YEAR 12 PHYSICS: NUCLEAR PAST EXAM QUESTIONS NAME:

QUESTION 1

An unstable nucleus of uranium-238 ( U) decays to a thorium isotope via alpha decay.

(a) Balance the decay reaction below by writing the atomic and mass numbers.

U → Th α
(3 marks)

(b) Explain why the alpha particles emitted by this type of radioactive decay have a range of discrete
energies.

(3 marks)

(c) A series of alpha and beta minus decays starts with uranium-238 and ends with Pb, a stable
isotope of lead. There are eight alpha decays in this series of decays.

Determine the number of beta minus decays in the series of decays.

(3 marks)
(d) The diagram below shows a graph of N (the number of neutrons) against Z (atomic number) for
some stable nuclei:

(i) On the graph above, write the symbol to indicate the position of an unstable nucleus that
is likely to undergo a beta minus decay.

(1 mark)

(ii) The position of the nucleus Pb is indicated on the diagram.

Explain how it is possible to have stable nuclei despite the strong repulsive electrostatic
force between the 82 protons in this nucleus.

(2 marks)
QUESTION 2

The radioisotope oxygen-15 ( O) is used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans because it
undergoes a beta plus decay in which a positron is emitted.

(a) State the other particle emitted in the beta plus decay of oxygen-15.

(1 mark)

(b) Explain how the emission of a positron by oxygen-15 can lead to the production of gamma rays.

(2 marks)

(c) The graph below shows changes over 6 minutes in the activity of O-labelled water given to a
patient undergoing a PET scan:

On the graph above, show how the activity of 15O-labelled water with an initial activity of
6.0 x 108 Bq would change over 6 minutes.
(3 marks)
(d) The diagram below shows the ring of photon detectors used in a PET scan, with the position of
gamma ray production indicated. The diagram also shows the position at which one gamma ray is
detected.

On the diagram above, indicate the position at which another gamma ray should be detected.

(1 mark)
QUESTION 3

Uranium found in nature consists primarily of two isotopes: uranium-235 and uranium-238.

Naturally occurring uranium contains approximately 0.7% of the uranium-235 isotope.

(a) Explain why the uranium fuel for a fission power reactor needs to be enriched.

(2 marks)

(b) Scientists believe that, in some massive stars, two carbon nuclei can undergo fusion reactions.

One possible reaction is shown below:

The masses of the particles involved in this reaction are shown below:

Determine whether energy is absorbed or released in this reaction, and calculate the amount of
energy that is absorbed or released.

(5 marks)
QUESTION 4

The photograph (right) shows an image from a PET scanner.

Before they go into the PET scanner, patients at the Royal Adelaide
Hospital are given a chemical that contains a fluorine radioisotope.

The radioisotope is made in Melbourne, added to the chemical, and

then immediately flown to Adelaide.

For a PET scan to be effective, the activity of the radioisotope must stay
above a certain level.

The half-life of the fluorine radioisotope is 110 minutes.

(a) State the meaning of ‘the activity of the radioisotope’.

(1 mark)

(b) Calculate the time taken for the fluorine radioisotope to decay to one-sixteenth of its original
activity.

(2 marks)

(c) Hospitals in America can make the same fluorine radioisotope.

State why it would not be possible for the Royal Adelaide Hospital to use a fluorine radioisotope
that had travelled from America.

(1 mark)
QUESTION 5

Boron–neutron capture therapy is a radiotherapy treatment for cancer. Boron is absorbed by cancer cells
in the body and then exposed to neutrons, producing a nuclear reaction in which alpha particles are
released. The alpha particles can kill the cancer cells.

(a) Explain why alpha particles are more effective than beta particles at killing cancer cells.

(2 marks)

(b) Explain why alpha particles affect only the cell in which they are released.

(2 marks)
QUESTION 6

An artificially produced isotope of californium-98 ( Cf) can undergo spontaneous fission, as shown in the
following reaction:

(a) Explain the spontaneous fission in terms of the different forces acting inside a Cf nucleus.

(3 marks)

(b) The masses of the particles involved in the reaction are shown in the table below:

Calculate the amount of energy released in the spontaneous fission reaction.

(4 marks)
QUESTION 7

The number of neutrons N and the atomic number Z for some stable nuclei are shown in the graph below.
The position of the radioactive copper nucleus Cu is indicated on the graph.

(a) Predict the likely type of decay for Cu given its position on the graph

(1 mark)

(b) Another radioactive copper nucleus is Cu, which decays to an isotope of nickel, Ni,.

Name the two particles emitted in this decay.

(2 marks)

(c) The half-life of F is 110 minutes. The activity of a sample of F was measured at 12.30 p.m. and
found to be 1.2 × 107 Bq.

Determine the activity that you would expect the sample to have at 6 p.m. the same day.

(3 marks)
QUESTION 8

The following nuclear reaction can take place when a neutron collides with a boron nucleus:

(a) State the atomic number and the mass number of nucleus X.

Z: A: (2 marks)

(b) The masses of the particles involved in the collision are:

Calculate the difference in mass of the reactants and products, and hence determine the amount of
energy that would be released as a result of this difference in mass.

(4 marks)
QUESTION 9

Nuclear fusion is not yet a viable source of power.

(a) State what is meant by the term ‘nuclear fusion’.

(1 mark)

(b) State one condition necessary for nuclear fusion to occur.

(1 mark)

(c) Discuss one advantage of nuclear fusion over nuclear fission as a future source of power.

(2 marks)
QUESTION 10

Chain reactions are necessary to produce the sustained release of energy from the nuclear fission of 235U.
Moderators are necessary for chain reactions to occur.

• Explain what is meant by the term ‘chain reaction’.

• Describe the role of moderators in chain reactions.

• Explain why the most effective moderators have atoms of low mass and low absorption of neutrons.
(15 marks)
QUESTION 11

An experiment is carried out to determine the half-life of the radioisotope protactinium-234 ( Pa)

A Geiger–Müller tube detects radiation emitted by the protactinium-234 as it decays into uranium-234
( U), as shown in the diagram below:

(a) Write the equation for the decay of protactinium-234 into uranium-234.

(2 marks)

(b) The graph below shows the activity of protactinium-234

(i) On the graph above, draw a line or curve of best fit for the data. (1 mark)
 (ii) Using your line or curve of best fit, determine the half-life of protactinium-234.

Clearly indicate on the graph the points that you have used.

(2 marks)

(iii) State why scatter of data points is expected in a radioactivity experiment.

(1 mark)

QUESTION 12

Fluorine-18 is used as a tracer in positron emission tomography (PET) scans. The photograph below shows
a patient undergoing a PET scan:

(a) The PET scanner creates an image after detecting 0.512 MeV photons.

Explain how the beta plus decay of Fluorine-18 can result in the production of these photons.

(3 marks)
QUESTION 13

Two deuterium nuclei undergo a nuclear fusion reaction that produces a tritium nucleus and a proton, as
shown below:

Calculate the energy released by this reaction.

(4 marks)
QUESTION 14

(a) Explain how it is possible to have stable nuclei despite the strong electrostatic force between the
protons.

(2 marks)

(b) Explain why no stable isotopes exist when Z>83.

(2 marks)

(c) Rubidium-88 ( Rb) can be produced in a nuclear reactor but is unstable, with a short half-life.
The stable isotope of rubidium is Rb.
(i) Explain, by comparing these isotopes, why rubidium-88 is unstable.

(2 marks)

(ii) Predict the likely type of decay for rubidium-88.

(1 mark)
QUESTION 15

Nuclear fission for large nuclei and nuclear fusion for smaller nuclei both result in an energy release due to
an associated mass defect. The diagram below shows one example of an induced fission reaction:

(a) The following equation shows this fission reaction:

Calculate the energy released in this fission reaction.

(4 marks)
QUESTION 16

An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of shielding on the penetration of gamma rays.

A thick piece of concrete was placed between the sample and the gamma counter, as shown in the
diagram below:

One purpose of the thick lead container was to shield the experimenter from the sample, reducing the
danger posed by the gamma radiation from the barium-137.

(a) Explain how gamma radiation may damage living matter.

(2 marks)

(b) Explain one way other than shielding in which the experimenter could limit his or her exposure to
the gamma radiation.

(2 marks)
QUESTION 17

A cyclotron is used to produce a radioisotope that is required for positron emission tomography (PET).

(a) High-energy protons are then made to collide with O nuclei.

(i) Complete the following equation, clearly indicating the mass number and the atomic
number of the radioisotope X produced.

Z: A: (2 marks)

(ii) Identify the two laws used in completing the equation above.

(2 marks)

(iii) The radioisotope X that is produced in turn decays and produces a positron, which
undergoes positron-electron annihilation and produces two photons.

Calculate the energy of each of the two photons produced in this positron-electron
annihilation, given that they have equal and opposite momenta.

(3 marks)
 (iv) Explain why the photon detectors used in PET must be placed in a ring surrounding the
patient.

(2 marks)

QUESTION 18

U has a nuclear mass of 3.85215 x 10-25 kg.

(a) Write a definition for the binding energy of a nucleus.

(2 marks)

(b) Calculate the binding energy of this uranium nucleus.

(4 marks)
QUESTION 19

The following reaction shows the fission of U which is induced when a neutron is absorbed:

The products have a large amount of kinetic energy.

(a) Explain why the neutrons have to be slowed down in order to produce fission in U

(2 marks)

(b) Explain how the neutrons are slowed down in a nuclear reactor.

(3 marks)

(c) The Australian Government is investigating nuclear power generated by fission as a possible future
source of power.
Discuss one scientific advantage and one disadvantage of nuclear fission in comparison with fossil
fuel power stations.

(4 marks)
QUESTION 19

Polonium-214 changes into lead-210 by alpha decay, as shown in the equation below:

(a) Calculate the difference in the masses of the products and the reactant if 5.44 MeV is released in
each decay.

(3 marks)

(b) Using the law of conservation of momentum, show that the ratio of the speed of the alpha nuclei
to that of the lead nuclei !" is approximately 52.5. Assume that the polonium nuclei start at
rest.

(4 marks)

(c) Hence explain why the alpha particle acquires most of the kinetic energy released in this reaction.
(3 marks)
YEAR 12 PHYSICS: NUCLEAR PAST EXAM QUESTIONS NAME:

QUESTION 1

An unstable nucleus of uranium-238 ( U) decays to a thorium isotope via alpha decay.

(a) Balance the decay reaction below by writing the atomic and mass numbers.

U → Th α
(3 marks)

(b) Explain why the alpha particles emitted by this type of radioactive decay have a range of discrete
energies.

Nuclei can exist in any number of discrete energy levels.

If the daughter nucleus is created in the ground state then all of the excess energy is given to
the alpha particle.

If the daughter nucleus is created in one of its excited states, then the daughter nuclei
maintains a fixed amount of energy and only the excess is given to the alpha particle.

Due to the variations in energy levels of the daughter nuclei, the alpha particles emitted can
therefore have a variety of discrete energies when emitted.

(3 marks)

(c) A series of alpha and beta minus decays starts with uranium-238 and ends with Pb, a stable
isotope of lead. There are eight alpha decays in this series of decays.

Determine the number of beta minus decays in the series of decays.

The consequence for 8 alpha decays from the parent nucleus will result in a nucleus
containing (8 x 2 = 16) fewer protons and (8 x 4 = 32 fewer nucleons)

Since the stable isotope of lead has 6 more protons than the calculated nucleus ,
then 6 beta minus decays are necessary to increase the atomic number by 6.

6 beta minus decays will not alter the mass number which is consistent with the mass number
of the stable isotope of lead

(3 marks)
(d) The diagram below shows a graph of N (the number of neutrons) against Z (atomic number) for
some stable nuclei:

(i) On the graph above, write the symbol to indicate the position of an unstable nucleus that
is likely to undergo a beta minus decay.

(1 mark)

(ii) The position of the nucleus Pb is indicated on the diagram.

Explain how it is possible to have stable nuclei despite the strong repulsive electrostatic
force between the 82 protons in this nucleus.

There is a force which is greater in magnitude than the electrostatic force of repulsion which
exists between adjacent nucleons within the atomic nucleus.

This force is known as the strong nuclear force and is stable and attractive in nature over very
short distances.

(2 marks)
QUESTION 2

The radioisotope oxygen-15 (!"O) is used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans because it
undergoes a beta plus decay in which a positron is emitted.

(a) State the other particle emitted in the beta plus decay of oxygen-15.

Neutrino (1 mark)

(b) Explain how the emission of a positron by oxygen-15 can lead to the production of gamma rays.

Beta plus decay produces a positron which propagates away from the site of the decay.

This positron will collide with an electron from the surroundings and produce an annihilation
which yields two gamma ray photons.

(2 marks)

(c) The graph below shows changes over 6 minutes in the activity of !"O-labelled water given to a
patient undergoing a PET scan:

X
X
X

On the graph above, show how the activity of 15O-labelled water with an initial activity of
6.0 x 108 Bq would change over 6 minutes.
(3 marks)
(d) The diagram below shows the ring of photon detectors used in a PET scan, with the position of
gamma ray production indicated. The diagram also shows the position at which one gamma ray is
detected.

On the diagram above, indicate the position at which another gamma ray should be detected.

(1 mark)
QUESTION 3

Uranium found in nature consists primarily of two isotopes: uranium-235 and uranium-238.

Naturally occurring uranium contains approximately 0.7% of the uranium-235 isotope.

(a) Explain why the uranium fuel for a fission power reactor needs to be enriched.

The common isotope of uranium ( ) is non-fissile.

Ores containing uranium only contain a small % of the fissile isotope ( # ) and therefore must
be enriched such that a sustainable chain reaction can occur.

(2 marks)

(b) Scientists believe that, in some massive stars, two carbon nuclei can undergo fusion reactions.

One possible reaction is shown below:

The masses of the particles involved in this reaction are shown below:

Determine whether energy is absorbed or released in this reaction, and calculate the amount of
energy that is absorbed or released.

$% = %'()*+,-. − %(01,-12-.

$% = ( . 5 6 5 5. # 6 5 ) − (5. 5 6 5 5. 5 6 5 )

$% = ( . 8 6 5 ) − ( . 8 6 5 )

$% = (# 6 5 9:)
5
; = $%, = (# 6 5 6 6 5 )

(4 marks) ; = 8. # 6 5 5 <
(5 Energy is absorbed as mass of products is greater than mass of reactants.
QUESTION 4

The photograph (right) shows an image from a PET scanner.

Before they go into the PET scanner, patients at the Royal Adelaide
Hospital are given a chemical that contains a fluorine radioisotope.

The radioisotope is made in Melbourne, added to the chemical, and

then immediately flown to Adelaide.

For a PET scan to be effective, the activity of the radioisotope must stay
above a certain level.

The half-life of the fluorine radioisotope is 110 minutes.

(a) State the meaning of ‘the activity of the radioisotope’.

Activity refers to the number of decays or emissions per second.

(1 mark)

(b) Calculate the time taken for the fluorine radioisotope to decay to one-sixteenth of its original
activity.

5 5
= 8
5
Four half-lives have elapsed for this change in activity to arise.

4 x 110 = 440 minutes

(2 marks)

(c) Hospitals in America can make the same fluorine

5 radioisotope.
5

State why it would not be possible for the Royal Adelaide Hospital to use a fluorine radioisotope
that had travelled from America.

The half-life is 110 minutes. The travel time from America is in excess of 14 hours.

After the flight, the activity of the radioisotope is so low that the PET scan would be ineffective.

(1 mark)
The half-life is 110 minutes. The travel time from America is in excess of 14 hours.
QUESTION 5

Boron–neutron capture therapy is a radiotherapy treatment for cancer. Boron is absorbed by cancer cells
in the body and then exposed to neutrons, producing a nuclear reaction in which alpha particles are
released. The alpha particles can kill the cancer cells.

(a) Explain why alpha particles are more effective than beta particles at killing cancer cells.

Alpha particles have a greater magnitude of positive charge than beta particles.

This allows alpha particles to be more highly ionising of electrons within chemical bonds.

Their ability to ionise and destroy molecules within cancer cells is greater.

(2 marks)
Alpha particles have a greater magnitude of positive charge than beta particles.

(b) Explain why alpha particles affect only the cell in which they are released.

Alpha particles are not highly penetrating due to their high ionising ability.

This means that alpha particles can only travel short ranges and cannot penetrate further than
one cell in a living tissue.

Alpha particles are not highly penetrating due to their high ionising ability. (2 marks)
QUESTION 6
"
An artificially produced isotope of californium-98 ( Cf) can undergo spontaneous fission, as shown in the
following reaction:

"
(a) Explain the spontaneous fission in terms of the different forces acting inside a Cf nucleus.

Adjacent nucleons are strongly bound to one another by the strong nuclear force which itself
acts only over very short distances within the atomic nucleus.

The electrostatic force of repulsion acts between protons within a nucleus and acts over a much
larger distance across the entire nucleus.

With nuclei with an atomic number of 83 or greater (such as californium), the long range
electrostatic force is greater in magnitude than the short range strong nuclear force. This
instability causes the spontaneous fission of the nucleus.
(3 marks)

(b) The masses of the particles involved in the reaction are shown in the table below:

Calculate the amount of energy released in the spontaneous fission reaction.

$% = %'()*+,-. − %(01,-12-.
# # #
$% = ( . # 6 5 5. 5 6 5 (8 6 5. 8 6 5 )) − (8. 5 # 6 5 )
# #
$% = (8. 5 6 5 ) − (8. 5 # 6 5 )

$% = ( . # 8 6 5 9:)
5
; = $%, = ( . # 8 6 5 6 6 5 )
55
; = . 5# 6 5 <
(4 marks)
QUESTION 7

The number of neutrons N and the atomic number Z for some stable nuclei are shown in the graph below.
The position of the radioactive copper nucleus Cu is indicated on the graph.

(a) Predict the likely type of decay for Cu given its position on the graph

Beta Minus (excess neutrons) (1 mark)

(b) Another radioactive copper nucleus is "@Cu, which decays to an isotope of nickel, "@Ni,.

Name the two particles emitted in this decay.

Positron and neutrino

(2 marks)

(c) The half-life of ! F is 110 minutes. The activity of a sample of ! F was measured at 12.30 p.m. and
found to be 1.2 × 107 Bq.

Determine the activity that you would expect the sample to have at 6 p.m. the same day.

5.5 hours has passed = 5.5x 60 = 330 minutes.

This means that three half-lives have passed. The activity is reduces to:

5 5 5
5 → → →
8
5. 6 5 (3 marks)
Activity = = 5. # 6 5 DE
QUESTION 8

The following nuclear reaction can take place when a neutron collides with a boron nucleus:

(a) State the atomic number and the mass number of nucleus X.

Z: 3 A: 7 (2 marks)

(b) The masses of the particles involved in the collision are:

Calculate the difference in mass of the reactants and products, and hence determine the amount of
energy that would be released as a result of this difference in mass.

$% = %'()*+,-. − %(01,-12-.

$% = (5. 5 # 6 5 . 88 6 5 ) − (5. 6 5 5. 8 6 5 )

$% = (5. 8 6 5 ) − (5. 5 6 5 )

$% = ( . 6 5 9:)
5
; = $%, = ( . 6 5 6 6 5 )
5
; = . # 6 5 <

(4 marks)
QUESTION 9

Nuclear fusion is not yet a viable source of power.

(a) State what is meant by the term ‘nuclear fusion’.

The joining of two lighter nuclei to form a larger, more stable nucleus.

(1 mark)

(b) State one condition necessary for nuclear fusion to occur.

Extremely high temperatures and pressures

(1 mark)

(c) Discuss one advantage of nuclear fusion over nuclear fission as a future source of power.

The products of fusion are stable, whereas the products of fission are radioactive and difficult
to handle and dispose

(2 marks)
QUESTION 10

Chain reactions are necessary to produce the sustained release of energy from the nuclear fission of 235U.
Moderators are necessary for chain reactions to occur.

• Explain what is meant by the term ‘chain reaction’.

• Describe the role of moderators in chain reactions.

• Explain why the most effective moderators have atoms of low mass and low absorption of neutrons.

Fission is the process in which a very large nucleus splits into two lighter more stable nuclei by the
capture of a slow moving neutron. Every fission reaction releases several neutrons. These neutrons
can go and cause further fission reactions in surrounding # nuclei. This can produce a chain
reaction.

If not controlled, this would release too much energy too quickly. It is therefore necessary to absorb
excess neutrons so that on average only one neutron continues the fission process. This is called a
controlled chain reaction.

Control rods in a nuclear reactor are made of neutron absorbing material such as boron and are
raised out and lowered into the core of the reactor where the fission reaction is taking place. This can
control the number of neutrons available for fission.

Neutrons have no charge and therefore don't interact strongly with the # nucleus especially if
they are moving too fast. In order to be captured the neutron needs to be moving more slowly so
that it can move to within a few nucleon diameters of the # nucleus and be drawn in by the short-
range attractive nuclear forces.

Collisions with particles of a similar mass in a moderator material will slow the neutrons down
effectively.

The idea is that the neutrons lose a large proportion of their kinetic energy during the collisions.

They are slowed down sufficiently (to speeds corresponding to energies of 1 or 2 MeV) after only a
few collisions.

An effective moderator has a low absorption of neutrons. This is useful so that the number of
neutrons available for the chain reaction is controlled by the control rods and that neutrons are not
also absorbed by the moderator. Heavy water and graphite are materials used as moderators.
QUESTION 11

An experiment is carried out to determine the half-life of the radioisotope protactinium-234 ( !Pa)

A Geiger–Müller tube detects radiation emitted by the protactinium-234 as it decays into uranium-234
( U), as shown in the diagram below:

(a) Write the equation for the decay of protactinium-234 into uranium-234.

8 8
5 G ⟶ 5I J K (2 marks)

(b) The graph below shows the activity of protactinium-234

(i) On the graph above, draw a line or curve of best fit for the data. (1 mark)
 (ii) Using your line or curve of best fit, determine the half-life of protactinium-234.

Clearly indicate on the graph the points that you have used.

One half life is the time taken for the activity to decrease from 80 to 40 Bq

This takes 70-71 seconds

(2 marks)

(iii) State why scatter of data points is expected in a radioactivity experiment.

The emission of radiation is a random event such that the number of nuclei halve with every
half-life.
(1 mark)

QUESTION 12

Fluorine-18 is used as a tracer in positron emission tomography (PET) scans. The photograph below shows
a patient undergoing a PET scan:

(a) The PET scanner creates an image after detecting 0.512 MeV photons.

Explain how the beta plus decay of Fluorine-18 can result in the production of these photons.

The beta plus decay of fluorine-18 results in a positron.

If a beta plus particle and an electron collide, annihilation occurs.

The mass of the beta plus particle and the electron are converted to energy (E = ∆mc2).

The energy is released in the form of two photons travelling in opposite directions.

(3 marks)
QUESTION 13

Two deuterium nuclei undergo a nuclear fusion reaction that produces a tritium nucleus and a proton, as
shown below:

Calculate the energy released by this reaction.

$% = %'()*+,-. − %(01,-12-.

$% = (#. # 6 5 5. 6 5 ) − ( . 88#5 6 5 . 88#5 6 5 )

$% = ( . 5 6 5 ) − ( . 6 5 )

$% = ( . 5 6 5 9:)
5
; = $%, = ( . 5 6 5 6 6 5 )
5
; = #. 6 5 <
QUESTION 14

(a) Explain how it is possible to have stable nuclei despite the strong electrostatic force between the
protons.

As the strong nuclear force which acts between adjacent nucleons is far greater in magnitude
than the electrostatic force of repulsion between protons within the nuclei.

(2 marks)

(b) Explain why no stable isotopes exist when Z>83.

The strong nuclear force is no longer able to provide a stable equilibrium with the long range
Coulombic force when Z>83.

(2 marks)

(c) Rubidium-88 ( @Rb) can be produced in a nuclear reactor but is unstable, with a short half-life.
"
The stable isotope of rubidium is @Rb.

(i) Explain, by comparing these isotopes, why rubidium-88 is unstable.

The Ratio of Neutron : proton number is too high for this isotope M to provide a stable
equilibrium with the long range Coulombic force.

(2 marks)

(ii) Predict the likely type of decay for rubidium-88.

Beta minus decay (excess neutrons) (1 mark)

 QUESTION 15

Nuclear fission for large nuclei and nuclear fusion for smaller nuclei both result in an energy release due to
an associated mass defect. The diagram below shows one example of an induced fission reaction:

(a) The following equation shows this fission reaction:

Calculate the energy released in this fission reaction.

$% = %'()*+,-. − %(01,-12-.
# # #
$% = ( . 6 5 5. # # 6 5 ( 6 5. 8 6 5 )) − ( . 6 5 5. 8 6 5 )
# #
$% = ( . 5 8 6 5 )−( . 5 8 6 5 )

$% = ( . 5 6 5 9:)
5
; = $%, = ( . 5 6 5 6 6 5 )
55
;= . 6 5 <

(4 marks)
QUESTION 16

An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of shielding on the penetration of gamma rays.

A thick piece of concrete was placed between the sample and the gamma counter, as shown in the
diagram below:

One purpose of the thick lead container was to shield the experimenter from the sample, reducing the
danger posed by the gamma radiation from the barium-137.

(a) Explain how gamma radiation may damage living matter.

Ionising radiation interacts with particles in a cell to disrupt bonds.

This results in genetic damage, or kills cells,

(2 marks)

(b) Explain one way other than shielding in which the experimenter could limit his or her exposure to
the gamma radiation.

Distance from the radio-active source is maximized.

(Gamma rays spread over greater area decreasing the number incident on experimenter.)

OR:

Reduce time of exposure - results in less gamma rays incident on experimenter.

(2 marks)
QUESTION 17

A cyclotron is used to produce a radioisotope that is required for positron emission tomography (PET).

(a) High-energy protons are then made to collide with !"O nuclei.

(i) Complete the following equation, clearly indicating the mass number and the atomic
number of the radioisotope X produced.

Z: 9 A: 18 (2 marks)

(ii) Identify the two laws used in completing the equation above.

Conservation of charge

Conservation of nucleons

(2 marks)

(iii) The radioisotope X that is produced in turn decays and produces a positron, which
undergoes positron-electron annihilation and produces two photons.

Calculate the energy of each of the two photons produced in this positron-electron
annihilation, given that they have equal and opposite momenta.

;' 0 = $%,
5
;' 0 = 6 . 55 6 5 6 ( . 6 5 )
5
;' 0 = 5. 6 5 <

This energy produces two photons of equal momentum and therefore energy ∴
;'P0 58
;'O)-)2 = = . 6 5 <
(3 marks)
 (iv) Explain why the photon detectors used in PET must be placed in a ring surrounding the
patient.

The ring of photon detectors allows the location of the radioactive isotope that is producing
the positrons and annihilating to form the photons.

Two photons will be produced at the same time travelling in opposite directions and will be
picked up on opposite sides of the ring.

These two photons are emitted in random directions

(2 marks)

QUESTION 18

U has a nuclear mass of 3.85215 x 10-25 kg.

(a) Write a definition for the binding energy of a nucleus.

The minimum energy required to completely separate the component nucleons that make up the
nucleus.

(2 marks)

(b) Calculate the binding energy of this uranium nucleus.

$% = %'()*+,-. − %(01,-12-.

#
%(01,-12-. = ( 6 5. 6 5 58 6 5. # 6 5 )= . 85 6 5 9:
# #
$% = ( . # 5# 6 5 − . 85 6 5 )

$% = ( . 5 6 5 9:)

; = $%,

;= . 5 6 5 6 ( . 6 5 )
5 (4 marks)
;= . 6 5 <
QUESTION 19

"
The following reaction shows the fission of U which is induced when a neutron is absorbed:

The products have a large amount of kinetic energy.

"
(a) Explain why the neutrons have to be slowed down in order to produce fission in U

The speed of the neutrons is high due their high kinetic energies.

This speed needs to be slowed so that the neutrons have a higher probability of a fission
reaction with U-235.
(2 marks)

(b) Explain how the neutrons are slowed down in a nuclear reactor.

The neutrons are slowed down by using a moderator, this consists of nuclei of small mass, which
are unlikely to absorb the neutrons.

Collisions with these nuclei transfer momentum efficiently, and hence reducing the speed of the
neutrons.

(3 marks)

(c) The Australian Government is investigating nuclear power generated by fission as a possible future
source of power.
Discuss one scientific advantage and one disadvantage of nuclear fission in comparison with fossil
fuel power stations.

Scientific advantages:

Fission produces about a million times more energy per kg than fossil fuels and fission produces
less greenhouse gas emissions and less other pollutants

Disadvantages:

Fission produces radioactive waste which is hazardous and the cost of fission reactors is high
initially compared to fossil fuel and there are potential accidents which have their own effects.
(4 marks)