors: technological
advancements, rising storage capacity of trac on ba eries coupled with their falling cost, increased public charging facili es and
Govt. incen ves. The two EV technologies currently remain at the top are the ba ery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug‐in hybrid electric
vehicles (PHEV). This paper gives an overview of various EV technologies, their features, limita ons and challenges in their bulk
deployment as a replacement to conven onal vehicles.

I. INTRODUCTION Poten al (GWP) than CO2. The global warming poten al of a

THE development of automobiles powered by internal
combus on engines (ICE) was one of the greatest engineering
achievements towards the end of the nineteenth century. The
availability of low-cost fuels, ease of use, increased reliability
and long driving range boosted the acceptance of these
vehicles. However, vehicles propelled by heat engines are very
poor in fuel efficiency (~ 20-25%), besides the combus on of
hydrocarbon fuels in these vehicles release many toxic gases.
Today, a er more than a century, the automo ve industry and
the large number of vehicles in use around the world are
causing serious concerns for the public and the environment.
The transport sector is a major contributor of air pollu on
besides electricity and heat genera on industries. As shown in
Fig. 1, the power and heat genera on sectors contribute to
42% of the global CO2 emissions, while the transport sector
alone contributes to 24% of CO2 emissions in 2015 . Road
transport accounted for 75% of transport emissions.
Depending upon the fuel type, driving style and road
condi ons, a typical medium size vehicle on an average emits
about 411 grams of CO2 per mile of travel, leading to about
4.7 metric tons of CO2 yearly .
Electricity
and Heat 42%
Others 7%
Transport
Services 3% 24%
Residential 6% Industry
19%
Fig. 1. World CO2 emissions from fuel combus on by sector
(IEA report 2017).
Besides CO2, liquid fuel engine vehicles also emit nitrogen
oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur oxides (SOx),
and unburned hydro-carbons (CxHy) from the tailpipe and
hydro-fluorocarbon (HFC) emissions from leaking air
condi oners. The shares of these gases are small as compared
to CO2; however, the impact of these emissions can be
significant because they have a higher Global Warming
Energy Scan : A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited
gas relates the impact of that gas rela ve to an equivalent
amount of CO2. Various Green-House Gas (GHG) emissions
from automo ve and their GWP are shown in Table 1. CO2
emissions account for more than 95% of the total GHG
emissions from a passenger vehicle.
Table 1. VEHICLE LINKED GASES & GLOBAL WARMING
POTENTIAL
Greenhouse Gas GWP
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 1
Methane (CH4) 25
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 298
AC Refrigerant (HFC-134a) 1,430
The major challenges automobile sector needs to address
today are (i) how to reduce impacts on climate change and (ii)
how to lower dependence on oil fuel. Several strategies are
being considered for addressing these issues. These include
switching over to eco-friendly biofuels, improved engine
design and use of electric vehicles. Biofuels have the poten al
to decarbonize the transport sector. In the early 2000, it was
projected that biofuels would be the answer to the issues of
fuel security and emissions. However, the sustainability and
the an cipated reduced emissions from biofuels have been
ques oned in recent years in connec on with food versus fuel
trade-offs, carbon accoun ng and land use .
Evs hold the promise of reducing carbon emissions by
transport sector significantly. Many countries have set targets
to stop the produc on and sale of petroleum fueled vehicles.
In terms of market share ll Dec. 2016, Norway has 29%
electric cars followed by the Netherlands (6.4%), Sweden
(3.4%) and China (1.5%) . The Electric Vehicles Ini a ve (EVI),
a policy forum focusing on the adop on of EVs recently
launched the EV30@30 campaign, se ng the EV targets of
30% by 2030 . In Germany, all new cars will be electric by 2030
and in France and Britain; sales of petrol and diesel cars will be
banned by 2040. China, the world's biggest car market, plans
to ban the produc on and sale of diesel/petrol cars and vans
'in the near future'.
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A Maharatna Company

India is targe ng to have an all-electric car fleet by 2030 with EVs have rela vely shorter driving ranges as compared to
an objec ve of lowering the fuel import and running cost of engine powered vehicles due to limited energy storage
vehicles. As a star ng point in this direc on, Govt. of India capacity. A brief comparison of IC engine vehicles vs. electric
launched the Na onal Electric Mobility Mission Plan vehicles is shown in Table 2. Various terminologies
(NEMMP)-2020 in 2013. It aims to achieve na onal fuel associated with electric vehicles is described in Table 3.
security by promo ng hybrid and electric vehicles in the
country . The ambi ous target is to achieve sales of 6-7 Table 2. COMPARISON OF ENGINE VEHICLES VS.
million hybrid and EVs per year star ng from 2020, out of ELECTRIC VEHICLES
which 4-5 million are expected to be two-wheelers. IC Engine (ICE) Vehicles Electric Vehicles (EV)
II. HISTORY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES • Powertrain: IC engine • Powertrain: Motor (+ Engine)
• High specific energy of fuel • Low specific energy of battery
The first electric vehicle powered by non-rechargeable • Power density: High • Power density: Low
ba eries was built in 1834, much before the development of • Emits greenhouse gases • No tailpipe emissions
IC engines . Electric vehicles were very popular during the • Travels > 300 miles / fill • Travels < 100 miles / charge
• Short refilling time (< 5 min.) • Long charging time (0.5-8 hr.)
1890 to 1920 period despite their very high cost. In 1912,
• Fuel tank takes less space • Battery takes large space
EVs have reached their prime, making up nearly 28% of the • Fuel weight is very less • Batteries are very heavy
cars on the road. The advances in IC engine technologies • Higher maintenance costs • Lesser maintenance costs
coupled with mass-produc on resulted in low-priced • Uses only hydrocarbons • Uses electricity from any resource
lightweight vehicles. By 1920, the availability of cheap oil, • Braking energy not recovered • Can recover braking energy
• Running cost: high • Running cost: low
electric starters, and a superior ability to travel long
• Engine efficiency: ~ 30% • Motor efficiency: ~ 80%
distances helped petrol cars to dominate the auto market • Need to pick up some speed • Produce maximum torque instantly
and eventually led to the collapse of the EV market. The to deliver maximum torque after starting of motor
downfall of EVs was a ributed to a number of factors, • Needs complex gear system • Needs only one gear
including the need for long travel range, limited motor • Noisy operation • Quiet operation
• Ample refilling infrastructure • Lacks charging infrastructure
power and the easy availability of cheap petrol. In the 1970s,
however, worries about the rising price of oil due to the oil
shock of 1973 together with the growing concerns of global Table 3. TERMINOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH EVs
warning resulted in renewed interests in Evs.
kW 1.Drive motor power, similar to hp of IC engine.
III. ELECTRIC VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES 2.Rating of battery charger, which gives an idea of
how quick to recharge.
Electric vehicles use electric motors for propulsion in place
of conven onal IC engines. Engine driven vehicles work on
the principle of combus on get their energy from carbon kWh Size of battery: it gives the idea of how far the EV can
based fossil fuels. In contrast, EVs can use electricity be driven (travel range), similar to petrol tank capacity
generated through a wide range of resources such as fossil
and non-fossil hydrocarbons, hydro/nuclear power and
renewables. Electricity is transmi ed to the vehicles km/kWh How far EV can be driven with a unit of electricity,
through overhead power lines, direct connec on through similar to 'km/litre'.
cables or wireless energy transfer. By using a storage system,
the energy may then be stored onboard the vehicle. ₹/kWh Cost of electricity, determines the cost of travelling and
charging.
Basic structure of an EV is shown in Fig. 2. Major
components of an electric vehicle include storage ba ery,
drive motor, motor controller, power electronics converters, Based on how and where the electricity is produced, EVs can
charge controllers and ba ery management system (BMS). be classified into three categories :
Depending upon the complexity of design, drive motor of
the EV can be a single reversible motor/generator or 1. Vehicles using con nuous electric supply from an
individual motors and generator. external power source. These include trolley buses and
electric trams supplied by overhead line (shown in Fig. 3).
Since they need con nuous electricity, these vehicles are
suitable only for very limited tasks.
2. Vehicles based on stored electricity from an off-board
power source. These include vehicles using ba ery,
flywheels, super capacitors etc.
3. Vehicles using on-board electricity genera on to meet
their needs. These include series electric hybrids, parallel
electric hybrids, and fuel-cell electric vehicles.
Fig.2. Basic structure of an electric vehicle.

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Energy Scan : A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited

Fig.3. (a) A trolley bus and (b) An electric tram.
The drive train of an EV (Fig. 4) consists of three major
subsystems: motor propulsion, energy source and auxiliary.
The propulsion system consists of the controller, power
electronic converter, motor, torque transmission and
wheels. The energy source section includes the energy
source, energy management unit and the energy refilling
unit. The auxiliary subsystem consists of power steering
unit, climate control unit, and auxiliary supply unit .
Fig. 4. Basic arrangement of an EV drive train.
Evs can be classified as Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) and
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV). Pure EVs have only battery as
their energy source. A vehicle that has two or more energy
sources and energy converters is called a hybrid vehicle (HV).
A HV with an electrical power train is called a hybrid EV. The
sources of energy used in HEVs can be a combination of
many resources such as battery, petrol, bio-fuels and fuel
cells. Battery-powered EVs usually have larger storage
batteries than HEVs. Travel range is one of the most
important differences between BEVs and HEVs.
A common feature of all electric vehicles is the capability for
Regenerative Braking (regen-braking). Regen-braking is a
process by which kinetic energy (KE) of the moving vehicle is
converted into electricity by reversing the operation of the
motor into generator. Conversion of KE in to electricity slows
the vehicle, which otherwise would have lost as heat by
friction in the mechanical brakes.
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a. Battery Electric Vehicles
Battery electric vehicles are propelled by electric motors by
using energy stored on board in batteries. There are many
similarities between an IC engine vehicle and a battery EV, a
brief list of which is summarized in Table 4. To recharge the
batteries of a BEV, periodically they must be plugged into an
external source of electricity.
Function ICE Bat. Electric
Vehicle Vehicle
Energy storage Fuel Tank Battery
Replenish the energy Petrol Pump Charger
Production of motive force IC Engine Electric Motor
Controls speed and Carburetor Electronic
power Controller
Auxiliary power supply Alternator DC/DC Converter
Table 4. Comparison of Systems and Functions of ICEV &
BEV
Based on the type of transmission, clutch, gearbox,
differential and the number of motors, a variety of EV
configurations are possible. This is shown in Fig. 5, starting
from the oldest design (a) to most advanced design (f).
Fig. 5. Various configurations of Electric Vehicles.
a. Vehicles with a clutch, a multi-speed gearbox and a
differential. These EVs are modified versions of ICE
vehicles with motors in place of engines.
b. EVs with a fixed ratio gearbox and a differential. They do
not use clutch as the electric motor that has constant
power in a long speed range. This resulted in reduced
size, weight and increased driving easiness.
c. Similar to the drive train in (b) but the motor, fixed
gearing, and the differential are integrated into a single
assembly. Result is a further simplified drive train.
d. The differential is replaced by using two traction motors
to drive front wheels and operate at different speeds
when the vehicle is running along a curved path.
e. The in-wheel drive with a thin planetary gear in which
the traction motor is placed inside the wheel. The gear
is used to enhance the drive torque.
f. Similar to the drive train in (e) except that the motor is
placed inside the wheel without any gear. This design is
relatively less complex than in (e).
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A Maharatna Company

The latest innova on in electric vehicles is the in-wheel and (iii) Full Hybrid.
configura on. In this design, as shown in Fig. 6, separate
motors (known as in-wheel motors) are installed at each Micro Hybrid (μHV): Micro hybrid is the least electrified
wheel. Moun ng the motor and power electronics within a type of HEV. It is a conven onal ICE vehicle with an oversized
wheel assembly can improve efficiency, save space and give starter motor of about 3 to 5 kW at 12 V to assist the star ng
designers more flexibility in body design. It is possible to of IC engine. The motor cannot propel the vehicle, but can
regulate drive torque and braking force independently at be used to assists accessories such as power steering and air
each wheel without the need for any complex transmission condi oning. This type EV is generally used for frequent idle-
or drive sha . Regen-braking capability of in-wheels is very stop or stop-start mode opera ons. During idling of a μHV,
high, about 85% . This design will require drive motors with the engine is shut down and during regenera ve braking;
higher torque to start and accelerate the vehicle. In-wheel the motor works as a generator to charge the ba ery. Regen-
motors of capacity up to 75 kW is currently available. braking, however, may not be a standard feature in all μHVs.
Micro hybrids usually have a hybridiza on factor of 5%-10%
with an energy savings of about 3%-10% in city driving. μHV
design is usually found in light vehicles, and is most suited for
urban applica ons. Example: Mercedes Smart.
On the basis of the degree of hybridiza on, hybrid electric
vehicles can be classified as (i) Micro Hybrid, (ii) Mild Hybrid
and (iii) Full Hybrid.
Fig. 6. Arrangement of an in-wheel motor.
Mild Hybrid (MHV): This hybrid uses motor of 7-15 kW at
b. Hybrid Electric Vehicles 60-200 V. Motor does not alone propel the vehicle but only
The biggest advantage of IC engine vehicles is the long supports star ng of the engine, regen-braking, and also
driving range due to the high energy-density of petroleum provides supplementary torque when peak power is needed
fuels. Though ba ery EVs possess many advantages over during accelera on. In MHV, the IC engine will be always
conven onal engine vehicles such as zero pollu on, high running, unless the vehicle has stopped or the speed is very
efficiency etc., their travel range per ba ery charge is much low as it is coming to a complete stop. The hybridiza on
less than engine vehicles due to the lower energy content of factor of mild hybrids is about 10%-30%. Ba ery size is
ba eries. Hybrid electric vehicles have the benefits of both higher than micro hybrid. Energy savings in city driving is
ICE vehicles and electric vehicles, and overcome their about 20%-30%. Example: Honda Civic and Honda Insight.
individual disadvantages. Full Hybrid (FHV): A hybrid EV which can move by electricity
An HEV typically houses a petrol engine with a fuel tank, a alone is a full hybrid. Since a FHV can run in only electric
motor and a ba ery bank. The electric propulsion provides mode, it needs a large capacity motor, about 30-50 kW at
higher accelera on performance at low speed, which 200-600 V. Energy saving is of the order of 30%-50%.
cannot be achieved in engine vehicles due to several Example: Toyota Prius.
mechanical constraints. The power flow in ICE drive is A brief comparison of various levels of hybrids is shown in
unidirec onal from engine to wheel whereas in electric Table 5. When the engine of an HEV is in opera on,
drive, power flow can be bidirec onal: from motor to wheel intelligent controls ensure that the engine always operate at
and from wheel to ba ery. The concept of a hybrid vehicle its op mum performance zone direc ng the excess energy
drive train and the possible power flow routes is shown in to the ba ery. Although regen-braking is a common feature
Fig. 7. There are five unique features generally common in in all HEVs, vehicles in the micro and mild category cannot
hybrid EVs: idle-off, regenera ve breaking, power assist, absorb the complete KE of the vehicles during a rapid stop.
electric-only drive, and extended ba ery-electric range. This is because micro/mild HVs have smaller hybridiza on
factor, which means small generator; and hence they cannot
convert all the available KE into electricity. For recovery of
full braking energy, hybridiza on factor must be about 40%
or higher. This is the reason for increased energy saving with
increasing level of hybridiza on.
Table 5. Comparison of Hybrid Levels of EVs
Fig. 7. Arrangement of a HEV with power flow paths. Hybrid Type Micro Hybrid Mild Hybrid Full Hybrid
IC Engine Conventional Downsized Downsized
In order to represent how much is the share of electric Motor Power 3-5 kW 7-15 kW > 30 kW
power in an HEV in comparison with the overall power, a Motor Voltage 12 V 60-200 V 200-600 V
hybridiza on factor (HF) is defined as Hybridization < 10% 10-30% > 40%
Energy Saving 5-10% 20-30% 30-50%
Sum of Power of Electric Motors Functions Start/Stop Start/Stop Start/Stop
HF = Reg. Braking
Sum of Motor Power + Engine Power Reg. Braking Reg. Braking
Accessories powering Electric Assist Electric Traction
On the basis of the degree of hybridiza on, hybrid electric Relative Cost Low Medium High
vehicles can be classified as (i) Micro Hybrid, (ii) Mild Hybrid Examples Mercedes Smart Honda Insight Toyota Prius
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Energy Scan : A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited

Architecture of Hybrid EVs
Hybrid EVs are popular for their enhanced efficiencies as
compared to conventional vehicles. The improved efficiency
of HEVs is attributed to the following reasons:
1. Operating ICE optimally independent of vehicle speed
2. Regenerative braking
3. Shutting off the ICE at low speeds to reduce idling loss
4. Minimising vehicle accessory load and road load
Based on the way the energy converters (i.e. IC engine,
electric motor etc.) of an HEV are combined to propel the
vehicle, many powertrain configurations are possible:
i. Series Hybrid (SHEV)
ii. Parallel Hybrid (PHEV)
iii. Series–Parallel Hybrid (SPHEV)
iv. Complex Hybrids (CHEV)
v. Fuel Cell Hybrids (FCHEV)
vi. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV)
The major configurations of HEVs are shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Architecture of Hybrid Evs.
Series Hybrid EVs (SHEV)
Series drivetrain is the simplest hybrid configuration. In this
design, the electric motor alone delivers the vehicle traction
power as the engine is not connected to the drive train. The
traction motor is powered by a battery or by an electric
generator driven by the downsized IC engine. The generator
powers the drive motor when the traction load demand is
large or charges the batteries when the motor load demand
is small. The motor can also operate as generator during
braking and coasting. Series hybrids are the most efficient in
driving cycles that require frequent stops and starts such as
for delivery vehicles, urban buses and stop and go city
driving. The drawbacks of SHEV: (i) needs separate
generator and motor sections (which means increased cost
and reduced efficiency due to more systems), (ii) needs large
size drive motor rated for maximum power needs such as
climbing uphill. However, since series hybrids use a bigger
electric machine in the propulsion system, their energy
recovery capability is much higher than other HEVs.
Example: Nissan e-Power.
Parallel Hybrid EVs (PHEV)
In parallel hybrids, both IC engine and motor are directly
connected to the drive system so that they can individually
(during low traction power demand) or jointly (during high
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power demand) propel the vehicle. Most PHEV designs
combine the generator and motor into one unit. In parallel
drive mode, the supplied torques are added together. When
only one of the two drives is in service, the other will be
disconnected through a clutch. PHEVs are relatively more
compact as they use a smaller battery pack than other
hybrids and needs a smaller traction motor. The drawback of
PHEV is the need for complex mechanical systems and
control algorithms. Example: Honda: Insight and Civic.
Series‐Parallel Hybrid EVs (SPHEV)
Series–parallel hybrids (or power-split hybrids) combine the
benefits of both series and parallel architecture. The power-
split device divides the output from the engine into
mechanical and electrical transmission paths. This design is
capable of providing continuous high output power as
compared to series or parallel powertrain. They use smaller
motors. Series-parallel hybrids can achieve similar operating
modes as series hybrid vehicles. However, it requires very
complex control system. Example: Toyota Prius.
Complex Hybrid EVs (CHEV)
The complex hybrids are similar to series-parallel hybrids but
use more complex designs depending on the number of
motors/generators and their configuration. Motor power
flow in these designs is bi-directional as compared to
unidirectional flow in the series-parallel hybrid. Example:
Ford Escape.
Fuel Cell Hybrid EVs (FCHEV)
A fuel cell (FC) HEV is a series hybrid configuration in which
fuel cell is the energy conversion system and a battery (or a
supercapacitor) is the energy storage system to deliver peak
acceleration power. The operating principle of fuel cells is
the reverse process of electrolysis in which hydrogen and
oxygen gases combine to generate electricity with water and
heat as byproducts. FC vehicles are true zero-emissions
vehicles as they do not emit any greenhouse gases. Since
fuel cells can offer high specific energy but cannot accept
regenerative energy, it is usually combined with battery or
other storage systems. At present, FCHEV technology is very
premature and they are very expensive as compared to
other HEVs. Example: Honda Clarity.
Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV)
The basic difference between a standard HEV and a plug-in
HEV is shown in Fig. 9. Plug-in hybrid EVs are full-hybrids
which use a smaller engine, a larger battery and a larger
motor. Batteries of PHEVs can be recharged from any
external power source unlike in standard HEVs in which
batteries are recharged only by means of the engine driven
generator or regen-braking. This feature of PHEV has the
advantage of drawing electricity from any resource such as
grid power including household supply, autonomous
systems or even renewable energy. PHEVs have a shorter all-
electric driving range per recharge as against battery EVs,
but have a larger all-electric range as compared to standard
HEVs because the engine-generator drive can assist the
system when the batteries are depleted. Also, owing to the
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A Maharatna Company
large electric motor, PHEVs have higher regen-braking
capability compared to traditional HEVs.
Fig. 9. Comparison of a standard HEV and a PHEV.
Benefits of PHEV include: better fuel efficiency than regular
HEV, long driving range than EVs, potential for distributed
energy storage, low running cost compared to petrol, and
environmentally friendly. Major disadvantages are: high cost
and non-availability of fast charging stations. Examples:
Chevy Volt, Toyota Prius, Ford CMax Energi.
A hybrid vehicle is much more complex since it has two
powertrains. This makes the vehicle more expensive besides
increasing maintenance costs compared to both battery
vehicles and petrol vehicles that rely on a single powertrain.
Hybrid EVs are attractive because they are capable of all-
electric short distance trips (20-50 km) per battery recharge,
such as daily travel to work place, or occasional long-
distance driving in regular hybrid mode (> 500 km). Typical
application of a pure EV and a PHEV is shown in Fig. 10.
Classification and comparison of various features of hybrid
EVs are shown in Fig. 11.
Fig. 10. Travel range of a typical PHEV in different modes.
Fig. 11. Classification and features of Hybrid EVs.
IV. BATTERIES FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Traction battery in an EV is the counterpart to the petrol or
diesel in an engine vehicle. It is the most critical single
component of the EV with the highest weight and volume.
Battery rating defines the travel range, acceleration ability,
recharge time and cost of the EV. Besides the drivetrain,
since the batteries also need to power the accessories of the
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Energy Scan : A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited
vehicle, they must be capable enough to handle high power
(up to a hundred kW) and high energy capacity (few tens of
kWh). Depending on the driving style, road condition, type
and age of vehicle, driving range of EVs vary between 5 to 7
km/kWh. Typical energy consumption of a mid-size EV
ranges between 165 Wh/km (e.g. BMW i3) to 240 Wh/km
(e.g. Tesla S85). Small EVs come with batteries of capacity
12–18 kWh, the mid-sized ones have 22–32 kWh pack, and
the luxury models can have batteries of 60–85 kWh to
provide extended driving range and high performance .
Batteries possess very low energy density (Wh/kg) as
compared to liquid fuels. Energy density for Petrol is 12500
Wh/kg, whereas the same for Lead-Acid (LA) batteries is 35-
45 Wh/kg, and for Lithium-ion (LI) batteries, it is 200 Wh/kg.
Batteries are both large in mass and volume compared to a
petrol/diesel tank carrying the equal amount of energy. To
get the same energy output from a battery as that from a
fuel tank, a very large battery pack is required. As an
example, to get the equivalent energy output of 4 liters of
petrol, it needs a 275 kg LA battery pack. This is a major
drawback of EVs affecting the maximum all-electric range of
these vehicles.
A number of traction battery technologies exist today. The
LA batteries, being the cheapest, are used in very small EVs
such as golf-carts, e-rickshaws etc. To a lesser extent, Nickel-
cadmium (NiCd) batteries are also used. However, the
current two major battery technologies used in EVs are
nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) and lithium ion (Li-ion). Due to
the higher specific energy and energy density potential, the
adoption of Li-ion batteries is expected to grow fast in EVs.
The volume energy density and mass energy density for
various battery types is shown in Fig. 12 . Li-ion batteries are
relatively smaller in size and lighter in weight in comparison
with identically rated other battery types.
Fig. 12. Volume energy density and mass energy density for
various battery types and liquid fuels.
Besides Li-ion, other battery technologies which are being
investigated include: Solid state batteries, Aluminum-ion
batteries, Lithium-Sulphur batteries and Metal-Air batteries.
Solid state batteries can operate at super-capacitor levels, as
they can be completely charged or discharged in just less
than about 8 minutes, making it ideal for EVs. However,
these technologies are still in the laboratory level and will
take many more years to become commercially available.
Based on the current battery technology, it is not practical to
consider a pure BEV with a driving range of 300-400 miles
with single charge since it would require a battery larger
than 100 kWh that can weigh over 900 kg. Various battery
generations and their expected driving range with single
charge are shown in Fig. 13.
 A Maharatna Company

Type-1 Connector (1-ph AC) Type-2 Connector (3-ph AC)

Fig. 13. Batteries for electric vehicles and their driving range.

V. EV BATTERY CHARGING METHODS Combo Charging System (AC/DC) CHAdeMO Connector (DC)

EV charging is analogous to filling the fuel tank of an ICE
vehicle. Batteries can be charged through Conductive and
Inductive (or Wireless) methods. Conductive charging using
cables is the current industry standard and for this purpose
EVs have an onboard charger. Vehicle receives AC supply
through an Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE), usually
known as EV charging station.
EV chargers are available in three different power levels:
Level 1 (L1), Level 2 (L2) and Level 3 (L3), as summarized in
Table 6. Charging stations can be of AC or DC type, their
differences is shown in Fig. 14. Level 1 chargers are generally
portable devices that can be carried in the vehicle. Level 2
chargers are usually wall mounted. Charging through on-
board L1 charger replenishes driving range of about 6-8
km/hr, while a L2 charger delivers driving range of 14-35
km/hr. A DC fast charger can provide about 150 km of range
per 20-30 minutes of charging. Type of charging will affect
the battery life. L1 charging produces the least amount of
stress on a battery whereas L3 fast charging results in
maximum stresses on the battery.
Table 6: EV CHARGING LEVELS AND CAPACITIES
Level Connector AC/DC Max. V & I Power (kW)
Fig. 15. Connectors and Inlets for EV charging.
Agencies such as Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) etc. are
working on defining EV charging features.
The latest in EV charging is the Wireless (or Induction)
charging (WC). Unlike conduction charging (CC), which
requires a conductor to feed electricity, energy in WC is
transmitted through electro-magnetic induction. In WC,
energy flows from a transmitter coil housed in a pad that sits
on the pavement to a receiver coil in a pad underneath the
vehicle. WCs are in the early stages of development and are
very expensive. Table 7 compares various features of
conduction and induction charging.
Table 7: Comparison of Conduction & Induction EV Charging
Conduction Induction

Level 1 Type 1 1 phase AC 120 V/16 A 1.9

Power Rating 2 – 50 kW 3 – 40 kW
Level 2 Type 1 1/3 ph. AC 240 V/80 A 14 - 19
Typical Efficiency 90 – 95% 80 – 90%
Level 3 Type 2 3 phase AC 480 V/63 A 43 - 52
Charging Time Fast: 20 – 30 min. Fast: ~ 30 min.
Level 3 CHAdeMO DC 500 V/125 A 63 Slow: 6 – 8 hr. Slow: 6 – 8 hr.
Combo Type 3 AC and DC 1 kV/400 A 36 - 200+ Weight added to EV Nil (for Level 3) 4 – 20 kg

Two types of AC connectors are generally used with EVs.

Type 1 (SAE J1772), a single-phase connector used in the US
and Asia, and the Type 2 (IEC 618515), a 3-phase connector
used in Europe. A Combined Charging System (CCS) is
available for fast charging (DC) and slow charging (AC). For
DC fast charging, CHAdeMO is the most common connector
standard. These are shown in Fig. 15.
Majority of the current EV charging systems are located at
residential areas. Other potential locations for EV charging
include workplaces and public places. A charging pyramid as
shown in Fig. 16 gives the relative position of residential,
workplace, and public charging infrastructure. It shows that
most charging will occur at residences, followed by charging
at the workplace, and the least possible time for charging in
publicly accessible locations.
e

Inc

Public
im

rea
gT

sin
gin

Work place
gC
ar
Ch

ap
d

ita
ce

lC
du

Residential
os
Re

Fig. 14. Basic arrangement of AC/DC charging stations of Evs. Fig. 16. Charging pyramid of electric vehicles.
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A Maharatna Company
VI. WAY FORWARD AND CONCLUSION
The future is electric for surface transport as the Earth will
run out of petroleum fuels within 50 to 60 years. Electric
vehicles offer many advantages: increasing nation's energy
security by reducing oil consumption, supporting to climate-
change initiatives by reducing harmful emissions, reduced
public health risks on account of poor air quality and long-
term economic growth through the introduction of new
technologies and infrastructure. There are, however, many
technical and socio-economic challenges to overcome
before the widespread acceptance of EVs. This include high
capital cost, shorter driving ranges, long charging time,
heavy weight and large size of batteries, and the need for a
fast charging facility..
Electric vehicles are clean only at the point of use. Reduction
in vehicular pollution through EV deployment will be more
meaningful if they are powered by electricity produced from
clean resources to avoid pollution otherwise caused by
generating stations based on fossil fuels.
Thus, the role of renewable energy in transport sector is the
need of the hour. In order to increase the share of RE in the
transport sector, solar PV powered recharging stations are
being developed by many nations. Several of these L1 or L2
recharging stations have already been deployed at highly
concentrated areas including office premises, shopping
malls and other public places where cars might be parked for
long periods. Various initiatives to increase the share of RE in
the road transport is shown in Fig. 17. This include solar PV
and wind turbine powered charging stations, both at
residential areas and workplaces.
Wind
Turbine
Motor
Grid
Battery
Solar
PV
Fig. 17. Initiatives to increase the RE share in road transport.
Fig. 18. Charging on the go (Inductive)
An upcoming technology in EV charging is the charging on
the go. This scheme, as shown in Fig. 18, uses dynamic
charging of EVs through induction while they are moving
over dedicated lanes. The advantage of this design is that
EVs can have smaller batteries leading to a lighter and
efficient vehicle besides saving of time for charging .
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Energy Scan : A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Limited
V2G Unit
G2V Controller
V2G
Grid
AC/DC
Bidirectional
Battery
Converter
Fig. 19. The concept of G2V and V2G potential of Evs.
A smart application of EVs is the Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V) and
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) concepts (Fig. 19), in which energy
flows to and from the vehicle, turning it into a distributed
energy storage system. During lean hours of power demand,
EV batteries are charged using grid power (G2V) and during
peak hours, batteries discharge power to the grid (V2G). By
these modes of operations, EV can act as either a load
(charging) or a generator (discharging) as needed. When
aggregated in large numbers, this capability of EVs will
become an important part of the smart grids.
REFERENCES
[1] CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Highlights - 2017,
International Energy Agency (IEA).
[2] https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/greenhouse-gas-
emissions-typical-passenger-vehicle-0
[3] K. Araújo, D. Mahajan, R. Kerr and M. da Silva, “Global
Biofuels at the Crossroads: An Overview of Technical,
Policy, and Investment Complexities in the
Sustainability of Biofuel Development”, Agriculture, (7,
32); pp. 1-22, 2017.
[4] Global EV outlook 2017, International Energy Agency
(IEA).
[5] http://w w w.cleanenergyministerial.org /Our-
Work/CEM-Campaigns/EV30at30
[6] http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?
relid = 116719
[7] C. D. Anderson and J. Anderson, Electric and hybrid cars:
a history, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2010.
[8] A. Faiz, C. S. Weaver, and M. P. Walsh, Air Pollution from
Motor Vehicles: Standards and Technologies for
Controlling Emissions, World Bank Publications,
Washington DC, Jan. 1996.
[9] M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S. E. Gay, and A. Emadi, Modern
Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, New
York: CRC Press, 2005.
[10] https://chargedevs.com/newswire/two-new-in-wheel-
electric-drive-systems-unveiled/
[11]http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/electric_veh
icle_ev
[12] http://www.ourenergypolicy.org /wp-content/
uploads/2015/04/21725.pdf
[13]http://gabrielse.physics.harvard.edu/gabrielse/papers
/2013/OvercomingBarriersToElectricVehicleDeployme
nt.pdf
[14]http://www.sae.org/smartgrid/chargingspeeds.pdf
[15]https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/mach/futuristic-
roads-may-make-recharging-electric-cars-thing-past-
ncna766456
 A Maharatna Company

Tesla of the Canals

The Netherlands and Belgium are launching the world's first zero-emissions,
autonomous container barges dubbed the “Tesla of the canals”. Each fully-electric
boat will transport 24 containers weighing up to 425 tonnes from ports in
Amsterdam, Antwerp and Ro erdam.
The vessels, made by Dutch manufacturer Port Liner, will be powered by 20
ba eries that provide 15 hours of con nuous power. The ba eries will be charged
onshore by renewable energy sources.

HONORARIUM OF ` 2000/- WILL BE PAID TO THE AUTHOR OF EACH PUBLISHED ARTICLE

A Maharatna Company

EDITORIAL GROUP

Chief Editor : R.K. Joshi, AGM (CP)

Editors : S. Nandan, AGM (CP) • Md. Ashfaq, AGM (CP) • A. Choudhuri, DGM (CP)
7th Floor, Core 6th, SCOPE Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110003
Phone : 011-24363902, Fax : 011-24369518, Email : energyscan@ntpc.co.in
CIN No.: L40101DL1975GOI007966

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