Lots of Calculations in GR

Lots of Calculations in General Relativity
Susan Larsen Thursday, August 15, 2013
Contents
1 New - Introduktion .................................................................................................................................... 5
2 Special relativity......................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 How to calculate: Example ......................................................................................................... 6
2.2 The four velocity and the four force: ............................................................................. 6
3 Metric and Vector Transformations. ......................................................................................................... 7
3.1 New - The line-element and metric of an ellipsoid: .......................................................................... 7
3.2 The signature of a metric................................................................................................................... 7
3.3 Spherical coordinates and vector transformation............................................................................. 7
4 Tensor Calculus .......................................................................................................................................... 8
4.1 Christoffel symbols. ........................................................................................................................... 8
4.1.1
and
in a diagonal metric ....................................................................................... 8
4.1.2 Find the Christoffel symbols of the 2-sphere with radius ...................................................... 8
4.1.3 Find the Christoffel symbols of the Kahn-Penrose metric (Colliding gravitational waves) ....... 9
4.2 Alternative solution: Show that
.................................................................................... 9
4.3 One-forms.......................................................................................................................................... 9
4.3.1 One-forms: why ............................................................................................................ 9
4.3.2 The exterior derivative of a one-form. .................................................................................... 10
4.4 The geodesic equation. ................................................................................................................... 10
4.4.1 Find the geodesic equations for cylindrical coordinates ......................................................... 10
4.4.2 Use the geodesic equations to find the Christoffel symbols for the Rindler metric. .............. 12
4.5 The Riemann tensor ........................................................................................................................ 13
4.5.1 Independent elements in the Riemann, Ricci and Weyl tensor .............................................. 15
4.5.2 Compute the components of the Riemann tensor for the unit 2-sphere ............................... 15
4.6 Show that the Ricci scalar for the unit 2-sphere .................................................................. 16
4.7 Proof: if a space is conformally flat, i.e.

the Weyl tensor vanishes ..................... 17
4.8 The spherical metric. ....................................................................................................................... 21
4.8.1 Calculate the Christoffel symbols for the spherical metric ..................................................... 21
4.8.2 The Riemann tensor of the spherical metric ........................................................................... 21
4.8.3 A Lie derivative in the spherical metric ................................................................................... 22
4.9 The Ricci scalar of the Penrose Kahn metric ................................................................................... 23
4.10 A metric example: ................................................................. 24
http://physicssusan.mono.net/9035/General%20Relativity Page 1
4.10.1 The Christoffel symbols of a metric example .......................................................................... 24

4.10.2 The Ricci scalar of a metric example ....................................................................................... 24
4.11 Calculate the Christoffel symbols for a metric example:
..................................................................................................................................... 25
4.12 A metric example: ......................................... 26
4.12.1 Calculate the Christoffel symbols for a metric example.......................................................... 26
4.12.2 Calculate the Riemann tensor of metric example ................................................................... 27
4.12.3 Calculate the Riemann tensor of metric example – Alternative version ................................ 27
5 Cartan’s Structure Equations ................................................................................................................... 28
5.1 Ricci rotation coefficients for the Tolman-Bondi- de Sitter metric (Spherical dust with a
cosmological constant) ................................................................................................................................ 28
5.2 The curvature two forms and the Riemann tensor ......................................................................... 31
5.3 Find the Ricci scalar using Cartan’s structure equations of the 2-sphere ....................................... 31
5.4 The spherical polar metric ............................................................................................................... 32
5.4.1 Ricci rotation coefficients of the spherical polar metric ......................................................... 32
Transformation of the Ricci rotation coefficients
into the Christoffel symbols
! of the spherical polar metric ...................................................................................................... 33
5.4.2
5.5 Ricci rotation coefficients of the Rindler metric.............................................................................. 33

5.6 The Einstein tensor for the Tolman-Bondi- de Sitter metric ........................................................... 34
Calculate the Ricci rotation coefficients for a metric example:
..................................................................................................................................... 38
5.7
6 The Einstein Field Equations .................................................................................................................... 39

6.1 The vacuum Einstein equations....................................................................................................... 39
6.2 The vacuum Einstein equations with a cosmological constant ....................................................... 39
6.3 General remarks on the Einstein equations with a cosmological constant .................................... 40
6.4 2+1 dimensions: Gravitational collapse of an inhomogeneous spherically symmetric dust cloud. 41
6.4.1 Find the components of the curvature tensor for the metric in 2+1 dimensions using Cartan’s
structure equations ................................................................................................................................. 41
6.4.2 Find the components of the curvature tensor for the metric in 2+1 dimensions using Cartan’s
structure equations – alternative solution .............................................................................................. 43
6.4.3 Find the components of the Einstein tensor in the coordinate basis for the metric in 2+1
dimensions............................................................................................................................................... 44
6.4.4 The Einstein equations of the metric in 2+1 dimensions. ....................................................... 46
6.5 Using the contracted Bianchi identities, prove that:
"
.................................................. 47
#$ %$, '' ($, ' )$, '* ........................................................................... 47

6.6 Ricci rotation coefficients, Ricci scalar and Einstein equations for a general 4-dimensional metric:
7 The Energy-Momentum Tensor .............................................................................................................. 52

7.1 Perfect Fluids – Alternative derivation ............................................................................................ 52
7.2 The Gödel metric ............................................................................................................................. 53
8 Killing Vectors .......................................................................................................................................... 56
Show that if the Lie derivative of the metric tensor with respect to vector X vanishes (%+

), the vector X satisfies the Killing equation. - Alternative version .......................................................... 56
8.1
8.2 Prove that

+
+ ....................................................................................................... 57
8.3 Constructing a Conserved Current with Killing Vectors – Alternative version: ............................... 57
8.4 Given a Killing vector + the Ricci scalar satisfies+ : ........................................................ 57
9 Null Tetrads and the Petrov Classification............................................................................................... 58
9.1 Construct a null tetrad for the flat space Minkowski metric........................................................... 58
9.2 The Brinkmann metric (Plane gravitational waves) ........................................................................ 59
10 The Schwarzschild Solution ................................................................................................................. 69
10.1 The Riemann and Ricci tensor of the general Schwarzschild metric ............................................... 69
10.2 The Riemann tensor of the Schwarzschild metric ........................................................................... 72
10.3 Calculation of the scalar

in the Schwarzschild metric ............................................ 73
10.4 Geodesics in the Schwarzschild Spacetime ..................................................................................... 73
10.5 The meaning of the integration constant: The choice of , ......................................................... 74
10.6 Time Delay ....................................................................................................................................... 75
10.7 Use the geodesic equations to find the Christoffel symbols for the general Schwarzschild metric.
77
10.8 The Ricci tensor for the general time dependent Schwarzschild metric......................................... 79
10.9 The Schwarzschild metric with nonzero cosmological constant. .................................................... 83
10.9.1 The Ricci rotation coefficients and Ricci tensor for the Schwarzschild metric with nonzero
cosmological constant. ............................................................................................................................ 83
10.9.2 The general Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: The Ricci scalar 84
10.9.3 The general Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: Integration
constants 85
10.9.4 The general Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: The spatial part of
the line element. ..................................................................................................................................... 86
10.9.5 NEW - The effect of the cosmological constant over the scale of the solar system ............... 87
10.10 The Petrov type of the Schwarzschild spacetime ........................................................................ 88
10.11 The deflection of a light ray in a Schwarzschild metric with two different masses .................... 95
10.12 The non-zero Weyl scalars of the Reissner-Nordström spacetime ............................................. 95
11 Black Holes......................................................................................................................................... 105
11.1 The Path of a Radially Infalling Particle ......................................................................................... 105
11.2 The Schwarzschild metric in Kruskal Coordinates. ........................................................................ 107
11.3 The inverse metric of the Kerr Spinning Black Hole ...................................................................... 110
12 Cosmology ......................................................................................................................................... 112
12.1 NEW - Light travelling in the Universe........................................................................................... 112
12.2 Spaces of Positive, Negative, and Zero Curvature......................................................................... 112
12.3 The Robertson-Walker metric ....................................................................................................... 114
12.3.1 Find the components of the Riemann tensor of the Robertson-Walker metric (Homogenous,
isotropic and expanding universe) using Cartan’s structure equations ................................................ 114
12.3.2 The Einstein tensor and Friedmann-equations for the Robertson Walker metric ................ 117
12.3.3 The Einstein tensor for the Robertson Walker metric – Alternative version. ....................... 118
12.4 Manipulating the Friedmann equations. ....................................................................................... 120
12.5 Parameters in an flat universe with positive cosmological constant: Starting with -
./ use a change of variables ./-/ ........................................................................................ 120
13 Gravitational Waves .......................................................................................................................... 121
13.1 Gauge transformation - The Einstein Gauge ................................................................................. 121
13.2 Plane waves ................................................................................................................................... 123
13.2.1 The Riemann tensor of a plane wave .................................................................................... 123
13.2.2 The line element of a plane wave in the Einstein gauge ....................................................... 127
13.2.3 The line element of a plane wave.......................................................................................... 128
13.2.4 The Rosen line element ......................................................................................................... 129
13.3 Colliding gravity waves - coordinate transformation .................................................................... 132
13.4 The delta – 123 and heavy-side – 423 functions: prove that 1 .................................... 134
13.5 Impulsive gravitational wave Region III ......................................................................................... 135
13.6 Two interacting waves ................................................................................................................... 140
13.7 The Nariai spacetime ..................................................................................................................... 145
13.8 Collision of a gravitational wave with an electromagnetic wave – The non-zero spin coefficients
159
13.9 The Aichelburg-Sexl Solution – The passing of a black hole .......................................................... 163
Bibliografi....................................................................................................................................................... 163
1 New - Introduktion
Working with GR means working with differential equations at four different levels. It can be very useful -
whenever one comes across a GR calculation - to keep in mind, on which level you are working. The four
levels of differential equations are:
56 7 89: 5; 9 5; :
1. The metric or line-element:
1
Example: Gravitational red shift :
2@
5< =1 # 5B
A
Light emitted upward in a gravitational field, from an observer located at some inner radius AC to an ob-
server positioned at some outer radius A7
2@
E1 #
A7
D
2@
E1 #
A C
F: G9 F9 G: 0
2. Killing’s equations are conservation equations:
If you move along the direction of a Killing vector, then the metric does not change. This leads to conserved
G is a Killing vector,I JKM , KM , KM , KM Q is the particle four velocity and R is the particle four impulse, then
KL KN KO KP
quantities: A free particle moving in a direction where the metric does not change will not fell any forces. If
G S I 89: G 9 I: TUV6B and G S R 89: G 9 R: TUV6B along a geodesic2.

Translational symmetry: Whenever WXY 8Z[ 0 for some fixed \Y (but for all ] and ^) there will be a sym-
metry under translation along ; _Y 3.
The Killing vector that corresponds to the independence of the metric of B is ` 21,0,0,03 and of a is
Example: Killing vectors in the Schwarzschild metric4.
b 20,0,0,13. The conserved energy per unit rest mass: c #` S I #89: ` 9 I: #8LL S 1 S
KL
KM
# J1 # Q . The conserved angular momentum per unit rest mass e b S I 89: b 9 I: 8PP S 1 S
7d KL
N KM
#A sin i KM #A 7 KM for i 7
KP 7 7 KP KP j
KM
1
3. The Geodesic equation leads to equations of motion:
k 89: ;l 9 ;l :
2
Wk 5 Wk
m n
W; 9 56 W;l 9
5 ;
7 9
5; 5;
: p
Γ 9 :p 0
56 7 56 56
Example: Planetary orbits5
Manipulating the geodesic equations of the Schwarzschild metric leads to the following equation
1
(McMahon, p. 234)
2Carroll, s. 1343
2
(McMahon, p. 168)
3
4
(McMahon, p. 220)
5
(A.S.Eddington, pp. 85-86)
5I 7 y 7 # 1 2@
m n I7 7 I 2@I{
5a z7 z
Which can be interpreted in terms of elliptic functions, I , and h and k are constants of integration.
C
N
1
4. The Einstein equations are equations describing the spacetime.
|9: }9: # 89: }
2
8|9: |9: 89: Λ
}9: 89: Λ
In case of a cosmological constant6:
}9: b9: Λ
If V 4, }9:pK has twenty independent component – ten of which are given by }9: and the remaining ten
by the Weyl tensor7.
Example: The Friedmann equations
A homogenous, isotropic and expanding universe described by the Robertson-Walker metric8, in this case
3
the Einstein equations becomes the Friedmann equations:
8 7 2y l 7 3 Λ

1
#8 2 7 2y l 7 3 Λ

2 Special relativity
to calculate23 : Example
In flat space calculate 2Δ637 for the following pair of events: C 2#1,3,2,43 and 7 24,0, #1,13
2.1 9How
2Δ637 2ΔB37 # 2Δ;37 # 2Δ37 # 2Δ37

2#1 # 437 # 23 # 037 # 2 # 2#13 # 24 # 137
7
(1.11)
57 # 37 # 37 # 37
#2
2.2 10The four velocity and the four force:

The four velocity I9 JKM , KM , KM , KMQ, the four impulse R9 @ I9 , the four force k 9
K KL K K K K
KM KM
@ . Because I9 k 9 I9 k9 we can calculate
K
KM
1 1 5I9 5I9 1 52I9 I9 3
I9 k 9 2I9 k 9 I9 k9 3 @ I9 @ I9 @
2 2 5< 5< 2 5<
I9 I is an invariant and 7 @ KM I9 k 0
9 C K2 3 9
6
(McMahon, p. 138)
7
(d'Inverno, p. 87)
8
(McMahon, p. 161)
9
(McMahon, 2006, p. 323), final exam 1. The answer to FE-1 is (c)
10
(McMahon, 2006, p. 324), final exam 4, and the answer to FE-4 is (a)
3 Metric and Vector Transformations.

3.1 New - The line-element and metric of an ellipsoid11:
56 7 5; 7 5 7 5 7
The line-element of an ellipsoid in Cartesian coordinates
; cos a sin i
We use the parameterization12
sin a sin i
T cos i
With 0 a 2 in the ;-plane and 0 i where the -
axis corresponds to i 0.
5; 2cos a cos i 5i # sin a sin i 5a3
5 2sin a cos i 5i cos a sin i 5a3
5 #T sin i 5i
5; 7 7 2cos a cos i 5i # sin a sin i 5a37
7 cos7 a cos7 i 5i 7 sin7 a sin7 i 5a 7 # 2 cos a cos i sin a sin i 5i5a
5 7 sin7 a cos7 i 5i 7 cos 7 a sin7 i 5a 7 2 sin a cos i cos a sin i 5i5a
5 7 T 7 sin7 i 5i 7
Collecting the results in terms of 5i 7, 5a 7 and 5i5a we get the line element
56 7 cos7 i 27 cos7 a 7 sin7 a3 T 7 sin7 i5i 7 sin7 i 27 sin7 a 7 cos7 a35a 7
22 7 # 7 32cos a cos i sin a sin i35i5a
cos 7 i 27 cos7 a 7 sin7 a3 T 7 sin7 i 2 7 # 7 32cos a cos i sin a sin i3

and the metric tensor
89:
2 7 # 7 32cos a cos i sin a sin i3 sin7 i 27 sin7 a 7 cos7 a3
idealized egg we can choose 7 T

C
As a funny observation you can now calculate the line-element and metric tensor of an idealized egg. For an
56 7 7 2cos7 i 4 sin7 i35i 7 sin7 i 5a 7

89: 7 cos i 4 sin i 0
7 7
0 sin7 i
3.2 13The signature of a metric.

Here we are going to investigate what happens to various quantities when a metric,89: ,changes signature.
1 W8 W8Kp W8:p
Γ 9 :p 89K m K: # n
2 W; p W; : W; K
• Christoffel symbols No change
} 9:pK Wp Γ 9:K # WK Γ 9:p Γ ¡:K Γ9¡p # Γ ¡:p Γ 9¡K
}9: } 9p:
• Riemann tensor
p
No change
} 8 }9:
• Ricci tensor
9:
No change
1
• Ricci scalar Changes sign
|9: }9: # 89: }
2
• Einstein tensor No change
8|9: |9:
1
• Energy tensor No change
|9: }9: # 89: } 89: Λ
2
• Cosmological constant Changes sign
56 7 5A 7 A 7 5i 7 A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
3.3 14Spherical coordinates and vector transformation
• The line element
11
(Hartle, 2003), problem 2-8.
12
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid
13
(McMahon, 2006, p. 36)
14
(McMahon, 2006, p. 46), Quiz 2-5, the answer to the quiz 2-5 is (c)
1
89: ¢ A7 £
• The metric tensor:
A sin i
7 7
1 1
G9 mA, , n calculate G9 .
rsin i cos7 i
• Given
G9 89: G 9
GN 8NN G N 21 32A3 A
(2.17)
1 A
GO 8OO G O 2A 7 3 m n
rsin i sin i
1
GP 8PP G P 2A 7 sin7 i3 m 7 n A 7 tan7 i
cos i
4 Tensor Calculus
4.1 Christoffel symbols.
15

and
in a diagonal metric
1 W89: W89p W8:p
4.1.1
Γ9:p 2 p # 3
2 W; W; : W; 9
1 W89: W899 W8:9
(4.15)
Γ9:9 m 9 # n
2 W; W; : W; 9
1 W899
m :n
2 W;
1 W899 W89: W89:
Γ99: m : # n
2 W; W; 9 W; 9
1 W899
m :n
2 W;
16Find the Christoffel symbols of the 2-sphere with radius

56 7 7 5i 7 7 sin7 i 5a 7
4.1.2
1
• The line element:
¦
7 7
89: 89: §
7 sin7 i 1
• The metric tensor and its inverse:
sin7 i
7
1
Γ9:p 2Wp 89: W: 89p # W9 8:p 3 (4.15)
2
• We have:
Γ 9:p 89K ΓK:p (4.16)
1
ΓOPP # WO 27 sin7 i3 #7 sin i cos i Γ OPP 8OO ΓOPP # sin i cos i
2
15
(McMahon, 2006, p. 324), final exam 6. The answer to FE-6 is (d)
16
(McMahon, 2006, p. 74), example 4-4
1
ΓPOP ΓPPO WO 27 sin7 i3 7 sin i cos i Γ
P
Γ
P
8PP ΓPOP cot i
2 OP PO
4.1.3 17Find the Christoffel symbols of the Kahn-Penrose metric (Colliding gravitational
56 7 25I5¨ # 21 # I37 5; 7 # 21 I37 5 7

waves)
1
1
89: ¦ §
#21 # I37
#21 I37
1
¬1
ª #1 ª̄
9:
8 21 # I37
« ®
•
#1 ª
and its inverse:
ª
© 21 I37
1
Γ9:p 2Wp 89: W: 89p # W9 8:p 3 Γ 9:p 89K ΓK:p
2
1
(4.15) (4.16)
Γ # W 2#21 # I37 3 #21 # I3 Γ ° 8° Γ #21 # I3

2
1 #1
Γ Γ W 2#21 # I37 3 21 # I3 Γ Γ 8 Γ
2 1#I
1
Γ # W 2#21 I37 3 21 I3 Γ ° 8° Γ 21 I3
2
1 1
Γ Γ W 2#21 I37 3 #21 I3 Γ

Γ

8 Γ
2 1I

18Alternative solution: Show that

p.69: Fp 89: Wp 89: # 8K: Γ K9p # 89K Γ Kp:
4.2
If 8K: 8:K : Wp 89: # 8:K Γ K 9p # 89K Γ Kp:

Wp 89: # Γ:9p # Γ9p:
since Γ9p: Γ9:p 24.143: Wp 89: # 2Γ:9p Γ9:p 3
and Γ:9p Γ9:p Wp 89: 2p. 733: Wp 89: # Wp 89:
0
Q.E.D.
4.3 One-forms.
4.3.1 19One-forms: why

For general forms, let D be a R-form and ³ be a ´-form, we have
D µ ³ 2#13¶ ³ µ D
D µ ³ #³ µ D
For one-forms this means
D µ D #D µ D 0
17
(McMahon, 2006, p. 75), example 4-5, quiz 4-7, the answer to quiz 4-7 is (b)
18
19
(McMahon, 2006, p. 80)
This also holds for 5· 5; 9

because 5· is a one-form as well.
¸¹
¸
W· W·
5·9 µ 5·: 9 5; 9 µ : 5; :
W; W;
W7·
9 : 5; 9 µ 5; :
W; W;
(i)
W7·
# 9 : 5; : µ 5; 9
W; W;
(ii)
W7·
5·9 µ 5·9 5; 9 µ 5; 9
W; 9 W; :
(i)
W7·
5·9 µ 5·9 # 5; 9 µ 5; 9
W; 9 W; :
and (ii)
Now, because the partial derivatives commutate, this can only be true if 5; 9 µ 5; 9 0 and 57 0
(4.25)
The exterior derivative of a one-form ·9 5; 9 :

4.3.2 20The exterior derivative of a one-form.
52·9 5; 9 3 5·9 µ 5; 9 (4.26)
derivatives times the differential in the usual way: 5·2;º 3 ·2;º 35;º .
¸
To use this equation it is important to notice, that the right-hand side includes a summation of the partial
¸»
\ c ¹2N3 5B
Example 4-821
5\ 5c ¹2N3 5B

5c ¹2N3 µ 5B
W
c ¹2N3 5A µ 5B
WA
· ¼ 2A3c ¹2N3 5A µ 5B
c ½2N3 cos i sin a 5A
5 5c ½2N3 cos i sin a 5A
5c ½2N3 cos i sin a µ 5A
W W ½2N3
c ½2N3 cos i sin a5A µ 5A c cos i sin a5i µ 5A
WA Wi
W
c ½2N3 cos i sin a5a µ 5A
Wa
W ½2N3 W
c cos i sin a5i µ 5A c ½2N3 cos i sin a5a µ 5A
Wi Wa
#c ½2N3 sin i sin a 5i µ 5A c ½2N3 cos i cos a 5a µ 5A
4.4 The geodesic equation.
56 7 5A 7 A 7 5a 7 5 7
4.4.1 22Find the geodesic equations for cylindrical coordinates
20
(McMahon, 2006, p. 80) equation (4.26)
21
You will find a more extended use of equation (4.26) in e.g. the Brinkmann metric, chapter 9, p.195 (McMahon,
2006).
22
1
1 1
89: ¢ A7 £ 89: ¦ §
A7
1
1
1
Γ9:p 2Wp 89: W: 89p # W9 8:p 3 (4.15) Γ 9:p 89K ΓK:p
2
(4.16)
1
ΓNPP # WN 2A 7 3 #A Γ NPP 8NN ΓNPP #A
2
1 1
ΓPNP ΓPPN WN 2A 7 3 A Γ NP
P
Γ
P
8PP ΓPNP
2 PN
A
57 ; 9 5; : 5; p
Γ 9 0 (4.33)
56 7 :p
56 56
• The geodesics equation:
57 A 5; : 5; p
; 9 A: Γ N 0
56 7 :p
56 56
5 A
7
5a 7
# A m n 0
56 7 56
57 a P 5; 5;
: p
; 9 a: Γ 0
56 7 :p
56 56
5 a
7
5A 5a 5a 5A
Γ NP
P
Γ PN
P
0
56 7 56 56 56 56
57 a 2 5A 5a
0
56 7 A 56 56
57 5; : 5; p
; 9 : Γ 0
56 7 :p
56 56
57
0
56 7
• The Christoffel symbols from the geodesic equations
1 1 1 1
k 89: ;l 9 ;l : 2Al 37 A 7 al 2l 37
7
2 2 2 2
•
Wk 5 Wk
We have (4.35)
m n
W; 9 56 W;l 9
•
Wk 5 Wk
Now we need (4.36)
; 9 A: m n
WA 56 WAl
5
Aal 7 2Al 3 A
56
¿ 0 A # Aal 7
Wk 5 Wk
; 9 a:
Wa 56 Wal
5 7
0 A al 2AAl al A 7 a
56
1 1
¿ 0 a Al al alAl
A A
Wk 5 Wk
; 9 : m n
W 56 Wl
5
0 2l 3
56
0 A # Aal 7
• Collecting the results
1 1
0 a Al al alAl
A A
0
Γ N PP #A
• We can now find the Christoffel symbols from the geodesic equation :
1 1
Γ NP Γ PN
P P
A A
4.4.2 23Use the geodesic equations to find the Christoffel symbols for the Rindler metric.
The Rindler coordinate system or frame describes a uniformly accelerating frame of reference in Minkowski
56 7 ` 7 5< 7 # 5` 7
space.
`7
89:
#1
1 1 1
k 89: ;l 9 ;l : ` 7 2<l 37 # `l 7
2 2 2
•
Wk 5 Wk
We have (4.35)
m n
W; 9 56 W;l 9
• Now we need (4.36)
Wk 5 Wk
; 9 `:
W` 56 W`l
5
`<l 7 #`l #`
56
¿ 0 ` `<l 7
Wk 5 Wk
; 9 <: m n
W< 56 W<l
5 7
0 2` <l 3 2``l <l ` 7 <
56
1̀ 1̀
¿ 0 < `l <l <l `l
0 ` `<l 7
23
0 2``l <l ` 7 <
Γ MM `
•
À
We can now find the Christoffel symbols from the geodesic equation:
1̀ 1̀
Γ MÀM Γ MMÀ
Prove: }9:pK Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

4.5 24The Riemann tensor
(4.42)
Fp 89: Wp 89: # Γ K9p 8K: # Γ Kp: 89K Wp 89: # Γ:9p # Γ9:p 0

First we need
(4.18)
}9:pK 89¡ } ¡:pK

89¡ Wp Γ ¡:K # WK Γ ¡:p Γ¹ :K Γ ¡ ¹p # Γ¹ :p Γ¡ ¹K
89¡ Wp Γ¡:K # 89¡ WK Γ ¡:p 89¡ Γ¹ :K Γ ¡ ¹p # 89¡ Γ¹ :p Γ ¡ ¹K
(4.41)
Wp 289¡ Γ¡:K 3 # 2Wp 89¡ 3Γ ¡:K # WK 289¡ Γ ¡:p 3 2WK 89¡ 3Γ ¡:p Γ¹ :K 89¡ Γ¡ ¹p
# Γ¹ :p 89¡ Γ ¡ ¹K
Wp Γ9:K # 2Γ¡9p Γ9¡p 3Γ ¡:K # WK Γ9:p 2Γ¡9K Γ9¡K 3Γ ¡:p Γ¹ :K Γ9¹p # Γ¹ :p Γ9¹K
Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # 2Γ¡9p Γ9¡p 3Γ ¡:K 2Γ¡9K Γ9¡K 3Γ ¡:p Γ ¡ :K Γ9¡p # Γ Á :p Γ9¡K
Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p (4.42)
Prove: }9:pK 7 J¸ Ä ¸ Å ¸ Ã ¸ # ¸ Ã ¸ Å # ¸ Ä ¸ Q # Γ¡9p Γ :K Γ¡9K Γ :p

CÃ ¸Â ½ ¸Â ½
ÅÄ ¸Â ½
Ä ¸Â ½ÅÃ ¡ ¡
}9:pK Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

(4.43)
1 W89: W89K W8:K 1 W89: W89p W8:p

(4.42)
Wp m K # n # WK m p # n # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p
2 W; W; : W; 9 2 W; W; : W; 9
1 W 7 89: W 7 89K W 7 8:K 1 W 7 89: W 7 89p W 7 8:p
p K p : # p 9 # K p K : # K 9 # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; 2 W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 89K
7
W 8:p
7
W 89p
7
W 8:K
7
p : K 9 # K : # p 9 # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
(4.43)
Prove that (4.44):}9:pK }pK9: #}9:Kp #}:9pK and }9:pK }9pK: }9K:p 0
1 W 7 89K W 7 8:p W 7 89p W 7 8:K
}9:pK p : K 9 # K : # p 9 # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
(4.43)
1 W 7 8p: W 7 8K9 W 7 8p9 W 7 8K:
}pK9: 9 K : p # : K # 9 p # Γ¡p9 Γ ¡K: Γ¡p: Γ ¡K9
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 8p: W 7 8K9 W 7 8p9 W 7 8K:
9 K : p # : K # 9 p # Γ¡p9 Γ ¡K: 8¡¹ Γ p: 8¡¹ Γ¹K9
¹
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 8p: W 7 8K9 W 7 8p9 W 7 8K:
9 K : p # : K # 9 p # Γ¡p9 Γ ¡K: 8¡¹ 8¡¹ Γ p: Γ¹K9
¹
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 8p: W 7 8K9 W 7 8p9 W 7 8K:
25 9 K : p # : K # 9 p # Γ¡p9 Γ ¡K: Γ p: Γ¹K9
¹
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
89: 8:p Æ9p if the metric is diagonal

24
(McMahon, 2006, p. 86), equations (4.42), (4.43) and (4.44)
25
1 W 7 8p: W 7 8K9 W 7 8p9 W 7 8K:

9 K : p # : K # 9 p # Γ¡p9 Γ ¡K: Γ ¡ p: Γ¡K9 }9:pK Q.E.D.
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 89p
7
W 8:K
7
W 89K
7
W 7 8:p
}9:Kp K : p 9 # p : # K 9 # Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
#}9:pK
1 W 8:K
7
W 89p
7
W 8:p
7
W 89K
7
Q.E.D.
}:9pK p 9 K : # K 9 # p : # Γ¡:p Γ ¡9K Γ¡:K Γ ¡9p
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 8:K W 7 89p W 7 8:p W 7 89K
p 9 K : # K 9 # p : # 8¡¹ Γ :p 8¡¹ Γ¹9K 8¡¹ Γ :K 8¡¹ Γ¹9p
¹ ¹
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 8:K W 7 89p W 7 8:p W 7 89K
p 9 K : # K 9 # p : # 8¡¹ 8¡¹ Γ :p Γ¹9K 8¡¹ 8¡¹ Γ :K Γ¹9p
¹ ¹
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 8:K W 7 89p W 7 8:p W 7 89K
p 9 K : # K 9 # p : # Γ :p Γ¹9K Γ :K Γ¹9p
¹ ¹
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 8:K W 7 89p W 7 8:p W 7 89K
p 9 K : # K 9 # p : # Γ ¡ :p Γ¡9K Γ ¡ :K Γ¡9p
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
#}9:pK
1 W 7 89: W 7 8pK W 7 89K W 7 8p:
Q.E.D.
}9pK: K p : 9 # : p # K 9 # Γ¡9K Γ ¡p: Γ¡9: Γ ¡pK
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 89p
7
W 8K:
7
W 89:
7
W 7 8Kp
}9K:p : K p 9 # p K # : 9 # Γ¡9: Γ ¡Kp Γ¡9p Γ ¡K:
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
}9pK: }9K:p
1 W 7 89: W 7 8pK W 7 89K W 7 8p:
K p : 9 # : p # K 9 # Γ¡9K Γ ¡p: Γ¡9: Γ ¡pK
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 89p W 7 8K: W 7 89: W 7 8Kp
: K p 9 # p K # : 9 # Γ¡9: Γ ¡Kp Γ¡9p Γ ¡K:
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 89p
7
W 8K:
7
W 89K
7
W 8p:
7
: K p 9 # : p # K 9 # Γ¡9K Γ ¡p: Γ¡9p Γ ¡K:
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
#}9:pK Q.E.D.
}9999 Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p W9 Γ999 # W9 Γ999 # Γ¡99 Γ ¡99 Γ¡99 Γ ¡99
Also notice
0
(4.42)
}:999 W9 Γ:99 # W9 Γ:99 # Γ¡:9 Γ ¡99 Γ¡:9 Γ ¡99 0

1 W 7 89K W 7 8:p W 7 89p W 7 8:K
}99:9 p : K 9 # K : # p 9 # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
(4.43)
1 W 899
7
W 89:
7
W 89:
7
W 7 899
: 9 9 9 # 9 9 # : 9 # Γ¡9: Γ ¡99 Γ¡99 Γ ¡9:
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
#8¹¡ Γ 9: 8 Γ¹99 Γ¹99 Γ 9: #8¹¡ 8 ¹¡ Γ¹ 9: Γ¹99 Γ¹99 Γ 9: 0
¹ ¹¡ ¹ ¹
1 W 7 89: W 7 89: W 7 89: W 7 89:

}99:: : 9 : 9 # : 9 # : 9 # Γ¡9: Γ ¡9: Γ¡9: Γ ¡9: 0
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 89p
7
W 89:
7
W 89:
7
W 7 89p
}99:p : 9 p 9 # p 9 # : 9 # Γ¡9: Γ ¡9p Γ¡9p Γ ¡9: 0
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 89p W 7 8:p W 7 89p W 7 8:p
}9:pp p : p 9 # p : # p 9 # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:p Γ¡9p Γ ¡:p 0
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
In V dimensions, there are ÇÈº¡d9ÉÉ V7 2V7 # 13/12 independent elements in the Riemann tensor. In
4.5.1 26Independent elements in the Riemann, Ricci and Weyl tensor
the Ricci tensor there are ÇÈºppº V2V 13/2 independent elements, and in the Weyl tensor there are
ÇË¡Ì 10 independent elements if V 4, if V Í 4 there are none. Summarized:
V7 2V7 # 13 V2V 13
ÇÈº¡d9ÉÉ ÇÈºppº ÇË¡Ì
12 2
V2 }C7C7 }CC
}C7
1 3 0
}77
V3 }C7C7 }CC
}C7C{ }77
6 6 0
}C77{ }7{
}C{C{ }C{
}C{7{ }C7
}7{7{ }{{
V4 } } }p Î 27
9:pK 9: 9p: 9:pK
20 10 10
}C7C7 }CC ÎC77{

}C7C{ }77 ÎC77Ï
}C7CÏ }7{ ÎC7{Ï
}C77{ }7Ï ÎC{7{
}C77Ï }C{ ÎC{7Ï
}C7{Ï }CÏ ÎC{{Ï
}C{C{ }{{ ÎCÏ7{ 29
}C{CÏ }C7 ÎCÏ7Ï
}C{7{ }{Ï ÎCÏ{Ï
}C{7Ï }ÏÏ Î7{{Ï
}C{{Ï Î7Ï{Ï
}CÏCÏ
}CÏ7{ 28
}CÏ7Ï
}CÏ{Ï
}7{7{
}7{7Ï
}7{{Ï
}7Ï7Ï
}7Ï{Ï
}{Ï{Ï
The number of independent elements in the Riemann tensor in a metric of dimension V 2 is

4.5.2 30Compute the components of the Riemann tensor for the unit 2-sphere
•
Ç 1 so we can choose to calculate } OPOP
ÉÂ ÉÂ ÑC
C7
The Weyl tensor possesses the same symmetries as the Riemann tensor: Î9:pK #Î9:Kp #Î:9pK ÎpK9: and
26
(McMahon, 2006, p. 87)
Î9:pK Î9K:p Î9pK: 0. It possesses an additional symmetry: Î p 9p: 0. It follows that the Weyl tensor is trace-
27
free, in other words, it vanishes for any pair of contracted indices. One can think of the Weyl tensor as that part of the
Because: }9:pK }9pK: }9K:p 0

curvature tensor for which all contractions vanish (d'Inverno, 1992, p. 88)
Because: Î9:pK Î9pK: Î9K:p 0

28
29
30
} 9:pK Wp Γ 9:K # WK Γ 9:p Γ ¡:K Γ 9¡p # Γ ¡:p Γ9¡K

We choose T i, and 5 a
• The Riemann tensor (4.41)
•
} OPOP WO Γ OPP # WP Γ OPO Γ ¡PP Γ O¡O # Γ ¡PO Γ O¡P

WO Γ OPP Γ ¡PP Γ O¡O # Γ ¡PO Γ O¡P
Sum over c: WO Γ OPP Γ OPP Γ OOO # Γ OPO Γ OOP Γ P Γ OPO # Γ P ΓOPP
PP PO
WO Γ OPP # Γ PO Γ OPP
P
WO 2# sin i cos i3 # cot i 2# sin i cos i3

# cos7 i sin7 i cos 7 i
sin7 i
that the Ricci scalar for the unit 2-sphere

56 7 5i 7 sin7 i 5a 7
4.6 31Show
1
89: Ò1 Ó 89: ¢ 1 £
sin7 i
sin7 i
• The Ricci scalar: } 89: }9: (4.47)
Sum over a: } 8O: }O: 8P: }P:

8OO }OO 8OP }OP 8PO }PO 8PP }PP 8OP 8PO 0
8OO }OO 8PP }PP
Sum over b:
8OO } pOpO 8PP } pPpP }9: } p 9p:

8 } OOOO 8OO } OPO 8PP } OPOP 8PP } PPP } OOOO } PPP 0
P P P
(4.46)
OO
8OO } OPO 8PP } OPOP

Sum over c
P
8OO 8PP }POPO 8PP 8OO }OPOP }POPO }OPOP

28OO 8PP }OPOP
(4.44)
28PP } OPOP } OPOP sin7 i

1
ex 4-11
2 7 sin7 i
sin i
2
} 28PP } OPOP
is a general solution for a 2-dimensional diagonal metric if
• Remark that
} 2877 }C7C7
we write:
(S1)
31
4.7 32Proof:if a space is conformally flat, i.e.

23 23
the Weyl tensor
vanishes
1 1
The Weyl scalar
Î9:pK }9:pK 289K }p: 8:p }K9 # 89p }K: # 8:K }p9 3 289p 8K: # 89K 8p: 3}
2 6
1 1
(4.49)
}9:pK 289K }¡ p¡: 8:p }¡ K¡9 # 89p }¡ K¡: # 8:K }¡ p¡9 3 289p 8K: # 89K 8p: 38¡¹ }Ô ¡Ô¹
2 6
1
}9:pK 89K 8¡¹ }¹p¡: 8:p 8¡¹ }¹K¡9 # 89p 8¡¹ }¹K¡: # 8:K 8¡¹ }¹p¡9
2
1
289p 8K: # 89K 8p: 38¡¹ 8ÔÕ }Õ¡Ô¹
6
1
}9:pK ·2;3 b9K b ¡¹ }¹p¡: b:p b ¡¹ }¹K¡9 # b9p b ¡¹ }¹K¡: # b:K b ¡¹ }¹p¡9
7
2
1
·2;3Ï 2b9p bK: # b9K bp: 3b ¡¹ b ÔÕ }Õ¡Ô¹
6
1
}9:pK ·2;3 9K }¡p¡: b:p }¡K¡9 # b9p }¡K¡: # b:K }¡p¡9 3
7 2b
2
1
·2;3Ï 2b9p bK: # b9K bp: 3}Ô¡Ô¡
6
1 W 7 89K W 7 8:p W 7 89p W 7 8:K
p : K 9 # K : # p 9 # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 1 W 7 8¡: W 7 8p¡ W 7 8¡¡ W 7 8p:
·2;37 Öb9K ¡ p : ¡ # : p # ¡ ¡ # Γ¹¡¡ Γ p: Γ¹¡: Γ p¡
¹ ¹
2 2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 8¡9 W 7 8K¡ W 7 8¡¡ W 7 8K9
b:p ¡ K 9 ¡ # 9 K # ¡ ¡ # Γ¹¡¡ Γ K9 Γ¹¡9 Γ K¡
¹ ¹
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 8¡: W 7 8K¡ W 7 8¡¡ W 7 8K:
# b9p ¡ K : ¡ # : K # ¡ ¡ # Γ¹¡¡ Γ K: Γ¹¡: Γ K¡
¹ ¹
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 W 7 8¡9 W 7 8p¡ W 7 8¡¡ W 7 8p9
# b:K ¡ p 9 ¡ # 9 p # ¡ ¡ # Γ¹¡¡ Γ p9 Γ¹¡9 Γ p¡ ×
¹ ¹
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
1 1 W 7 8Ô¡ W 7 8¡Ô W 7 8ÔÔ W 7 8¡¡
·2;3Ï 2b9p bK: # b9K bp: 3 Ô ¡ ¡ Ô # ¡ ¡ # Ô Ô
6 2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
# Γ¹ÔÔ Γ Γ¹Ô¡ Γ ¡Ô
¹ ¹
¡¡
32
(McMahon, 2006, p. 90)
1
33 22b9K 37 Wp W: 2b:p 37 WK W9 # 2b9p 37 WK W: # 2b:K 37 Wp W9 3·2;3 # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p
2
1 1
·2;37 b9K m 22b¡: 37 W¡ Wp 2bp¡ 37 W: W¡ # 2b¡¡ 37 W: Wp # 2bp: 37 W¡ W¡ 3·2;3 # Γ¹¡¡ Γ p:
¹
2 2
Γ¹¡: Γ p¡ n
¹
1
b:p m 22b¡9 37 W¡ WK 2bK¡ 37 W9 W¡ # 2b¡¡ 37 W9 WK # 2bK9 37 W¡ W¡ 3·2;3 # Γ¹¡¡ Γ K9 Γ¹¡9 Γ K¡ n
¹ ¹
2
1
# b9p m 22b¡: 37 W¡ WK 2bK¡ 37 W: W¡ # 2b¡¡ 37 W: WK # 2bK: 37 W¡ W¡ 3·2;3 # Γ¹¡¡ Γ K: Γ¹¡: Γ K¡ n
¹ ¹
2
1
# b:K m 22b¡9 37 W¡ Wp 2bp¡ 37 W9 W¡ # 2b¡¡ 37 W9 Wp # 2bp9 37 W¡ W¡ 3·2;3 # Γ¹¡¡ Γ p9 Γ¹¡9 Γ p¡ n
¹ ¹
2
1 1
·2;3Ï 2b9p bK: # b9K bp: 3 m 22bÔ¡ 37 WÔ W¡ 2b¡Ô 37 W¡ WÔ # 2bÔÔ 37 W¡ W¡ # 2b¡¡ 37 WÔ WÔ 3·2;3
6 2
# Γ¹ÔÔ Γ ¡¡ Γ¹Ô¡ Γ ¡Ô n
¹ ¹
#Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

1
·2;37 Jb9K #Γ¹¡¡ Γ p: Γ¹¡: Γ p¡ b:p #Γ¹¡¡ Γ K9 Γ¹¡9 Γ K¡
¹ ¹ ¹ ¹
2
# b9p #Γ¹¡¡ Γ K: Γ¹¡: Γ K¡ # b:K #Γ¹¡¡ Γ p9 Γ¹¡9 Γ p¡ Q
¹ ¹ ¹ ¹
1
·2;3Ï 2b9p bK: # b9K bp: 3#Γ¹ÔÔ Γ ¡¡ Γ¹Ô¡ Γ ¡Ô
¹ ¹
6
8¡¹ #Γ¡9p Γ¹:K Γ¡9K Γ¹:p
1
·2;37 Jb9K 8 ¹Ô #Γ¹¡¡ ΓÔp: Γ¹¡: ΓÔp¡ b:p 8 ¹Ô #Γ¹¡¡ ΓÔK9 Γ¹¡9 ΓÔK¡
2
# b9p 8 ¹Ô #Γ¹¡¡ ΓÔK: Γ¹¡: ΓÔK¡ # b:K 8 ¹Ô #Γ¹¡¡ ΓÔp9 Γ¹¡9 ΓÔp¡ Q
1
·2;3Ï 8 ¹Õ 2b9p bK: # b9K bp: 3#Γ¹ÔÔ ΓÕ¡¡ Γ¹Ô¡ ΓÕ¡Ô
6
·2;3b ¡¹ #Γ¡9p Γ¹:K Γ¡9K Γ¹:p
1
·2;3{ Jb9K b ¹Ô #Γ¹¡¡ ΓÔp: Γ¹¡: ΓÔp¡ b:p b ¹Ô #Γ¹¡¡ ΓÔK9 Γ¹¡9 ΓÔK¡
2
# b9p b ¹Ô #Γ¹¡¡ ΓÔK: Γ¹¡: ΓÔK¡ # b:K b ¹Ô #Γ¹¡¡ ΓÔp9 Γ¹¡9 ΓÔp¡ Q
1
·2;3Ø b ¹Õ 2b9p bK: # b9K bp: 3#Γ¹ÔÔ ΓÕ¡¡ Γ¹Ô¡ ΓÕ¡Ô
6
1 1 # 1 # 1 0 Ù· T 5 ; Û
22b9K 37 Wp W: 2b:p 37 WK W9 # 2b9p 37 WK W: # 2b:K 37 Wp W9 3·2;3
0 Ù· UA UA T UA 5 Ú 0
33
1 1
·2;3b ¡¹ Ö# 2Wp 8¡9 W9 8¡p # W¡ 89p 3 WK 8¹: W: 8¹K # W¹ 8:K
2 2
1 1
2WK 89¡ W9 8¡K # W¡ 89K 3 Wp 8¹: W: 8¹p # W¹ 8:p ×
2 2
1 1 1
·2;3{ Üb9K b ¹Ô Ö# W¡ 8¹¡ W¡ 8¹¡ # W¹ 8¡¡ 2W: 8Ôp Wp 8Ô:
2 2 2
1 1
# WÔ 8p: 3 W: 8¹¡ W¡ 8¹: # W¹ 8¡: 2W¡ 8Ôp Wp 8Ô¡ # WÔ 8p¡ 3×
2 2
1 1
b:p b ¹Ô Ö# W¡ 8¹¡ W¡ 8¹¡ # W¹ 8¡¡ 2W9 8ÔK WK 8Ô9 # WÔ 8K9 3
2 2
1 1
W9 8¹¡ W¡ 8¹9 # W¹ 8¡9 2W¡ 8ÔK WK 8Ô¡ # WÔ 8K¡ 3×
2 2
1 1
# b9p b ¹Ô Ö# W¡ 8¹¡ W¡ 8¹¡ # W¹ 8¡¡ 2W: 8ÔK WK 8Ô: # WÔ 8K: 3
2 2
1 1
W: 8¹¡ W¡ 8¹: # W¹ 8¡: 2W¡ 8ÔK WK 8Ô¡ # WÔ 8K¡ 3×
2 2
1 1
# b:K b ¹Ô Ö# W¡ 8¹¡ W¡ 8¹¡ # W¹ 8¡¡ 2W9 8Ôp Wp 8Ô9 # WÔ 8p9 3
2 2
1 1
W9 8¹¡ W¡ 8¹9 # W¹ 8¡9 2W¡ 8Ôp Wp 8Ô¡ # WÔ 8p¡ 3×Ý
2 2
1
·2;3Ø b ¹Õ 2b9p bK:
6
1 1
# b9K bp: 3 Ö# WÔ 8¹Ô WÔ 8¹Ô # W¹ 8ÔÔ W¡ 8Õ¡ W¡ 8Õ¡ # WÕ 8¡¡
2 2
1 1
W¡ 8¹Ô WÔ 8¹¡ # W¹ 8Ô¡ WÔ 8Õ¡ W¡ 8ÕÔ # WÕ 8¡Ô ×
2 2
1 1
·2;3b ¡¹ Ö# 2b¡9 Wp b¡p W9 # b9p W¡ 3 b¹: WK b¹K W: # b:K W¹
2 2
1 1
2b¡9 WK b¡K W9 # b9K W¡ 3 b¹: Wp b¹p W: # b:p W¹ × ·2;3
2 2
1 1 1
·2;3{ Üb9K b ¹Ô Ö# b¹¡ W¡ b¹¡ W¡ # b¡¡ W¹ 2bÔp W: bÔ: Wp
2 2 2
1 1
# bp: WÔ 3 b¹¡ W: b¹: W¡ # b¡: W¹ bÔp W¡ b¹¡ Wp # bp¡ WÔ ×
2 2
1 1
b:p b ¹Ô Ö# b¹¡ W¡ b¹¡ W¡ # b¡¡ W¹ 2bÔK W9 bÔ9 WK # bK9 WÔ 3
2 2
1 1
b¹¡ W9 b¹9 W¡ # b¡9 W¹ 2bÔK W¡ bÔ¡ WK # bK¡ WÔ 3×
2 2
1 1
# b9p b ¹Ô Ö# b¹¡ W¡ b¹¡ W¡ # b¡¡ W¹ 2bÔK W: bÔ: WK # bK: WÔ 3
2 2
1 1
b¹¡ W: b¹: W¡ # b¡: W¹ 2bÔK W¡ bÔ¡ WK # bK¡ WÔ 3×
2 2
1 1
# b:K b ¹Ô Ö# b¹¡ W¡ b¹¡ W¡ # b¡¡ W¹ 2bÔp W9 bÔ9 Wp # bp9 WÔ 3
2 2
1 1
b¹¡ W9 b¹9 W¡ # b¡9 W¹ 2bÔp W¡ bÔ¡ Wp # bp¡ WÔ 3×Ý ·2;3
2 2
1
·2;3Ø b ¹Õ 2b9p bK:
6
1 1
# b9K bp: 3 Ö# b¹Ô WÔ b¹Ô WÔ # bÔÔ W¹ bÕ¡ W¡ bÕ¡ W¡ # b¡¡ WÕ
2 2
1 1
b¹Ô W¡ b¹¡ WÔ # bÔ¡ W¹ bÕ¡ WÔ bÕÔ W¡ # b¡Ô WÕ × ·2;3
2 2
1 1 1 1
34·2;3b¡¹ # m b¡9 Wp n m b¹: WK n m b¡9 WK n m b¹: Wp n ·2;3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
·2;3{ Öb9K b ¹Ô # m b¹¡ W¡ n m bÔp W: n m b¹¡ W: n m bÔp W¡ n
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
b:p b ¹Ô # m b¹¡ W¡ n m bÔK W9 n m b¹¡ W9 n m bÔK W¡ n
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
# b9p b ¹Ô # m b¹¡ W¡ n m bÔK W: n m b¹¡ W: n m bÔK W¡ n
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
# b:K b ¹Ô # m b¹¡ W¡ n m bÔp W9 n m b¹¡ W9 n m bÔp W¡ n× ·2;3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
·2;3Ø b ¹Õ 2b9p bK: # b9K bp: 3 # m b¹Ô WÔ n m bÕ¡ W¡ n m b¹Ô W¡ n m bÕ¡ WÔ n ·2;3
6 2 2 2 2
1 # 1 0 Ù· c T ; Û
2b¡p W9 # b9p W¡ 3·2;3
0 Ù· c UA T UA Ú 0
34
1
·2;3b ¡¹ #b¡9 b¹: Wp WK b¡9 b¹: WK Wp ·2;3
4
1
·2;3{ Jb9K b ¹Ô #b¹¡ bÔp W¡ W: b¹¡ bÔp W: W¡
8
b:p b ¹Ô #b¹¡ bÔK W¡ W9 b¹¡ bÔK W9 W¡ # b9p b ¹Ô #b¹¡ bÔK W¡ W: b¹¡ bÔK W: W¡
# b:K b ¹Ô #b¹¡ bÔp W¡ W9 b¹¡ bÔp W9 W¡ Q ·2;3
1
·2;3Ø b ¹Õ 2b9p bK: # b9K bp: 3#b¹Ô bÕ¡ WÔ W¡ b¹Ô bÕ¡ W¡ WÔ ·2;3
24
0
4.8 The spherical metric.
56 7 5A 7 A 7 5i 7 A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
4.8.1 35Calculate the Christoffel symbols for the spherical metric
1
¬ 1
1 ª ª̄
89: ¢ A 7 £ 8 9: A7
A 7 sin7 i « 1 ®
•
ª ª
The metric tensor and its inverse:
© A 7 sin7 i
1
Γ9:p 2Wp 89: W: 89p # W9 8:p 3 (4.15) Γ 9:p 89K ΓK:p
2
(4.16)
1
ΓNOO # WN 2A 7 3 #A Γ NOO 8NN ΓNOO #A
2
1 1
ΓONO ΓOON WN 2A 7 3 A Γ ONO Γ OON 8OO ΓONO
2 A
1
ΓNPP # WN 2A 7 sin7 i3 #A sin7 i Γ NPP 8NN ΓNPP #A sin7 i
2
1 1
ΓPNP ΓPPN WN 2A 7 sin7 i3 A sin7 i Γ
P
Γ
P
8PP ΓPNP
2 NP PN
A
1
ΓOPP # WO 2A 7 sin7 i3 #A 7 sin i cos i Γ OPP 8OO ΓOPP # sin i cos i
2
1
ΓPOP ΓPPO WO 2A 7 sin7 i3 A 7 sin i cos i Γ
P
Γ
P
8PP ΓPOP cot i
2 OP PO
The number of independent elements in the Riemann tensor in a metric of dimension V 3 is

4.8.2 36The Riemann tensor of the spherical metric
•
Ç 6 and we have to calculate: } NONO ; } NPNP ; } OPOP ; } NONP ; } ONOP ; }
ÉÂ ÉÂ ÑC P
C7 NPO
• The Riemann tensor } 9:pK Wp Γ 9:K # WK Γ 9:p Γ ¡:K Γ 9¡p # Γ ¡:p Γ9¡K (4.41)
(McMahon, 2006, p. 91), quiz 4-2 and 4-3, the answer to quiz 4-2 is (a) #A 7 sin i cos i, and the answer to quiz 4-3 is
(c) cot i
35
(McMahon, 2006, p. 91), quiz 4-4. We see that all the elements of the Riemann tensor equals 0, and the answer to
36
quiz 4-4 is (d)
, T A, , 5 i: } NONO WN Γ N OO # WO Γ NON Γ ¡OO Γ N¡N # Γ ¡ON Γ N¡O

1
c A, i, a: WN Γ N OO # Γ OON Γ NOO #1 # m n 2#A3 0
A
, T A, , 5 a: } NPNP WN Γ N PP # WP Γ NPN Γ ¡PP Γ N¡N # Γ ¡PN Γ N¡P
1
c A, i, a: WN Γ N PP # Γ PN Γ NPP # sin7 i # m n 2#A sin7 i3 0
P
A
, T i, , 5 a: } OPOP WO Γ O PP # WP Γ OPO Γ ¡PP Γ O¡O # Γ ¡PO Γ O¡P
c A, i, a: WO Γ O PP Γ NPP Γ ONO # Γ PO Γ PP
P O
1
# cos7 i sin7 i 2#A sin7 i3 m n # 2cot i32# sin i cos i3 0
A
, T A, i, 5 a: } NONP WN Γ NOP # WP Γ NON Γ ¡OP Γ N¡N # Γ ¡ON Γ N¡P
c A, i, a: 0
, T i, A, 5 a: } ONOP WO Γ ONP # WP Γ ONO Γ ¡NP Γ O¡O # Γ ¡NO Γ O¡P
c A, i, a: 0
, T a, A, 5 i: } PNPO WP Γ NO # WO Γ NP Γ ¡NO Γ ¡P # Γ ¡NP Γ ¡O
P P P P
1 1
c A, i, a: m n cot i # m n cot i 0
A A
}NOOP #}ONOP #8OO }ONOP 0
Þ 9 2A, sin i , sin i cos a3 ¨ 9 2A, A 7 cos i , sin a3

4.8.3 37A Lie derivative in the spherical metric
I ß° Þ ¨ : F: Þ # Þ : F: ¨
• Let and
Wà9
• Calculate the Lie derivative (4.27)
F: à9 : Γ 9 :p àp
W;
• The covariant derivative: (4.6)
WÞ 9 W¨ 9
I9 ¨ : F: Þ 9 # Þ : F: ¨ 9 ¨ : Γ 9
Þ p
# Þ :
Γ 9 :p ¨ p
W; : :p
W; :
WÞ 9 W¨ 9
¨ :
¨ Γ :p Þ # Þ
: 9 p :
# Þ : Γ 9 :p ¨ p
W; :9 W; :
WÞ W¨ 9
¨ : : # Þ : : ¨ : Γ 9 :p Þ p # Þ : Γ 9 :p ¨ p
W; W;
WÞ N W¨ N
A: IN ¨ :
#Þ :
¨ : Γ N :p Þ p # Þ : Γ N :p ¨ p
W; : W; :
A, i, a: ¨ O Γ N OO Þ O # Þ O Γ N OO ¨ O ¨ P Γ N PP Þ P # Þ P Γ N PP ¨ P 0
WÞ O W¨ O
i: IO ¨ : : # Þ : : ¨ : ΓO :p Þ p # Þ : Γ O:p ¨ p
W; W;
WÞ O
W¨ O
W¨ O
A, i, a: Ö # ÞN # ÞO ¨ N Γ ONp Þ p # Þ N Γ O Np ¨ p ¨ O Γ OOp Þ p
Wi WA Wi
#Þ O Γ OOp ¨ p ¨ P Γ O Pp Þ p # Þ P Γ O Pp ¨ p
WÞ O W¨ O W¨ O
T A, i, a: ¨ O
#Þ N
#Þ O
¨ N Γ ONO Þ O # Þ N Γ O NO ¨ O ¨ O Γ OON Þ N
Wi WA Wi
#Þ O Γ OON ¨ N ¨ P Γ OPP Þ P # Þ P Γ OP ¨ P
WÞ O W¨ O W¨ O
Ö # ÞN # ÞO
Wi WA Wi
2A 7 cos i32cos i3 # A22A cos i3 # 2sin i32#A 7 sin i3 A 7 21 # 2 cos i3
37
(McMahon, 2006, p. 91), quiz 4-6, the answer to quiz 4-6 is (a)
WÞ P W¨ P
a: IP ¨:
# Þ :
¨ : Γ :p Þ p # Þ : Γ :p ¨ p
P P
W; : W; :
WÞ P WÞ P W¨ P
A, i, a: Ö ¨ P
# Þ P
¨ N Γ Np Þ p # Þ N Γ Np ¨ p ¨ O Γ Op Þ p
P P P
W; O W; P W; P
#Þ O Γ Op ¨ p ¨ P Γ Pp Þ p # Þ P Γ Pp ¨ p
P P P
WÞ P WÞ P W¨ P
T A, i, a: Ö ¨ P
# Þ P
¨ N Γ NP Þ P # Þ N Γ NP ¨ P ¨ O Γ OP Þ P
P P P
W; O W; P W; P
#Þ O Γ OP ¨ P ¨ P Γ PN Þ N # Þ P Γ PN ¨ N ¨ P Γ PO Þ O # Þ P Γ PO ¨ O
P P P P P
WÞ P WÞ P W¨ P
Ö ¨ P
# Þ P
W; O W; P W; P
2A cos i32cos i cos a3 sin a 2# sin i sin a3 # sin i cos a 2cos a3
7
A 7 cos7 i cos a # sin i
IN 0
• So we can conclude:
I ÖI × Ü
O A 7
21 # 2 cos i3 Ý
I P A cos i cos a # sin i
7 7
} 89: }9:
4.9 38The Ricci scalar of the Penrose Kahn metric
}9: } p 9p:
• The Ricci scalar: (4.47)
• The Ricci tensor (4.46)
Sum over I, ¨, ;, : } 8: }: 8°: }°: 8 : }: 8 : }:

Sum over I, ¨, ;, : 8° }° 8° }° 8 } 8 }
8° }pp° 8° }p °p 8 }p p 8 } p p
Sum over T I, ¨, ;, : 8° } ° 8° } ° 8° } ° 8° } ° 8 } 8 }° °

8 } 8 } 8 }° ° 8 }

8° 8° : 8° 8 }° 8° 8 }° 8° 8 }° 8° 8 }°
8 8° }° 8 8° }° 8 8 } 8 8° }°
8 8° }° 8 8 }
}9:pK }pK9:
48° 8 }° 48° 8 }° 28 8 }
#}:9pK #}9:Kp :
48° } ° 48° } ° 28 }

8C7
• Remark we can rewrite this into to a general expression for a non-diagonal metric of the type:
¬ ¯
8C7
89:
« 8{{ ®
© 8ÏÏ
} 48C7 }{C{7 48C7 }ÏCÏ7 28{{ }Ï{Ï{
Now we need to calculate the three elements in the Riemann tensor: } ° ; } ° ; }
•

We write (S2)
} ° W Γ ° # W° Γ Γ ¡° Γ ¡ # Γ ¡ Γ ¡° 0

•
} ° W Γ ° # W° Γ Γ ¡° Γ ¡ # Γ ¡ Γ ¡° 0

} W Γ # W Γ Γ ¡ Γ ¡ # Γ ¡ Γ ¡ 0

• So we can conclude }0
38
(McMahon, 2006, p. 92), quiz 4-8.The answer to quiz 4-8 is (b)
4.10 39A metric example:
56 7 7 sin ; 5; 7 ; 7 tan 5 7
4.10.1 The Christoffel symbols of a metric example
1
¬ ¯
sin ;
7
7 sin ;
89: 8 9:
; 7 tan « 1 ®
© ; 7 tan
1
Γ9:p 2Wp 89: W: 89p # W9 8:p 3 Γ 9:p 89K ΓK:p
2
1 sin ;
(4.15) (4.16)
Γ #W 8 # sin ; Γ

8 Γ #
2 ; 7 tan
1 1
Γ Γ sin ; Γ Γ 8 Γ
2
1 1
Γ 7 cos ; Γ 8 Γ cot ;
2 2
; tan
Γ #; tan Γ 8 Γ # 7
sin ;
1
Γ Γ ; tan Γ Γ 8 Γ

;

1 1 tan7
Γ ; 7 21 tan7 3 Γ

8 Γ
2 2 tan

• From example 4-12 we know that for a 2-dimensional diagonal metric: } 2877 }C7C7 which
4.10.2 The Ricci scalar of a metric example
means we only have to calculate }
} W Γ # W Γ Γ ¡ Γ ¡ # Γ ¡ Γ ¡

c ;, : W Γ # W Γ Γ Γ # Γ Γ Γ Γ # Γ Γ

; tan 1 ; tan 1 1 7 1 tan7 1 1 ; tan

W m# n # W m n m# n m cot ;n # m n m n # m n m# 7 n
7 sin ;
7 sin ; 2 2 tan ; sin ;
tan 1 ; cos ; 1 7 1 ; tan cos ; 1 7 1 tan7 tan
# m # n m n # m n # m n m 7 n
7 sin ; sin ; 7 2 7 sin ;
7 2 tan sin ;
;tan cos ; 1 ; tan cos ; 1 tan7
m 7 7 n#m 7 n
sin ; 2 sin7 ; 2 tan
; cos ; tan7 sin7 ; sin7 ; tan7

2 7 sin7 ; tan
1 ; cos ; tan7 sin7 ; sin7 ; tan7
} 28 } 2 m 7 n
; tan 2 7 sin7 ; tan
; cos ; tan7 sin7 ; sin7 ; tan7

; 7 7 sin7 ; tan7
39
(McMahon, 2006, p. 92), quiz 4-9, quiz 4-10. The answer to quiz 4-9 is (c), and the answer to quiz 4-10 is (b)
the Christoffel symbols for a metric example:

4.11 40Calculate
The line element: 56 7 5á 7 sinh7 á 5i 7 sinh7 á sin7 i 5a 7
5 Wã Wã
To find the Christoffel symbols we calculate the geodesic from the Euler-Lagrange equation
0 m 9n # 9
56 W;l W;
(10.36)
ã á 7l sinh7 á il 7 sinh7 á sin7 i al 7

where
; á:
9
Wã
2 cosh á sinh á il 7 2 cosh á sinh á sin7 i al 7
Wá
Wã
2ál
Wál
5 Wã
2á
56 Wál
0 2á # 2 cosh á sinh á il 7 # 2 cosh á sinh á sin7 i al 7
¿ 0 á # cosh á sinh á il 7 # cosh á sinh á sin7 i al 7
; i:
9
Wã
#2 cos i sin i sinh7 á al 7
Wi
Wã
2 sinh7 á il
Wil
5 Wã
m n 4 cosh á sinh á álil 2 sinh7 á i
56 Wil
0 2 sinh7 á i 4 cosh á sinh á álil 2 cos i sin i sinh7 á al 7
¿ 0 i 2 cosh á sinh á álil cos i sin i al 7
; a:
9
Wã
0
Wa
Wã
2 sinh7 á sin7 i al
Wal
5 Wã
4 cosh á sinh á álal # 4 cos i sin i il al 2 sinh7 á sin7 i a
56 Wal
0 4 cosh á sinh á álal # 4 cos i sin i il al 2 sinh7 á sin7 i a
coth á cot i
¿ 0 a 2 álal # 2 il al
sin i
7 sinh7 á
0 á # cosh á sinh á il 7 # cosh á sinh á sin7 i al 7

0 i 2 cosh á sinh á álil cos i sin i al 7

coth á cot i
0 a 2 álal # 2 il al
sin i
7 sinh7 á
40
(McMahon, 2006, p. 325), final exam 9. The answer to FE-9 is (a)
coth á
• We can now find the non-zero Christoffel symbols:
Γ OO
ä
# cosh á sinh á Γ OPO cosh á sinh á Γ
P

äP
sin7 i
cot i
Γ # cosh á sinh á sin7 i Γ OPP cos i sin i Γ # il al
ä P
PP OP sinh7 á
4.12 41A metric example: 2 3 2 3
The line element: 56 7 2I7 ^ 7 35I7 2I7 ^ 7 35^ 7 I7 ^ 7 5i 7

4.12.1 Calculate the Christoffel symbols for a metric example
1
¬ 7
ª 2I ^ 7 3 ª̄
2I7 ^ 7 3 0 0 ª ª
1
89: å 0 2I7 ^ 7 3 0 æ 89:
« 2I ^ 7 3 ®
The metric tensor
7
0 0 I7 ^ 7 ª 1 ª
ª ª
and its inverse:
© I7 ^ 7
1
Γ9:p 2Wp 89: W: 89p # W9 8:p 3 24.153 Γ 9:p 89K ΓK:p
2
1 I
(4.16)
Γ W 28 3 I Γ 8 Γ 7

2 2I ^ 73
1 ^
Γ[ # W[ 28 3 #^ Γ [ 8[[ Γ[ # 7
2 2I ^ 7 3
1 ^
Γ[ W[ 28 3 ^ Γ [ 8 Γ[ 7
2 2I ^ 7 3
1 I
Γ[[ # W 28[[ 3 #I Γ [[ 8 Γ[[ # 7
2 2I ^ 7 3
1 I
Γ[[ W 28[[ 3 I Γ [[ 8[[ Γ[[ 7
2 2I ^ 7 3
1 ^
Γ[[[ W[ 28[[ 3 ^ Γ [[[ 8[[ Γ[[[ 7
2 2I ^ 7 3
1 I^ 7
ΓOO # W 28OO 3 #I^ 7 Γ OO 8 ΓOO # 7
2 2I ^ 7 3
1 1
ΓOO W 28OO 3 I^ 7 Γ OO 8OO ΓOO
2 I
1 I7 ^
Γ[OO # W[ 28OO 3 #I7 ^ Γ [OO 8[[ Γ[OO # 7
2 2I ^ 7 3
1 1
ΓO[O W[ 28OO 3 I7 ^ Γ O[O 8OO ΓO[O
2 ^
I
• Collecting the results we find the non-zero Christoffel symbols
Γ #Γ [[ Γ [[ 7
2I ^ 7 3
^
Γ [[[ #Γ [ Γ [ 7
2I ^ 7 3
I^ 7
Γ OO # 7
2I ^ 7 3
41
(McMahon, 2006, p. 324), final exam 7 and 8. All the independent elements of the Riemann tensor is zero and the
answer to FE-8 is (d)
I7 ^
Γ [OO # 7
2I ^ 7 3
1
Γ OO
I
1
Γ O[O
^
In 3 dimensions the Riemann tensor has six independent elements: }C7C7 ; }C7C{ ; }C77{ ; }C{C{ ; }C{7{ ; }7{7{
4.12.2 Calculate the Riemann tensor of metric example
}9:pK Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

The Riemann tensor
}[[ W Γ[[ # W[ Γ[ # Γ¡ Γ ¡[[ Γ¡[ Γ ¡[

(4.42)
W 2#I3 # W[ 2^3 # Γ Γ[[ Γ[ Γ [ # Γ[ Γ [[[ Γ[[ Γ [[
I7 ^7 ^7 I7
#2 7
2I ^ 7 3 2I7 ^ 7 3 2I7 ^ 7 3 2I7 ^ 7 3
0
}[O W Γ[O # WO Γ[O # Γ¡ Γ ¡[O Γ¡O Γ ¡[ 0
}[[O W[ Γ[O # WO Γ[[ # Γ¡[ Γ ¡[O Γ¡O Γ ¡[[ 0
}OO W ΓOO # WO ΓO # Γ¡ Γ ¡OO Γ¡O Γ ¡O
W 2#I^ 7 3 # Γ Γ OO # Γ[ Γ [OO ΓOO Γ OO
I7 ^ 7 I7 ^ 7
#^ 7 7 ^7
2I ^ 7 3 2I7 ^ 7 3
0
}O[O W[ ΓOO # WO ΓO[ # Γ¡[ Γ¡OO Γ¡O Γ ¡O[
W[ 2#I^ 7 3 # Γ[ ΓOO # Γ[[ Γ[ OO ΓOO Γ OO[
I^ { I{ ^
#2I^ 7 I^
2I ^ 7 3 2I7 ^ 7 3
^7 I7
I^ 7 # 1
2I ^ 7 3 2I7 ^ 7 3
0
}[O[O W[ Γ[OO # WO Γ[O[ # Γ¡[[ Γ ¡ OO Γ¡[O Γ ¡ O[
W[ 2#I7 ^3 # Γ[[ Γ OO # Γ[[[ Γ [ OO ΓO[O Γ O O[
I7 ^ 7 I7 ^ 7
#I # 7
7
I7
2I ^ 7 3 2I7 ^ 7 3
0
The answer to Exercise 8 in the Final Exam is given by }9:pK 0 for the following reason: Consider the
4.12.3 Calculate the Riemann tensor of metric example – Alternative version42
global Minkowski spacetime 57 5I¼7 5¨ ¼7 5i ¼7, in some coordinates 2I¼ , ¨ ¼ , i ¼ 3 [the corresponding
Riemannian curvature tensor identically vanishing, of course], and consider the following coordinate trans-
I¼ I¨ cos i
formation:
¨è I¨ sin i
1
i ¼ 2I7 # ¨ 7 3
2
5I¼ 2I5¨ ¨5I3 cos i # I¨ sin i 5i

The differentials are related as
42
Kindly provided by Mr. John Fredsted: http://johnfredsted.dk/science/publications.php
5¨ ¼ 2I5¨ ¨5I3 sin i I¨ cos i 5i

5i ¼ I5I # ¨5¨
5I¼7 5¨ ¼7 5i ¼7 2I5¨ ¨5I37 2I¨37 5i 7 2I5I # ¨5¨37

from which it readily follows that
2I7 ¨ 7 325I7 5¨ 7 3 I7 ¨ 7 5i 7
Thus the line element 56 2I ¨ 7 325I7 5¨ 7 3 I7 ¨ 7 5i 7 must correspond to an identically vanish-
7 7
ing Riemannian curvature tensor.
5 Cartan’s Structure Equations

5.1 43Riccirotation coefficients for the Tolman-Bondi- de Sitter metric (Spheri-
56 7 5B 7 # c Ñ7ä2L,N3 5A 7 # } 7 2B, A35i 7 # } 7 2B, A3 sin7 i 5a 7

cal dust with a cosmological constant)
• The Basis one forms
éLê 5B
éN̂ c Ñä2L,N3 5A 5A c ä2L,N3 éN̂ 1
1 #1
éO
ì
}2B, A35i 5i éO
ì
b ºÕ ¦ §
}2B, A3 #1
1 #1
}2B, A3 sin i 5a 5a éP
ì
éP
ì
}2B, A3 sin i
• Cartan’s First Structure equation and the calculation of the Ricci rotation coefficients Γ 9:p̂ :
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:
(5.9) Γ 9 Γ 9:p̂ ép̂
:
(5.10)
5éLê 0
5éN̂ 5c Ñä2L,N3 5A #álc Ñä2L,N3 5B µ 5A #áléLê µ éN̂
}l }¼
5éO 52}2B, A35i3 }l 5B µ 5i } ¼ 5A µ 5i éLê µ éO c ä2L,N3 éN̂ µ éO
ì ì ì
} }
5é P
ì
52}2B, A3 sin i 5a3 }l sin i 5B µ 5a } ¼ sin i 5A µ 5a }2B, A3 cos i 5i µ 5a
}l }¼ cot i Oì
éLê µ é P c ä2L,N3 éN̂ µ é P é µ éP
ì ì ì
} } }
• Summarizing the curvature one forms in a matrix:
43
}l Oì }l Pì
¬ 0 #áléN̂ é é
ª } } ª̄
ª } ¼ ä2L,N3 Oì } ¼ ä2L,N3 Pì ª
ª#áléN̂ 0 c é c é ª
} }
Γ 9
« }l Oì
: }¼ cot i Pì ®
é # c ä2L,N3 éO 0 é
ì
ª} } } ª
ª l ª
ª } Pì } ¼ ä2L,N3 Pì cot i Pì ª
©} é # c é # é 0
} }
Where refers to column and to row.
}l }l
•
#ál Γ N̂ LêN̂ #ál
Now we can read off the Ricci rotation coefficients
ì
Γ L N̂ N̂ Γ O LêOì Γ
ì P

ê
} }
ì
LêP
}l } ¼ ä2L,N3 } ¼ ä2L,N3 ì } ¼ ä2L,N3
ΓL Γ Γ Γ
ì
ì # c ì c c
ê P

N̂ O
} } } }
ìO
O ì ìO
O N̂ O ì
N̂ P
}l } ¼ cot i cot i
Γ N̂ PìPì # c ä2L,N3 Γ O PìPì #
ì
ΓL Γ
ê ì

P

} } }
ìPì
}
P ìP
O ì
• Which means the answer to quiz 5-6 is (b)
• Transformation of the Ricci rotation coefficients Γ 9:p̂ into the Christoffel symbols Γ 9 íî
We have the transformation Γ 9 íî 2ΛÑC 39K Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂ : Λ

¹ê

p (5.14)
Γ N LN 2ΛÑC3NK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂L Λ Γ N̂LêN̂ ΛLê L #ál S 1 #ál

¹ê
N
Γ L NN 2Λ 3 K Γ ¡̂ ¹ê Λ N Λ N 2ΛÑC 3LLê Γ LN̂ N̂ ΛN̂ N 1#álc #álc Ñ7ä2L,N3

¹ê Ñä2L,N3 7

ÑC L K ¡̂ ê 7
} l }l
Γ O LO 2ΛÑC 3OK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂L Λ Γ OLêOì ΛLê L
¹ê ì
S1
O
} }
}l
}}l
7
Γ L OO 2ΛÑC 3LK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂O Λ
¹ê
2ΛÑC 3LLê Γ LOìOì JΛOO Q

1 S }7
ê ì
}
O
} ¼ ä2L,N3 Ñä2L,N3 }¼
Γ O NO 2ΛÑC 3OK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂N Λ Γ ON̂ Oì ΛN̂ N
¹ê
c c
ì
O
} }
7 }¼
Γ N OO 2ΛÑC 3NK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂O Λ
¹ê
2ΛÑC 3NN̂ Γ N̂OìOì JΛOO Q c ä2L,N3 # c ä2L,N3 } 7 #}} ¼ c 7ä2L,N3
ì
O }
} l }l
Γ 2ΛÑC 3 K Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂L Λ Γ ìΛ L
P ¹ê ì
P
S1
P Lê
} }
LP P Lê P
}l
}}l sin7 i
7
Γ L PP 2ΛÑC 3LK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂P Λ¹P 2ΛÑC 3LLê Γ Lê ì ì JΛPì Q
ê
1 S } 7 sin7 i
PP P
}
} ¼ ä2L,N3 Ñä2L,N3 }¼
Γ 2ΛÑC 3 K Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂N Λ Γ ìΛ N
¹ê ì
c c
P P P N̂
NP P N̂ P } }
7 }¼
Γ N PP 2ΛÑC 3NK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂P Λ¹P 2ΛÑC 3NN̂ Γ N̂ ì ì JΛPì Q c ä2L,N3 # c ä2L,N3 } 7 sin7 i #}} ¼ c 7ä2L,N3 sin7 i
ê
PP P }
cot i
Γ Γ ìΛ O cot i
ì
2ΛÑC 3 K Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂O Λ
¹ê
}
P P P ì
O
OP P ìP
O }
7 1 cot i 7 7
Γ O PP 2ΛÑC 3OK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂P Λ¹P 2ΛÑC 3Oì Γ Oìì ì JΛPP Q m# n } sin i # cos i sin i
ê ì
O PP } }
However by this method we do not obtain Γ NNN #áè
• To check we calculate the Christoffel symbols directly from the metric
56 7 5B 7 # c Ñ7ä2L,N3 5A 7 # } 7 2B, A35i 7 # } 7 2B, A3 sin7 i 5a 7

1 0 0 0
0 #c Ñ7ä2L,N3
0 0
89: ¦ §
0 0 #} 7 2B, A3 0
• The metric tensor
0 0 0 #} 7 2B, A3 sin7 i
1 0 0 0
¬0 #c 7ä2L,N3 0 0
ª 1 ª̄
89: 0 0 # 7 0
« } 2B, A3 ®
•
1
and its inverse:
ª0 0 0 # 7 ª
© } 2B, A3 sin i
7
1
Γ9:p 2Wp 89: W: 89p # W9 8:p 3 (4.15) Γ 9:p 89K ΓK:p
2
(4.16)
1
ΓNNN WN #c Ñ7ä2L,N3 áèc Ñ7ä2L,N3
2
Γ NNN 8NN ΓNNN #c 7ä2L,N3 á ¼ c Ñ7ä2L,N3 #áè
1
ΓLNN # WL #c Ñ7ä2L,N3 #álc Ñ7ä2L,N3
2
Γ LNN 8LL ΓLNN 1#álc Ñ7ä2L,N3 #álc Ñ7ä2L,N3
1
ΓNNL ΓNLN WL #c Ñ7ä2L,N3 álc Ñ7ä2L,N3
2
Γ NLN Γ NNL 8NN ΓNLN #c 7ä2L,N3 álc Ñ7ä2L,N3 #ál
1
ΓLOO # WL #}7 2B, A3 }l }
2
Γ LOO 8LL ΓLOO 1 S }l } }l }
1
ΓOLO ΓOOL WL #}7 2B, A3 #}l}
2
1 }l
Γ OLO Γ OOL 8OO ΓOLO # 7 #}l }
} }
1
ΓNOO # WN #} 7 2B,
A3 } ¼ }
2
Γ NOO 8NN ΓNOO #c 7ä2L,N3 } ¼ }
1
ΓONO ΓOON WN #} 7 2B, A3 #}¼ }
2
1 }¼
Γ ONO Γ ON 8OO ΓONO # 7 2#} ¼ }3
O

} }
1
ΓLPP # WL 2#} 2B, A3 sin i 3 }l } sin7 i
7 7
2
Γ LPP 8LL ΓLPP 1 S }l } sin7 i }l } sin7 i
1
ΓPLP ΓPPL WL 2#}7 2B, A3 sin7 i 3 #}l } sin7 i
2
1 }l
Γ Γ 8PP ΓPLP m# n #}l} sin7 i
P

P
LP PL } 7 sin7 i }
1
ΓNPP # WN 2#}7 2B, A3 sin7 i 3 } ¼ } sin7 i
2
Γ PP 8NN ΓNPP #c 7ä2L,N3 } ¼ } sin7 i
N
1
ΓPNP ΓPPN WN 2#}7 2B, A3 sin7 i 3 #} ¼ } sin7 i
2
1 }è
Γ Γ PN 8PP ΓPNP m# 7 7 n 2#}¼ } sin7 i3
P

P
NP
} sin i }
1
ΓOPP # WO 2#} 2B, A3 sin i 3 } 7 sin i cos i
7 7
2
1
Γ OPP 8 ΓOPP # 7 } 7 sin i cos i
OO # sin i cos i
}
1
ΓPOP ΓPPO WO 2#} 7 2B, A3 sin7 i 3 #} 7 sin i cos i
2
1
Γ Γ PO 8PP ΓPOP # 7 7 2#}7 sin i cos i3 cot i
P P
OP
} sin i
5.2 44The curvature two forms and the Riemann tensor

To find the Riemann tensor from the curvature two forms, it can sometimes be more convenient to use the
1
following expression
Ω9 : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK
2
(5.28)
} 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK no summations

56 7 5i 7 sin7 i 5a 7
5.3 45Find the Ricci scalar using Cartan’s structure equations of the 2-sphere
éO
ì
5i 5i éO
ì
1 b ºÕ Ò1 Ó
éP
ì
sin i 5a 5a éP
ì
1
sin i
• Cartan’s First Structure equation and the calculation of the curvature one forms:
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:

5éO
ì
0
(5.9)

ì
5é P 52sin i 5a3 cos i 5i µ 5a cot i éO µ é P Γ cot i é P
ì ì ì P ì
ì
O
• Curvature two forms:
44
(McMahon, 2006, p. 113)
45
1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
ì ì
Ω ì: 5Γ 52cot i é P 3 52cos i 5a 3 # sin i 5i µ 5a #éO µ é P
P P ì ì ì
O ì
O
ì ì ì
Γ µ Γ OOì Γ µΓ 0
ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ Oì
P P P P
p̂ ì
O ì
P ì
O

ì
Ω Oì #éO µ é P
P ì ì
•
} OPìOìPì 1
ì
From which we can identify the single independent element of the Riemann tensor
•
} 2b PP } OPìOìPì 2
ìì ì
And the Ricci scalar
(S1)
5.4 The spherical polar metric
56 7 5A 7 A 7 5i 7 A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
5.4.1 46Ricci rotation coefficients of the spherical polar metric
é 5A 5A éN̂
•
N̂
The Basis one forms
1 ì 1
éO
ì
A5i 5i éO ¢ £
A b ºÕ 1
1 1
é
ì
P A sin i 5a 5a éP
ì
A sin i
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:

•
Γ 9 : Γ 9:p̂ ép̂
We have: (5.9)
(5.10)
5éN̂ 0
1
5éO 52A5i3 5A µ 5i éN̂ µ éO
ì ì
A
1 cot i Oì
5é P 52A sin i 5a3 sin i 5A µ 5a A cos i 5i µ 5a éN̂ µ é P é µ éP
ì ì ì
A A
46
(McMahon, 2006, p. 120), quiz 5-1 and 5-2, the answer to quiz 5-1 is (a) and to 5-2 is (c).
1 Oì
1 Pì
¬ 0 é é
ª A A ª̄
1 Oì cot i Pì
Γ : # é
9
0 é
« A A ®
ª 1 Pì cot i Pì ª
©# A é #
A
é 0
1 1 1
• Now we can read off the Ricci rotation coefficients
ì
Γ N̂ OìOì # Γ O N̂ Oì Γ N̂ Pì
ì P
A A A
1 cot i cot i
Γ N̂
ì
Γ PìPì # Γ OìPì
ì
#
O P
A A A
ìP
P ì
of the Ricci rotation coefficients ð

ì into the Christoffel symbols
! of the spherical polar metric
5.4.2 47Transformation
Γ 9 íî 2ΛÑC 39K Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂ : Λ

¹ê

• We have the transformation p (5.14)
1 1
Γ O NO 2ΛÑC 3OK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂N Λ
¹ê
Γ ON̂ Oì ΛN̂ N S1
ì
O
A A
7 1
Γ N OO 2ΛÑC 3NK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂ O Λ
¹ê
2ΛÑC 3NN̂ Γ N̂OìOì JΛOO Q 1 m# n A 7 #A
ì
O
A
ì 1 1
Γ 2ΛÑC 3 K Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂ N Λ
¹ê
Γ ìΛ N S1
P P P N̂
NP P N̂ P A A
7 1
Γ N PP 2ΛÑC 3NK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂ P Λ
¹ê
2ΛÑC 3NN̂ Γ N̂PìPì JΛ
ì
1 m# n A 7 sin7 i #A sin7 i
PQ
P
P
A
ì cot i
Γ 2ΛÑC 3 K Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂ O Λ
¹ê
Γ ìΛ O cot i
ì
SA
P P P O
A
OP P ìP
O
7 1 cot i 7 7
Γ O PP 2ΛÑC 3OK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂ P Λ
¹ê
2ΛÑC 3OOì ΓOPìPì JΛ m# n A sin i # sin i cos i
ì
Q
ì P
P P A A
56 7 I7 5¨ 7 # 5I7
5.5 48Ricci rotation coefficients of the Rindler metric
é 5I 5I éð
•
ð

The Basis one forms
1 b ºÕ Ò1 Ó
é ° I5¨ 5¨ é° #1
I
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:

• We have (5.9)
(McMahon, 2006, p. 120), quiz 5-3, the answer to quiz 5-3 is Γ N PP #A sin7 i
47
(McMahon, 2006, p. 120), quiz 5-4, the answer to quiz 5-4 is Γ ° ð° Γ ð °°
C

48
Γ 9 : Γ 9:p̂ ép̂ (5.10)
5éð 0
1 1 °
5é° 52I5¨3 5I µ 5¨ éð µ é° Γ ° ð é
I I
1
Γ ° ð°
I
1
Γ ð °° b ðð Γð°° #b ðð Γ°ð° #b ðð b°° Γ° ð°
I
We calculate
5.6 49The Einstein tensor for the Tolman-Bondi- de Sitter metric

• The curvature two forms:
1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
ΩN̂ Lê : 5Γ N̂ Lê 5#áléN̂ 5#álc Ñä2L,N3 5A #ác Ñä2L,N3 ál c Ñä2L,N3 5B µ 5A
7
#á ál éLê µ éN̂

7
ì
Γ N̂ p̂ µ Γ p̂ Lê Γ N̂ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ N̂ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ N̂ Oì µ Γ O Lê Γ N̂ Pì µ Γ 0
ê ì P
Lê
ΩN̂ Lê #á ál éLê µ éN̂
7
}l ì
ΩOLê : 5Γ O Lê 5 éO 5}l 2B, A35i } 5B µ 5i 2}l 3è5A µ 5i
ì ì
}

} Lê }l ä2L,N3 N̂
¼
é µé c é µ éO
ì
O ì
} }
ì
Γ O Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ O N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ O Oì µ Γ O Lê Γ O Pì µ Γ Lê Γ O N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê
ì ì ì ì
Γ O p̂ µ Γ p̂ Lê
ì ê ì P ì
c é µ #áléN̂
Èñ ä2L,N3 Oì
È
} Lê }l }èál ä2L,N3 N̂
¼
Ω
ì
é µé c é µ éO
O ì
O ì
} }
Lê
5(È é P 3 5}l 2B, A3 sin i 5a

ì ì Èl
Ω 5Γ
P P ì
Lê Lê
} sin i 5B µ 5a }l sin i 5A µ 5a }l cos i 5i µ 5a
¼
} Lê }l ä2L,N3 N̂ }l
¼
é µé c é µ é P 7 cot i éO µ é P
ì
P ì ì ì
} } }
ì ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ Oì µ Γ O Lê Γ Pì µ Γ Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ Oì µ Γ O Lê
ì ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ Lê
P P ê P P P P P P
p̂
} ¼ ä2L,N3 Pì cot i Pì }l Oì
c é µ #áléN̂ é µ é
} } }
} l l
} }èá ä2L,N3 N̂
¼

ì
Ω
P
éLê µ é P c é µ éP
ì ì
Lê
} }
} ¼ ä2L,N3 Oì
ΩON̂ :
ì
5Γ O N̂
ì
5 c é 5}èc ä2L,N3 5i
}
ò}l c ä2L,N3 } ¼ álc ä2L,N3 ó 5B µ 5i ô} ¼¼ c ä2L,N3 } ¼ á ¼ c ä2L,N3 õ5A µ 5i
¼
49
(McMahon, 2006, p. 121), quiz 5-7, the answer to quiz 5-7 is (d), almost!
c ä2L,N3 Lê c 7ä2L,N3 N̂
ò}l } ¼ áló é µ éO } ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ é µ éO
¼ ì ì
} }
Γ O Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ ON̂ µ Γ N̂ N̂ Γ O Oì µ Γ O N̂ Γ O Pì µ Γ N̂ Γ O Lê µ Γ L N̂ È éO µ(#áléN̂ 3
ì ì ì ì ì ì ì Èl ì
Γ O p̂ µ Γ p̂ N̂
ì ê P ê
c ä2L,N3 Lê c 7ä2L,N3 }l ál N̂
ò}l } ¼ áló é µ éO ö2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3 ÷ é µ éO
¼
ΩON̂
ì ì ì
} } }
}¼
5 c ä2L,N3 é P 5} ¼ c ä2L,N3 sin i 5a
ì ì ì
Ω N̂ : 5Γ
P P
N̂ }
ò}l c ä2L,N3 sin i } ¼ á¼ c ä2L,N3 sin ió 5B µ 5a
¼
ô}¼¼ c ä2L,N3 sin i } ¼ á¼ c ä2L,N3 sin iõ5A µ 5a } ¼ c ä2L,N3 cos i 5i µ 5a

c ä2L,N3 Lê c 7ä2L,N3 N̂ }¼
ò}l }¼ á ¼ ó é µ é P }¼¼ }¼ á ¼ é µ é P 7 c ä2L,N3 cot i é O µ é P
¼ ì ì ì ì
} } }
Γ Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ N̂ Γ Oì µ Γ O N̂ Γ Pì µ Γ N̂ Γ Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ Oì µ Γ O N̂
ì ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ N̂
P P ê P P P P P ê P
p̂
}l ì cot i Pì } ¼ ä2L,N3 Oì
é P µ #áléN̂ é µ c é
} } }
c ä2L,N3
è è c
2á2B,A3 }l ál N̂
éLê µ é P öJ} } á Q
ì
Ω ò}l }¼ á ¼ ó
P èè
÷ é µ éP
¼ ì ì
N̂ } } }
ì ì cot i Pì 1 ì
Ω ì: 5Γ 5m é n 52cos i 5a3 # sin i 5i µ 5a # 7 éO µ é P
P P ì
O ì
O } }
Γ Lê µ Γ L Oì Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Oì Γ Oì µ Γ O Oì Γ Pì µ Γ Oì Γ Lê µ Γ L Oì Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Oì
ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ Oì
p̂
}l ì }l ì } ¼ }¼
é P µ éO c ä2L,N3 é P µ # c ä2L,N3 éO
ì ì
} } } }
1 }l 2} ¼ 37
7

ì
Ω ø 7 7 # 7 c 7ä2L,N3 ù é P µ éO
P ì ì
ì
O } } }
• Summarized in a matrix:
} Lê }l }èál ä N̂ } Lê }l }èál ä N̂
¼ ¼
¬0 #á ál é Lê µ é N̂
7
é µ éO
ì
c é µ éO
ì
é µ éP
ì
c é µ éP
ì
ª } } } } ª̄
ª c c }l ál N̂ c c }l ál N̂ ª
Ω9 :
ª ìª
ä 7ä ä 7ä
ú 0 ò}l } ¼ áló éLê µ éO ö2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3 ÷ é µ éO ò}l } ¼ á ¼ ó é Lê µ é P ö2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3 ÷ é µ éP
¼ ì ì ¼ ì
} } } } } }
« ®
1 }l 2} ¼ 37
7
ªú àú 0 ø 7 7 # 7 c 7ä2L,N3 ù é P µ éO
ì ì ª
ª } } } ª
ª ª
©ú àú àú 0
• Now we can find the independent elements of the Riemann tensor in the non-coordinate basis:
} }
RN̂ LêN̂ Lê 2à3 òá # ál ó }OLêOìLê 2ü3 } ì Lê 2ü3
7 ì
# #
ì P
} LêP
}
c ä2L,N3 c ä2L,N3
} OLêOìN̂ 2Î3 #ô}l }¼ álõ } ì N̂ 2Î3 #ô}l }¼ álõ
ì ¼ ì
P ¼
} LêP
}
c 7ä2L,N3
}l ál c 7ä2L,N3
}l ál
} ON̂ OìN̂ 2ý3 # ö2}¼¼ }¼ á ¼ 3 ÷ } ì N̂ 2ý3 # ö2}¼¼ }¼ á ¼ 3 ÷
ì ì
P
} } N̂ P } }
1 }l 2}¼ 37
7
} ì 23 ø 7 7 # 7 c 7ä2L,N3 ù
ì
P
ìP
O ìO
} } }
Where A,B,C,D,E will be used later, to make the calculations easier
• The Ricci tensor:
}9: } p̂ 9p̂:
}
(4.46)
}LêLê òá # ál ó # 2
ì ì
} p̂ Lêp̂Lê } L LêLêLê } N̂ LêN̂ Lê } OLêOìLê } ì Lê } LêN̂ Lê } LêO
ì Lê } à 2ü
ê ì P N̂ ì
O P 7
Lê P ì Lê
LêP }
ì ì
}N̂ Lê } p̂ N̂ p̂Lê } L N̂ LêLê } N̂ N̂ N̂Lê } ON̂ OìLê } N̂ PìLê } ON̂ OìLê } N̂ PìLê
ê ì P ì P
c ä2L,N3 c ä2L,N3
c ä2L,N3
# ò}l } ¼ áló # ò}l } áó ¼ l
#2 ò} } ¼ áló 2Î l ¼
¼ ¼
} } }
}OìLê
ì
} p̂ Oìp̂Lê } L OìLêLê } N̂ OìN̂ Lê } OOìOìLê } OìPìLê 0
ê ì P
}PìLê
ì
} p̂ Pìp̂Lê } L PìLêLê } N̂ PìN̂ Lê } OPìOìLê } ì Lê 0
ê ì P
PìP
ì ì
}N̂ N̂ } p̂ N̂ p̂N̂ } L N̂ LêN̂ } N̂ N̂ N̂N̂ } ON̂ OìN̂ } N̂ PìN̂ #RN̂ LêN̂ Lê } ON̂ OìN̂ }
ê ì P ì P
ì N̂
N̂ P
c 7ä2L,N3 }l ál
# òá # ál ó # 2 ö2} ¼¼ } á ¼ ¼3
÷ #à 2ý
7
} }
}OìOì
ì ì
} p̂ Oìp̂Oì } L OìLêOì } N̂ OìN̂ Oì } OOìOìOì } #} OLêOìLê } ON̂ OìN̂ }
ê ì P ì ì P
ìP
O ì
ìO ìP
O ì
ìO
} c 7ä2L,N3 }l ál 1 }l 2} ¼ 37
7
¼ ¼3
# ö2} } á
¼¼
÷ ø 7 7 # 7 c 7ä2L,N3 ù #ü ý
} } } } } }
}PìPì
ì ì ì ì
} p̂ Pìp̂Pì } L PìLêPì } N̂ PìN̂ Pì } OPìOìPì } #} } }
ê ì P P P P
PìP
ìPì ì Lê
LêP ì N̂
N̂ P ìP
O ì
ìO
} c 7ä2L,N3 }l ál 1 }l 2} ¼ 37
7
¼ ¼3
# ö2} } á
¼¼
÷ ø 7 7 # 7 c 7ä2L,N3 ù #ü ý }OìOì
} } } } } }
} cä
¬òá # ál7 ó # 2 #2 ò}l }¼ áló
¼
0 0
ª } } ª̄
ª c 7ä }lál ª
ª # òá # ál ó # 2 ö2}¼¼ }¼ á ¼ 3 ª
}9:
ú ÷ 0 0
7
ª } } ª
} c 7ä }lál 1 }l
7
2}¼ 37
« 0 0 # ö2}¼¼ }¼ á ¼ 3 ÷ ø 7 7 # 7 c 7ä ù 0 ®
ª } } } } } } ª
ª ª
ª } c 7ä }lál 1 }l 2}¼ 37 ª
7
ª 0 0 0 # ö2}¼¼ }¼ á ¼ 3 ÷ ø 7 7 # 7 c 7ä ùª
Where refers to column and to row

© } } } } } }
• The Ricci scalar:
} b 9: }9:

} b }LêLê b }N̂ N̂ b }OìOì b }PìPì }LêLê # }N̂ N̂ # }OìOì # }PìPì

ìOì ìPì
(4.47)
Lê Lê N̂ N̂ O P
à 2ü # 2#à 2ý3 # 22#ü ý 3 2à 4ü # 4ý # 2

ì
2} N̂ LêN̂ Lê 4} OLêOìLê # 4} ON̂ OìN̂ # 2}
ì ì P
ìP
O ì
ìO
} c 7ä2L,N3 }l ál 1 }l 2} ¼ 37 7ä2L,N3

7
2 òá # ál ó # 4 ¼ ¼3
4 ö2} } á ÷ #2ø 7 7 # 7 c
7 ¼¼
ù
} } } } } }
• The Einstein tensor:
1
|9: }9: # b9: }
2
(4.48)
1 1 1
|LêLê }LêLê # bLêLê } }LêLê # } à 2ü # 22à 4ü # 4ý # 23 2ý 2}ON̂ OìN̂ } OìPìOì
ì ì
P
2 2 2
c 7ä2L,N3
}l ál 1 }l
7
2} ¼ 37 7ä2L,N3
¼ ¼3
#2 ö2} } á ¼¼
÷ø 7 7 # 7 c ù
} } } } }
1
7 ò1 # 2}}l ál }l # 22}} ¼¼ 2}} ¼ á ¼ 2} ¼ 37 3c 7ä2L,N3 ó
7
}
1 c ä2L,N3
|N̂ Lê }N̂ Lê # bN̂ Lê } }N̂ Lê } ON̂ OìLê } N̂ PìLê #2 ò}l } ¼ áló
ì ì
P ¼
2 }
1
|OìLê }OìLê # bOìLê } 0
2
1 1 1
|N̂ N̂ }N̂ N̂ # bN̂ N̂ } }N̂ N̂ } #à 2ý 22à 4ü # 4ý # 23 2ü #
2 2 2
ì } 1 } l 7
2} ¼ 37
2} OLêOìLê # } OìPìOì #2 # ø 7 7 # 7 c 7ä2L,N3 ù
ì P
} } } }
1
7 ò2}¼ 37 c 7ä2L,N3 # 2}} # 1 # }l ó
7
}
1 1 1
|OìOì }OìOì # bOìOì } }OìOì } #ü ý 22à 4ü # 4ý # 23 à ü # ý
2 2 2
} c 7ä2L,N3 }l ál
RN̂ LêN̂ Lê } OLêOìLê # } ON̂ OìN̂ òá # ál ó # ö2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3 ÷
ì ì 7
} } }
1
òá # ál ó ô2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3c 7ä2L,N3 }l ál # } õ
7
}
1
|PìPì |OìOì òá # ál ó ô2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3c 7ä2L,N3 }l ál # } õ
7
}
Summarized in a matrix:
1 cä
¬ ò1 # 2}}l ál }l 7 # 22}}¼¼ 2}}¼ á ¼ 2}¼ 37 3c 7ä ó #2 ò}l }¼ áló
¼
0 0
ª} }
7
|9:
ª 1
ª ú ò2}¼ 37 c 7ä # 2}} # 1 # }l ó
7
0 0
}7
« 1
0 0 òá # ál ó ô2}¼¼ }¼ á ¼ 3c 7ä }l ál # } õ 0
7
ª }
ª
ª 1
òá # ál ó ô2}¼¼ }¼ á ¼ 3c 7ä }l ál #

0 0 0
7
© }
• The Einstein tensor in the coordinate basis:
The transformation: |9: Λp̂9 ΛK: |p̂K

(6.34)
1
|LL ò1 # 2}}l ál }l # 22}} ¼¼ 2}} ¼ á ¼ 2} ¼ 37 3c 7ä ó
7
Λp̂L ΛKL |p̂K
7
ΛLê L |LêLê

}7
}l } ¼ ál
¼
|NL Λp̂N ΛKL |p̂K

ΛN̂ N ΛLê L |N̂ Lê #2 ø ù
} }
1
|NN Λp̂N ΛK N |p̂K 7 ò2}¼ 37 # J2}} 1 }l Q c Ñ7ä ó
7 7
ΛN̂ N |N̂ N̂

}
1
} 7 mòá # ál ó ô2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3c 7ä }l ál # } õn
7
|OO
7
Λp̂O ΛK O |p̂K JΛOO Q |OìOì
ì
}
7 1
|PP Λp̂P ΛK P |p̂K } 7 sin7 i mòá # ál ó ô2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3c 7ä }l ál # } õn
ì 7
JΛ P Q |P
P
ìPì
}
¬ 1 ò1 # 2}}l ál }l 7 # 22}} ¼¼ 2}} ¼ á ¼ 2} ¼ 37 3c 7ä ó }l } ¼ ál
¼
#2 ø ù 0 0
ª} 7 } } ª̄
|9:
ª ª
ª 1 ª
ú ò2} ¼ 37 # J2}} 1 }l Q c Ñ7ä ó 0 0
7
}7
« 1 ®
0 0 }7 mòá # ál ó ô2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3c 7ä }l ál # } õn 0
7
ª } ª
ª ª
ª 1 ª
} sin i mòá # ál ó ô2} } á 3c }l ál # } õn

0 0 0 7 7 7 ¼¼ ¼ ¼ 7ä
© }
the Ricci rotation coefficients for a metric example:

5.7 50Calculate
The line element: 56 7 5á 7 sinh7 á 5i 7 sinh7 á sin7 i 5a 7
5á 5á
•
é éä
ì ì
The Basis one forms
ä
1 1
sinh á 5i 5i éO
ì
éO
ì
sinh á b ºÕ ¢ 1 £
1 1
sinh á sin i 5a 5a éP
ì
éP
ì
sinh á sin i
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:

•
Γ 9 : Γ 9:p̂ ép̂
We have: (5.9)
(5.10)
5é ä
ì
0
5éO
ì
52sinh á 5i3
cosh á 5á µ 5i
1
cosh á é ä µ éO
ì ì
sinh á
coth á é ä µ éO
ì ì
5é P
ì
52sinh á sin i 5a3
cosh á 5á µ 5a cos i 5i µ 5a
1 1 1
cosh á é ä µ é P cos i éO µ éP
ì ì ì ì
sinh á sin i sinh á sinh á sin i
coth á äì cot i Oì
é µ éP é µ éP
ì ì
sin i sinh7 á
50
(McMahon, 2006, p. 325), final exam 10
coth á Pì
¬ 0 coth á éO é
ì
ª sin i ª̄
ª cot i ª
# coth á éO
0 é
ì ì
Γ 9 :
P
« sinh7 á ®
ª# coth á é Pì # cot i é Pì
ª
0
ª
ª
© sin i sinh7 á
coth á
• Now we can find the non-zero Ricci rotation coefficients
ì
# coth á Γ O äìOì coth á Γ äìPì
ì ì
Γ OìOì
ä P
sin i
ì coth á cot i ì cot i
Γ Γ PìPì # Γ OìPì
ì
#
ä O P
ìP
P ì
sin i sinh á
7 sinh7 á
6 The Einstein Field Equations
Prove that the Einstein field equations |9: þ9: reduces to the vacuum Einstein equations
6.1 51The vacuum Einstein equations
}9: 0 if we set 9: 0

•
1
The Einstein tensor
|9:
}9: # 89: }
2
(4.48)
Now setting |9: þ9: 0 and calculating
1
|9: }9: # 89: } 0
2
1
¿ }9: 89: }
2
Multiplying by 89:
1
89: }9: 89: 89: }
2
} 89: }9:
using the definition
and that in 4 dimensions 89: 89: 4

(4.47)
1
} 4} 2}
2
Now this can only be true if }9: 0 Q.E.D.
Prove that the Einstein field equations |9: þ9: reduces to }9: 89: Λ and } 4Λ for metrics
6.2 The vacuum Einstein equations with a cosmological constant
with positive signature and }9: #89: Λ and } #4Λ for metrics with negative signature in
•
vacuum with a cosmological constant52.
51
(McMahon, 2006, p. 138)
52
An excellent qualitative explanation of the cosmological constant, you can find in (Greene, 2004, s. 273-279)
1
The Einstein equation in vacuum with a cosmological constant and positive signature is
0 }9: # 89: } 89: Λ
2
1
(6.6)
0 89: }9: # 89: 89: } 89: 89: Λ

2
1
} # 4} 4Λ
2
} 4Λ Q.E.D.
1
Next we rewrite the Einstein equation
0 }9: # 89: } 89: Λ
2
1
}9: # 89: 24Λ3 89: Λ
2
}9: # 89: Λ
}9: 89: Λ Q.E.D.
}9: b9: Λ
In the non coordinate basis
1
In the case of metrics with negative signature the Einstein equation in vacuum with a cosmological constant
0 }9: # 89: } # 89: Λ
2
(6.6)
} #4Λ
and we can see that
}9: #89: Λ
Q.E.D.
Q.E.D.
}9: #b9: Λ
In the non coordinate basis
6.3 53General remarks on the Einstein equations with a cosmological constant

If we demand that the gravitational field equations are
(2) be of second differential order in 89:

(1) generally covariant
(3) involve the energy-momentum 9: linearly
}9: ]}89: # Λ89: þ9:

it can be shown that the only equation which meets these requirements is
where ], Λ, and þ are constants.

The demand that 9: satisfies the conservation equation
F: 9: 0
1
] #
2
leads to
F: 9: 0
Proof:
F: } 9: ]}89: # Λ89: 0
if
F: } ]F: }89: # ΛF: 89: 0

9:
54 F: }9: ] J2F: }389: }F: 89: Q 0

F: }9: ]2F: }389: 0
F9 }K¡:p F: }K¡p9 Fp }K¡9: 0

Next we use the Bianchi identity:
F: 89: 0
53
(d'Inverno, 1992, p. 172)
54
8K: 2F9 }K¡:p F: }K¡p9 Fp }K¡9: 3 0

F9 8K: }K¡:p F: 8K: }K¡p9 Fp 8K: }K¡9: 0
F9 }: ¡:p F: }: ¡p9 Fp }: ¡9: 0
F9 }¡p F: }: ¡p9 # Fp }¡9 0
8 F9 }¡p F: }: ¡p9 # Fp }¡9
9¡
0
F9 89¡ }¡p F: 89¡ }: ¡p9 # Fp 89¡ }¡9 0
55 F9 } 9 p F: } : p # Fp } 0
1
2 mF9 } 9 p # Fp }n 0
2
1
28 mF9 } p # Fp }n
:p 9 0
2
1
2 mF9 8:p }9 p # 2Fp }38:p n 0
2
1
2 mF9 } # F9 }89: n
9: 0
2
F: }9: ]2F: }389: 0

Now if we compare with
1
we see that
] #
2
6.4 562+1
dimensions: Gravitational collapse of an inhomogeneous spherically
symmetric dust cloud.
6.4.1 Find the components of the curvature tensor for the metric in 2+1 dimensions using
56 7 #5B 7 c 7:2L,N3 5A 7 } 7 2B, A35a 7

Cartan’s structure equations
éLê 5B
#1
éN̂ c :2L,N3 5A 5A c Ñ:2L,N3 éN̂
b ºÕ ¢ 1 £
1
}2B, A35a 5a éP 1
ì
é
ì
P
}2B, A3
• Cartan’s First Structure equation and the calculation of the curvature two-forms
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é: Γ 9 : Γ 9:p̂ ép̂

(5.9) (5.10)
5éLê 0
5éN̂ 5c :2L,N3 5A lc :2L,N3 5B µ 5A léLê µ éN̂
55
89¡ }: ¡p9 89¡ }¡ :9p } 9:9p } :p
56
(McMahon, 2006, pp. 139-150), example 6-2, example 6-3, example 6-4
}l Lê } ¼ Ñ:2L,N3 N̂
5é P 52}2B, A35a3 }l 5B µ 5a } ¼ 5A µ 5a é µé c é µ éP
ì ì
P ì
} }
}l Pì
•
Summarizing the curvature one forms in a matrix:
¬ 0 léN̂ é
ª
ª } ª̄
ª
} ¼ Ñ:2L,N3 Pì
Γ :
9
é l N̂
0 c é
« } ®
ª
ª }l } ¼ ª
ª
©} é # c Ñ:2L,N3 é P 0
ì
P ì
}

1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
5léN̂ 5lc :2L,N3 5A òc :2L,N3 l c :2L,N3 ó 5B µ 5A

7
ΩN̂ Lê : 5Γ N̂ Lê
# ò l ó éN̂ µ éLê
7
ì
Γ N̂ p̂ µ Γ p̂ Lê Γ N̂ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ N̂ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ N̂ Pì µ Γ 0
ê P
Lê
# ò l ó éN̂ µ éLê
7
ΩN̂ Lê
}l ì
5 é P 5}l 2B, A35a } 5B µ 5a }l 5A µ 5a
ì ì ¼
Ω Lê : 5Γ
P P
Lê }
} Pì }l Ñ:2L,N3 Pì
¼
# é µé # Lê
c é µ éN̂
} }
}¼
Γ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ Pì µ Γ Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê c Ñ:2L,N3 é P µ léN̂
ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ Lê
P P ê P P P P ì
p̂ }
} Pì }l } ¼ l Ñ:2L,N3 Pì
¼
# é µé #Ö # ×c é µ éN̂
ì
Ω Lê
P
Lê } } }
}¼
5 c Ñ:2L,N3 é P 5} ¼ c Ñ:2L,N3 5a
ì ì
Ω N̂ : 5Γ
P P ì
N̂ }
ò}l c Ñ:2L,N3 # } ¼ lc Ñ:2L,N3 ó 5B µ 5a ô}¼¼ c Ñ:2L,N3 } ¼ ¼ c Ñ:2L,N3 õ5A µ 5a
¼
c Ñ:2L,N3 Pì c Ñ7:2L,N3 Pì
# ò}l # } ¼ ló é µ éLê # } ¼¼ } ¼ ¼ é µ éN̂
¼
} }
ì }l l Pì
Γ µ Γ p̂ N̂
ì ì ì ì ì
Γ Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ N̂ Γ Pì µ Γ N̂ Γ Lê µ Γ L N̂ é µ éN̂
P P ê P P P P ê
p̂
}
c Ñ:2L,N3 Pì c Ñ7:2L,N3 }l l
# ò}l # } ¼ ló é µ éLê # }¼¼ } ¼ ¼ # é P µ éN̂
ì ¼
Ω
P ì
N̂ } } }
} Pì }l }¼ l Ñ:2L,N3 Pì
¼
¬0 # ò l ó éLê µ é N̂
7
# é µé #Ö
Lê
# ×c é µ éN̂
ª } } } ª̄
Ω 9
:
c Ñ:2L,N3 Pì c Ñ7:2L,N3 }l l
« 0 #ò}l # }¼ ló
¼
é µ éLê # }¼¼ }¼ ¼ # é P µ éN̂ ®
ì
ª } } } ª
© 0
}
RN̂ LêN̂ Lê 2à3 # ò l ó éN̂ µ éLê
7 ì
} ì Lê 2ü3
P
#
LêP
}
c Ñ:2L,N3
# ò}l } ¼ ló
ì
}
P ¼
}
ì N̂ (C)
LêP
ì c Ñ7:2L,N3
}l l
} N̂ PìN̂ (D) # } ¼¼ } ¼ ¼ #
P
} }
Where A, B, C and D will be used later to make the calculations easier
6.4.2 Find the components of the curvature tensor for the metric in 2+1 dimensions using
56 7 #5B 7 c 7:2L,N3 5A 7 } 7 2B, A35a 7

Cartan’s structure equations – alternative solution
taken for the derivative 5/5A.

Now we can compare with the Tolman-Bondi – de Sitter line element, where the primes should not be mis-
56 7 5Bè7 # c Ñ7ä2L ,N 3 5Aè7 # } 7 2Bè, Aè35iè7 # } 7 2Bè, Aè3 sin7 iè 5aè7

ñ ñ
5Bè 5B
And chose:
c Ñä2L ñ ,N ñ 3
5Aè c :2L,N3 5A
¼ ¼ 35i ¼
}2B , A 0
¼ ¼3
}2B , A sin i 5a }2B, A35a
¼ ¼
Comparing the two metrics we see: 5a ¼ 5a, i ¼ 7 , }2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 }2B, A3, 5B ¼ 5B

j
Next we can use the former calculations of the Tolman-Bondi – de Sitter metric to find the Riemann and
Einstein tensor for the 2+1 metric.
5á2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 5 5A 5 5A ¼ 52B, A3
But first we need to find
ál c ÑäL ñ ,N ñ
c äL ñ ,N ñ
c :2L,N3
c Ñ:2L,N3
# #l2B, A3
5B ¼ 5B ¼ 5A 5B ¼ 5A 5B
57 á2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 5
á #l #2B, A3
5B ¼ 7 5B
5á2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 5 5A 5 5A ¼
áè c ÑäL ñ ,N ñ
c äL ñ ,N ñ
c ÑäL ñ ,N ñ
c Ñ:2L,N3

5A ¼ 5A ¼ 5A ¼ 5A 5A
#c ÑäL ,N c Ñ:2L,N3 ¼ 2B, A3
ñ ñ
5}2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 5}2B, A3
}l }l 2B, A3
5B ¼ 5B
57 }2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 57 }2B, A3
} } 2B, A3
5B ¼ 7 5B 7
5}2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 5A 5}2B, A3
}è ¼ c ÑäL ,N c Ñ:2L,N3 } ¼ 2B, A3
ñ ñ
5A ¼ 5A 5A
57 }2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 5 5}2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 5A 5
}l è J}l 2B, A3Q c ÑäL ,N c Ñ:2L,N3 }l ¼ 2B, A3
ñ ñ
5B ¼ 5Aè 5A ¼ 5B ¼ 5A ¼ 5A
• The Riemann tensor
RN̂ ê ê òá # ál ó RN̂ LêN̂ Lê 2à3 # ò l ó

7 7

Tolman –Bondi – de Sitter 2+1
LN̂ L
}
} OLêOìLê
ì
#
}
c ä2L,N3
} OLêOìN̂ # ò}l } ¼ áló
ì ¼
}
c 7ä2L,N3
}l ál
} N̂ OìN̂ # ö2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3 ÷
ì
O
} }
ì } ì }
} LêPìLê # } LêPìLê 2ü3 #
P P
} }
ì c ä2L,N3 ì c Ñ:2L,N3
} LêPìN̂ # ò}l } ¼ áló } LêPìN̂ 2Î3 # ò}l¼ # } ¼ ló
P ¼ P
} }
c 7ä2L,N3
} l ál c Ñ7:2L,N3
}l l
÷ } N̂ PìN̂ 2ý3 # ö2} ¼¼ # } ¼ ¼ 3
ì ì
} N̂ PìN̂ # ö2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3 # ÷
P P
} } } }
ì 1 } l 7
2} 3 ¼ 7
} OìPìOì ø 7 7 # 7 c 7ä2L,N3 ù
P
} } }
Where A, B, C and D will be used later to make the calculations easier
6.4.3 Find the components of the Einstein tensor in the coordinate basis for the metric in 2+1
dimensions.
}9: } p̂ 9p̂:
}
(4.46)
}LêLê # ò l ó #
ì ì 7
} p̂ Lêp̂Lê } L LêLêLê } N̂ LêN̂ Lê } } N̂ LêN̂ Lê } àü
ê P P
ì Lê
LêP ì Lê
Lê P }
c Ñ:2L,N3
}N̂ Lê } p̂ N̂ p̂Lê } L N̂ LêLê } N̂ N̂ N̂Lê }
ê ì
P
}
ì
P
# ò} l ¼ # } ¼ ló Î
ì
N̂ PLê ì
N̂ PLê }
}PìLê
ì
} Pìp̂Lê } PìLêLê } PìN̂ Lê } PìOìLê } PìPìLê 0
p̂ Lê N̂ ì
O P
ì ì
}N̂ N̂ } p̂ N̂ p̂N̂ } L N̂ LêN̂ } N̂ N̂ N̂N̂ } N̂ PìN̂ #RN̂ LêN̂ Lê } N̂ PìN̂
ê P P
c Ñ7:2L,N3 }l l
l 7
ò ó # ö2} # } ¼¼ ¼ ¼3
# ÷ #à ý
} }
} c Ñ7:2L,N3 }l l
}PìPì # ö2} ¼¼ # } ¼ ¼ 3
ì ì ì
} p̂ Pìp̂Pì } L PìLêPì } N̂ PìN̂ Pì } #} } # ÷
ê P P P
PìP
ìPì ì Lê
LêP ì N̂
N̂ P } } }
#ü ý
} c Ñ:
¬# ò l ó # # ò}l # } ¼ ló 0
7 ¼
ª } } ª̄
ª c Ñ7: }l l ª
}9: ú ò l ó # ö2} ¼¼ # } ¼ ¼ 3 # ÷ 0
7

« } } ®
ª } c Ñ7:
}l l ª
ª0 0 # ö2}¼¼ # } ¼ ¼ 3 # ÷ª
© } } }
} b 9: }9:

} b }LêLê b }N̂ N̂ b }PìPì #}LêLê }N̂ N̂ }PìPì #2à ü3 2#à ý3 2#ü ý3

Lê Lê ìPì
(4.47)
N̂ N̂ P
ì ì
#2à # 2ü 2ý #2} N̂ LêN̂ Lê # 2} LêPìLê 2} N̂ PìN̂
P P
} c Ñ7:2L,N3 }l l
2 ò l ó 2 # 2 ö2} ¼¼ # } ¼ ¼ 3
7
# ÷
} } }
1
|9: }9: # b9: }
2
1 1 1
(4.48)
|LêLê }LêLê # bLêLê } }LêLê } à ü 2#2à # 2ü 2ý3 ý } N̂ PìN̂

Pì
2 2 2
c Ñ7:
}l l
# ö2} ¼¼ # } ¼ ¼ 3 # ÷
} }
1 c Ñ:
|N̂ Lê }N̂ Lê # bN̂ Lê } }N̂ Lê } N̂ PìLê # ò}l # } ¼ ló
ì
P ¼
2 }
1
|OìLê }OìLê # bOìLê } 0
2
1 1 1 }
|N̂ N̂ }N̂ N̂ # bN̂ N̂ } }N̂ N̂ # } #à ý # 2#2à # 2ü 2ý3 ü } LêPìLê #
ì
P
2 2 2 }
1 1 1
|PìPì }PìPì # bPìPì } }PìPì # } #ü ý # 2#2à # 2ü 2ý3 à R LêN̂ Lê # ò l ó
N̂ 7
2 2 2
c Ñ7: }l l c Ñ:
¬# ö2} ¼¼ # } ¼ ¼ 3 # ÷ # ò}l # } ¼ ló 0
¼
ª } } } ª̄
|9: }
« ú # 0 ®
}
ª 7 ª
© 0 0 # ò l ó

• The Einstein tensor in the coordinate basis:
The transformation: |9: Λp̂9 ΛK: |p̂K

(6.34)
c Ñ7: }l l
|LL # ö2} ¼¼ # } ¼ ¼ 3 # ÷
7
Λp̂L ΛKL |p̂K ΛLê L |LêLê

} }
ò}l # } ¼ ló
¼
|NL Λ p̂
N Λ L |p̂K
K
Λ N Λ L |N̂ Lê
N̂ Lê
#
}
} 7:
|NN Λ N Λ N |p̂K
7
p̂ K
Λ N |N̂ N̂
N̂
# c
}
#} 7 ò l ó
7
|PP
7
Λp̂P ΛK P |p̂K
ì
JΛ Q |PìPì
P
P
c Ñ7: }l l ò}l # } ¼ ló

¼
¬ ¼ ¼3
ª # ö2} # }
¼¼
# ÷ # 0 ª̄
ª } } } ª
|9: }
« ú # c 7: 0 ®
ª } ª
ª 7
ª
0 0 #} ò l 7 ó
©
Given the Einstein equation ( if T | 13: |9: Λb9: þ9:

6.4.4 The Einstein equations of the metric in 2+1 dimensions.
with Λ #7 you get |9: # 7 b9: þ9:

(6.40)
0 0
9: þ ¢0 0 0£
0 0 0
and the stress-energy tensor:
c Ñ7: }l l c Ñ:
You can find the Einstein – equations
¬# ö2} ¼¼ # } ¼ ¼ 3 # ÷ # ò}l # } ¼ ló 0
¼
ª } } } ª̄ #1 0 0
} 7 þ ¢0 0 0£
ú # 0
# 1
« } ® 1 0 0 0
ª ª
# ò l ó
7
© 0 0
c Ñ7: }l l
|LêLê : # ö2} ¼¼ # } ¼ ¼ 3 # ÷ 7 þ p.152
} }
c Ñ:
|N̂ Lê : # ò}l # } ¼ ló 0
¼
}
¿ } # } ¼ l
l 0
¼
}
p.152
|N̂ N̂ : # # 7 0
}
¿ } 7 } 0
|PìPì : # ò l ó # 7
7
0
(6.41)
(6.42)
6.5 57Using the contracted Bianchi identities, prove that:

"

0 F }K¡:p F: }K¡p9 Fp }K¡9:

• Expressions needed:
0 Fp 89:
Bianchi identity: (4.45)
0 Fp 89: ¿ 8K9 8¡: Fp 89: 0 ¿ Fp 8K9 8¡: 89: 0

Proved page 78:
¿ 0 Fp 8K¡
(S3)
}9:pK #}9:Kp
} p 9p: }9:
Riemann tensor: (4.44)
} 89: }9: } 9 9
Ricci tensor: (4.46)
89¡ }: ¡p9 89¡ }¡ :9p } 9:9p } :p

Ricci scalar: (4.47)
1
(S4)
|9: }9: # 89: }
2
The Einstein tensor: (4.48)
8 9
p 89: 8:p Æp9
1 1
Kronecker delta (2.15)
F9 | 9p F9 m} 9 p # 89 p }n F9 }9 p # F9 89 p }
2 2
1 1
F9 }9 p # 89 p F9 } F9 }9 p # Æp9 F9 }
2 2
1
use (2.15)
F9 } p # Fp }
9
2
(S5)
Multiply (4.45) by 8K: : 0 8K: 2F }K¡:p F: }K¡p9 Fp }K¡9: 3

• The proof:
¿ (use (S3)) 0 F 8K: }K¡:p F: 8K: }K¡p9 Fp 8K: }K¡9:

¿ 0 F }: ¡:p F: }: ¡p9 Fp } : ¡9:
¿ 2use (4.44) and (4.46)) 0 F9 }¡p F: } : ¡p9 # Fp } : ¡:9
¿ (use (4.46)) 0 F9 }¡p F: } : ¡p9 # Fp }¡9
Multiply by 89¡ 0 89¡ 2F9 }¡p F: }: ¡p9 # Fp }¡9 3
¿ 0 F9 89¡ }¡p F: 89¡ }: ¡p9 # Fp 89¡ }¡9
¿ 0 F9 }9 p F: 89¡ } : ¡p9 # Fp }9 9
¿ (use (4.47)) 0 F9 }9 p F: 89¡ } : ¡p9 # Fp }
¿(use (S4)) 0 F9 }9 p F: }:p # Fp }
1
¿ 0 2 F9 } 9 p # Fp }
2
¿ (use (S5)) 0 F9 | 9 p
Multiply by 8:p 0 8:p F9 | 9 p F9 8:p | 9 p F9 | 9:
#$ % 2$, '3' ( 2$, '3

6.6 58Ricci rotation coefficients, Ricci scalar and Einstein equations for a gen-
) 2$, '3*
eral 4-dimensional metric:
• The line element: 56 7 #5B 7 ß7 2B, A35A 7 ü7 2B, A35a 7

7 2B, A35 7
(McMahon, 2006, p. 152), quiz 6-1, the answer to quiz 6-1 is (c)
57
58
(McMahon, 2006, pp. 152-53), quiz 6-5, 6-6, 6-7 and 6-8, the answer to quiz 6-5 is (a) and quiz 6-6 is (c), the answer
to quiz 6-7 is (a), the answer to quiz 6-8 is (a)
éLê 5B
1
éN̂ ß2B, A35A 5A éN̂ #1
ß2B, A3
1 ¦ 1 §
b ºÕ
éP ü2B, A35a 5a éP 1
ì ì
ü2B, A3
1 1
é ̂
2B, A35 5 é ̂

2B, A3
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:
(5.9) Γ 9 : Γ 9:p̂ ép̂ (5.10)
5éLê 0
ßl
5éN̂ 52ß2B, A35A3 ßl5B µ 5A éLê µ éN̂
ß
ül Lê ü¼ N̂
5é P 52ü2B, A35a3 ül5B µ 5a ü¼ 5A µ 5a é µ éP é µ éP
ì ì ì
ü ßü

l
¼ N̂
5é ̂ 52
2B, A353
l 5B µ 5
¼ 5A µ 5 éLê µ é ̂ é µ é ̂

ß
ßl N̂ ül Pì
l ̂
•
¬ 0 é é é
ª ß ü
ª̄
ª ßl ü ¼

¼ ª
ª éN̂ 0 éP
ì
é ̂ ª
Γ 9 : ß ßü ß
«ül Pì ü¼ Pì ®
ªü é # é 0 0 ª
ßü
ª l ª
ª

¼
ª
©
é ̂
# é ̂
0 0
ß
ßl ßl ül
l
ì
Γ L N̂ N̂ Γ N̂ LêN̂ Γ LêPì Γ ̂ Lê̂
P

ê
ß ß ü
ül ü¼ ü¼
¼
ΓL Γ PìPì #
ì
Γ N̂ Pì Γ ̂ N̂ ̂
ê N̂ P

ßü ßü ß
ìPì
ü
P

l
¼
ΓL
ê
Γ ̂ ̂ #
N̂
̂ ̂

ß
1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
ßl ß
ΩN̂ Lê : 5Γ N̂ Lê 5 éN̂ 5 Jßl2B, A3Q 5A ß5B µ 5A ßèl5A µ 5A éLê µ éN̂
ß ß
ì
Γ N̂ p̂ µ Γ p̂ Lê Γ N̂ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ N̂ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ N̂ Pì µ Γ Lê Γ N̂ ̂ µ Γ ̂ Lê 0
ê P
ß
ΩN̂ Lê # éN̂ µ éLê
ß
ül ì ü üèl N̂
5 é P 5ül2B, A35a ü5B µ 5a üèl5A µ 5a éLê µ é P
ì ì
Ω Lê : 5Γ é µ éP
P P ì ì
Lê ü ü üß
ì ü´ ßl
Γ µ Γ p̂ Lê
ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ Pì µ Γ Lê Γ ̂ µ Γ ̂ Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê é P µ éN̂
P P ê P P P P P ì
p̂
üß ß
ü Lê üè l ü´ ßl

ì
Ω é µ éP éN̂ µ é P é P µ éN̂
P ì ì ì
Lê
ü üß üß ß
ü Pì ü´ß l ü l ¼
# é µ éLê 7 # é P µ éN̂
ì
ü üß üß

l

l è N̂
Ω̂ Lê : 5Γ ̂ Lê 5 é ̂ 5
l 2B, A35
5B µ 5
l è5A µ 5 éLê µ é ̂ é µ é ̂

ß

´ ̂ ßl N̂
Γ ̂ p̂ µ Γ p̂ Lê
ì
Γ ̂ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ ̂ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ ̂ Pì µ Γ Lê Γ ̂ ̂ µ Γ ̂ Lê Γ ̂ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê é µ é
ê P

ß ß

Lê
lè
´ ß l
Ω̂ Lê é µ é ̂ éN̂ µ é ̂ é ̂ µ éN̂

ß
ß ß

̂
´ßl
l è
# é µé 7# êL
é ̂ µ éN̂

ß
ß
ì ì ü´ ì ü´ ül¼ ß # ü¼ ßl ü¼¼ ß # ü¼ ß¼
Ω N̂ : 5Γ 5 m é P n 5 m 5an 5B µ 5a 5A µ 5a
P P
N̂
üß ß ß7 ß7
üèßl # ül¼ ß Pì üèßè # ü¼¼ ß Pì
é µ é Lê
é µ éN̂
üß7 üß{
ì ülßl Pì
Γ µ Γ p̂ N̂
ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ N̂ Γ Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ Pì µ Γ N̂ Γ ̂ µ Γ ̂ N̂ Γ Lê µ Γ L N̂ é µ éN̂
P P P ê P P P P ê
p̂
üß
üèßl # ül¼ ß Pì üèßè # ü¼¼ ß Pì ülßl Pì

ì
Ω é µ é é µ é é µ éN̂
P Lê N̂
N̂
üß7 üß{ üß
üèßl # ül¼ ß Pì ü¼ ß¼ # ü¼¼ ß ülßl
é µ é é P µ éN̂
Lê ì
üß7 üß{ üß

´ ̂
´
l ´ß #
´ßl
´´ß #
´ß´
Ω̂ N̂ : 5Γ ̂ N̂ 5m é n 5 m 5n 5B µ 5 5A µ 5

ß ß ß7 ß7

´ßl #
l ´ß ̂
´ß´ #
´´ß ̂
é µ éLê é µ éN̂

ß 7
ß{

l ßl ̂
Γ ̂ p̂ µ Γ p̂ N̂
ì
Γ ̂ N̂ µ Γ N̂ N̂ Γ ̂ Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ ̂ Pì µ Γ N̂ Γ ̂ ̂ µ Γ ̂ N̂ Γ ̂ Lê µ Γ L N̂ é µ éN̂
ê P ê

ß

´ßl #
l ´ß ̂
´ß´ #
´´ß ̂
l ßl ̂
Ω̂ N̂ é µ é Lê
é µ é N̂
é µ éN̂

ß7
ß{
ß

´ßl #
l ´ß ̂
´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl
é µ é Lê
é ̂ µ éN̂

ß7
ß{
ß
Ω̂ Pì : 5Γ ̂ Pì 0
Ω̂ Pì
ì
Γ ̂ p̂ µ Γ p̂ Pì Γ ̂ Lê µ Γ L Pì Γ ̂ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Pì Γ ̂ Pì µ Γ Pì Γ ̂ ̂ µ Γ ̂ Pì
ê P

l ül ì
¼ ̂ ü¼ Pì
Γ ̂ Lê µ Γ L Pì Γ ̂ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Pì é ̂ µ é P é µ # é
ê

ü ß
ßü
ül
l ü¼
¼
# 7 é ̂ µ é P
ì
ü
ß ü
•
ß ü ì ü´ßl ül ¼
̂
´ßl
l è
¬0 # éN̂ µ éLê # é P µ éLê 7 # é P µ éN̂
ì
# é µ éLê 7 # é ̂ µ éN̂
ª ß ü üß üß

ß
ß ª̄
ª ü´ßl ül ¼ ü ¼ ß¼ # ü ¼¼ ß ül ßl
´ßl
l è
´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl ª
Ω9 : ú 0 7 # é P µ éLê é P µ éN̂ 7# é ̂ µ éLê é µ é
ì ì ̂ N̂
üß üß üß{ üß
ß
ß
ß{
ß
« ®
ªú ül
l ü¼
¼ ª
àú 0 # 7 é ̂ µ é P
ì
ª ü
ß ü
ª
©ú àú àú 0
ß ì ü

RN̂ LêN̂ Lê 2à3 # } ì Lê 2ü3 } ̂ LêLê 2Î3
P
# #
ß LêP
ü
ü´ßl ül ¼
´ßl
l è
} LêPìN̂ 2ý3
ì
} Lê̂ N̂ 23
P
# #
̂
üß7 üß
ß7
ß
ì ü ß # ü¼¼ ß ülßl
¼ ¼

´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl
} N̂ PìN̂ 2ã3 } ̂ N̂ ̂N̂ 2|3
P

üß{ üß
ß{
ß
ül
l ü¼
¼
} Pì̂ Pì 23
̂
#
ü
ß7 ü
Where A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H will be used later, to make the calculations easier
}9: } p̂ 9p̂:
ì ì
}LêLê } } LêLêLê } LêN̂ Lê } LêPìLê
} Lê̂ Lê } N̂ LêN̂ Lê } LêPìLê } ̂ Lê̂ Lê
(4.46)
p̂ Lê N̂ P ̂ P
Lêp̂Lê
ß ü

# # # àüÎ
ß ü
ì ì
}N̂ Lê } N̂ p̂Lê } L N̂ LêLê } N̂ N̂ N̂Lê } N̂ PìLê } ̂ N̂ ̂Lê } N̂ PìLê } ̂ N̂ ̂Lê
p̂ ê P P
ü´ßl ül ¼
´ßl
l è
7# # ý
üß üß
ß7
ß
}PìLê
ì
} p̂ Pìp̂Lê } L PìLêLê } N̂ PìN̂ Lê } PìPìLê } ̂ Pì̂ Lê 0
ê P
ì
}̂ Lê } p̂ ̂ p̂Lê } L ̂ LêLê } N̂ ̂ N̂Lê } ì Lê } ̂ ̂Lê 0
ê P ̂
̂ P
ì ì
}N̂ N̂ } p̂ N̂ p̂N̂ } L N̂ LêN̂ } N̂ N̂ N̂N̂ } N̂ PìN̂ } ̂ N̂ ̂N̂ #RN̂ LêN̂ Lê
} N̂ PìN̂ } ̂ N̂ ̂N̂
ê P P
ß ü¼ ß¼ # ü¼¼ ß ülßl
´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl
#à ã |
ß üß{ üß
ß{
ß
}PìPì
ì ì ì
} p̂ Pìp̂Pì } L PìLêPì } N̂ PìN̂ Pì } PìPìPì } ̂ Pì̂ Pì #} LêPìLê } N̂ PìN̂ } ̂ Pì̂ Pì
ê P P P
ü ü¼ ß¼ # ü¼¼ ß ülßl ül
l ü¼
¼
# #ü ã
ü üß{ üß ü
ß7 ü
ì
}̂ ̂ } p̂ ̂ p̂̂ } L ̂ Lê̂ } N̂ ̂ N̂̂ } ̂ Pì̂ } ̂ ̂ ̂̂ #} ̂ Lê̂ Lê } ̂ N̂ ̂N̂ } ̂ Pì̂ Pì
ê P

´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl ül
l ü¼
¼
# #Î |

ß{
ß ü
ß7 ü
•
ß ü
ü´ßl ül ¼
´ßl
l è
¬# # # # # 0 0
ª ß ü
üß7 üß
ß7
ß ª̄
ª ß ü¼ ß¼ # ü¼¼ ß ülßl
´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl ª
ª ú 0 0 ª
}9:
«
ß üß{ üß
ß{
ß
ü ü¼ ß¼ # ü¼¼ ß ülßl ül
l ü¼
¼ ®
ª 0 0 # 7 0 ª
ü üß üß ü
ß ü
ª ª
{
ª

´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl ül
l ü ¼
¼ ª
© 0 0 0 # 7

ß ü
ß ü


ß {
} b 9: }9:

} b }LêLê b }N̂ N̂ b }OìOì b }PìPì #}LêLê }N̂ N̂ }PìPì }̂ ̂

ìOì ìPì
(4.47)
Lê Lê N̂ N̂ O P
#2à ü Î3 # à ã | # ü ã # Î | #2à # 2ü # 2Î 2ã 2| 2
ì ì
#2RN̂ LêN̂ Lê # 2} LêPìLê # 2} ̂ LêLê 2} N̂ PìN̂ 2} ̂ N̂ ̂N̂ 2} ̂ Pì̂ Pì
P P
ß ü
ü¼ ß¼ # ü¼¼ ß ülßl
´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl ül
l ü¼
¼
2 #
ß ü
üß{ üß
ß{
ß ü
ß7 ü
1
|9: }9: # b9: }
2
1 1 1
(4.48)
|LêLê }LêLê # bLêLê } }LêLê } à ü Î 2#2à # 2ü # 2Î 2ã 2| 23 ã |

2 2 2
ì ü ß
¼ ¼
# ü ¼¼
ß ül ßl
´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl ül
l ü¼
¼
} N̂ PìN̂ } ̂ N̂ ̂N̂ } ̂ Pì̂ Pì #
P
üß{ üß
ß{
ß ü
ß7 ü
1 ü´ßl ül ¼
´ßl
l è
|N̂ Lê }N̂ Lê # bN̂ Lê } }N̂ Lê 7 # #
2 üß üß
ß7
ß
1
|PìLê }PìLê # bPìLê } 0
2
1
|̂ Lê }̂ Lê # b̂ Lê } 0
2
1 1 1
|N̂ N̂ }N̂ N̂ # bN̂ N̂ } }N̂ N̂ # } #à ã | # 2#2à # 2ü # 2Î 2ã 2| 23 ü Î
2 2 2
ì ü
ül
l ü¼
¼
} LêPìLê } ̂ LêLê } ̂ Pì̂ Pì # # # 7
P
ü
ü
ß ü
1
|PìN̂ }PìN̂ # bPìN̂ } 0
2
1
|̂ N̂ }̂ N̂ # b̂ N̂ } 0
2
1 1 1
|PìPì }PìPì # bPìPì } }PìPì # } #ü ã # 2#2à # 2ü # 2Î 2ã 2| 23
2 2 2
ß

´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl
à Î | RN̂ LêN̂ Lê } ̂ LêLê } ̂ N̂ ̂N̂ # #
ß

ß{
ß
1
|̂ Pì }̂ Pì # b̂ Pì } 0
2
1 1 1
|̂ ̂ }̂ ̂ # b̂ ̂ } }̂ ̂ # } #Î | # 2#2à # 2ü # 2Î 2ã 2| 23 à ü ã
2 2 2
ì ì ß ü ü ß
¼ ¼
# ü ¼¼
ß ülßl
RN̂ LêN̂ Lê } LêPìLê } N̂ PìN̂ # #
P P
ß ü üß{ üß
ü¼ ß¼ # ü¼¼ ß ülßl
´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl ül
l ü´ßl ül ¼
´ßl
l è
ü¼
¼
¬ # 7 # # 0 0
ª üß { üß
ß {
ß ü
ß ü
üß7 üß
ß7
ß ª̄
ª ü
ül
l ü¼
¼ ª
ª ú # # # 0 0 ª
|9:
«
ü
ü
ß7 ü
ß

´ß´ #
´´ß
l ßl ®
ª 0 0 # # 0 ª
ß

ß{
ß
ª ª
ª ß ü ü ß # ü ß ülßlª
¼ ¼ ¼¼
© 0 0 0 # #
ß ü üß üß
{
7 The Energy-Momentum Tensor

7.1 59Perfect Fluids – Alternative derivation
9: àI9 I: ü89:
The most general form of the stress energy tensor is
(7.8)
0 0 0
In the local frame we know that
0 0 0
9 ¦ §
:
0 0 0
(7.6)
0 0 0
I9 21,0,0,03
and
1 0 0 0
Then we choose the metric with negative signature
0 #1 0 0
b 9: ¦ §

0 0 #1 0
0 0 0 #1
This we can use to find the constants à and ü
ìì àIì Iì üb ìì à ü
Ù· Ù
̂̂ àÎ I ̂ üb ̂̂ #ü
0 Ù· Ù Ú
ü # and à # ü
Which leaves us with the most general form of the stress energy tensor for a perfect fluid for a metric with
9: 2 3I9 I: # 89:
negative signature
(7.11)
59
(McMahon, 2006, p. 160)
#1 0 0 0
If we instead choose the metric with positive signature
9: ¦ 0 1 0 0
§
b
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
ìì àIì Iì üb ìì à # ü
Ù· Ù
̂̂ àÎ I ̂ üb ̂̂ ü
0 Ù· Ù Ú
ü and à ü
Which leaves us with the most general form of the stress energy tensor for a perfect fluid for a metric with
9: 2 3I9 I: 89:
negative signature
(7.12)
7.2 60The Gödel metric

The Gödel metric is an exact solution of the Einstein field equations in which the stress-energy tensor con-
tains two terms, the first representing the matter density of a homogeneous distribution of swirling dust
particles, and the second associated with a nonzero cosmological constant.61
1 1 7 7
56 7 m25B c
537
# 5; 7
# 5 7
# c 5 n
2é 7 2
1 1
The line element:
m5B 7 2c 5B5 # 5; 7 # 5 7 c 7 5 7 n
2é 7 2
1 0 0 c
¬
1 ª 0 #1 0 0 ª̄
89: 0 0 #1 0
2é 7 « 1 7 ®
ªc c ª
The metric tensor

0 0
© 2
#1 0 0 2c Ñ
0 #1 0 0
89: 2é7 ¦ §
0 0 #1 0
and its inverse
2c Ñ 0 0 #2c Ñ7
1 0 0 c
0 0 0 0
9: ¦ §
2é 7 0 0 0 0
The stress energy tensor
c 0 0 c 7
8|9: |9: # 89: Λ

The Einstein equation for a metric with a negative signature
62 8|89: 9: 89: |9: # 89: 89: Λ

1
8| 89: m}9: # 89: }n # 4Λ
2
1
89: }9: # 89: 89: } # 4Λ
2
1
} # 4} # 4Λ
2
#} # 4Λ
1
Λ # 28| }3
4
60
(McMahon, 2006, p. 326), final exam 14, the answer to Final Exam quiz 14 is (a).
8 9: Â 2é7 2#1 S 1 2c Ñ c 2c Ñ c # 2c Ñ7 c 7 3 2#1 2 2 # 23

61
62 9:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del_metric
7
To find } we work in the non-coordinate basis
1
éLê 25B c 53 5B √2ééLê # 2éé ̂
√2é
1 1
é 5; 5; √2éé
√2é ¦ #1 §
b ºÕ
1 #1
é 5 5 √2éé
√2é #1
1
é ̂ c 5 5 2éc Ñ é ̂
2é
• Cartan’s First Structure equation:
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:
(5.9)
1
5éLê 5 25B c 53
√2é
c
5; µ 5
√2é
c
√2éé µ 2éc Ñ é ̂
√2é
2éé µ é ̂
#éé ̂ µ é éé µ é ̂
#Γ L µ é # Γ L µ é # Γ L ̂ µ é ̂
ê ê ê
5é 0
5é 0
1 1 1
5é ̂ 5 m c 5n c 5; µ 5 c √2éé µ 2éc Ñ é ̂ √2éé µ é ̂
2é 2é 2é
0 éé ̂ 0 #éé
•
¬ ¯
Γ :
9 éé ̂
0 0 √2éé ̂
« 0 0 0 0 ®
©#éé #√2éé ̂ 0 0
• The curvature two forms and the Riemann tensor:
1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
ΩL Lê :
ê
5Γ L Lê
ê
0
Γ µΓ Γ L Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ L µ Γ Lê Γ L µ Γ Γ L ̂ µ Γ ̂ Lê 0
Lê p̂ ê ê ê ê ê
p̂ Lê Lê
Ω Lê
Lê
0
1 1 1
Ω Lê : 5Γ Lê 5éé ̂ 5 mé c 5n c 5; µ 5 c √2éé µ 2éc Ñ é ̂
2é 2 2
√2é7 é µ é ̂
Γ p̂ µ Γ p̂ Lê Γ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ µ Γ Lê Γ µ Γ Lê Γ ̂ µ Γ ̂ Lê Γ ̂ µ Γ ̂ Lê
ê
#√2éé ̂ µ #éé #√2é7 é µ é ̂

Ω Lê 0
Ω Lê :

5Γ Lê

0
Γ µ Γ p̂ Lê Γ µ Γ L Lê Γ µ Γ Lê Γ µΓ Γ µ Γ ̂ Lê 0
ê
p̂ Lê Lê ̂
Ω

Lê
0
1
Ω̂ Lê : 5Γ ̂ Lê 5#éé 5 m#é 5;n 0
√2é
Γ ̂ p̂ µ Γ p̂ ̂ Γ ̂ Lê µ Γ L ̂ Γ ̂ µ Γ ̂ Γ ̂ µ Γ ̂ Γ ̂ ̂ µ Γ ̂ ̂ 0
ê
Ω̂ Lê 0
Ω : 5Γ 0
Γ p̂ µ Γ p̂ Γ Lê µ Γ L Γ µ Γ Γ µ Γ Γ ̂ µ Γ ̂ 0
ê
Ω 0
Ω : 5Γ 0
Γ p̂ µ Γ p̂ 0
Ω 0
Ω : 5Γ 0

Γ µ Γ p̂ Γ µ Γ L Γ µ Γ Γ µΓ Γ µ Γ ̂ 0
ê
p̂ Lê ̂
Ω 0

1 1
Ω̂ : 5Γ ̂ 5√2éé ̂ 5 m c 5; µ 5n c √2éé µ 2éc Ñ é ̂
√2 √2
2é7 é µ é ̂
Γ ̂ p̂ µ Γ p̂ Γ ̂ Lê µ Γ L Γ ̂ µ Γ Γ ̂ µ Γ Γ ̂ ̂ µ Γ ̂ Γ ̂ Lê µ Γ L
ê ê
#éé µ éé ̂ #é7 é µ é ̂

Ω̂ é7 é µ é ̂
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 é é
7
µ é ̂
Ω9 : ¦ §
0 0 0 0
0 #é7 é µ é ̂ 0 0
} ̂ ̂ #é7

Now we can see that the nonzero elements of the Riemann tensor in the non-coordinate basis are
• The Ricci tensor, the nonzero elements:
}9: } p̂ 9p̂:
} } p̂ } ̂ } ̂ ̂ #é7
(4.46)
p̂ ̂
}̂ ̂ } p̂ ̂ p̂̂ } ̂ ̂ #é7
0 0 0 0
•
0 #é7 0 0
}9: ¦ §
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 #é7
} b 9: }9:

} b }LêLê b } b } b }̂ ̂ #} # }̂ ̂ 2é7

Lê Lê
(4.47)
̂ ̂
Now we can find Λ

1
•
Λ # 28| }3
4
1
# 28| 2é7 3
4
If we use geometrized units63 i.e. 8| 1 we get
1
Λ # 2 2é7 3
4
The first term – Ï represents the matter density of a homogeneous distribution of swirling dust particles,

and the second term Λ #

Â
7
is associated with a nonzero cosmological constant.
8 Killing Vectors
vanishes (%+
), the vector X satisfies the Killing equation. - Alterna-
8.1 64Show that if the Lie derivative of the metric tensor with respect to vector X
tive version
Fí G9 F9 G: 0
• Expressions needed:
ß 9: p Fp 9: p: F9 p 9p F: p

Killings equation: (8.1)
Fp 89: 0
The Lie derivative of a (0,2) tensor: (4.28)
• Now we can Calculate the Lie-derivative of 89: (4.28) and using (4.18)
(4.18)
63
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometrized_unit_system
64
ß 89: G p Fp 89: 8p: F9 G p 89p F: G p

F9 28p: G p 3 F: 289p G p 3
F9 G: F: G9
If ß 89: 0 this implies that F9 G: F: G9 0, which is the Killing equation.
8.2 65Prove that

+
+
Fp Fí G 9 } 9:pK G K
We have
Contracting with Æ9 :
p
(8.6)
Æ9p 2Fp Fí G 9 ) Æ9p } 9:pK G K

F Fí G 9 } 9:9K G K
F Fí G 9 }:K G K (8.7)
8.3 66Constructing a Conserved Current with Killing Vectors – Alternative ver-
We write F9 9 9: 2F9 G: 3
sion:
Fí : :9 2Fí G9 3
1 1
and
F9 9 Fí :
2 2
Now
7( 9: 2F9 G: 3 :9 2Fí G9 33 9: is symmetric so 9: :9
C
1
p.155
9: 2F9 G: 3 2Fí G9 3 2F9 G: 3 2Fí G9 3 0 (8.1)

2
Killings equation
0
8.4 67Given a Killing vector + the Ricci scalar satisfies+ :
ß }9: G p Fp }9: }p: F9 G p }9p F: G p

We calculate the Lie derivative:
Multiplikation by 8 :
9:
(4.28)
89: 2ß }9: 3 89: 2G p Fp }9: 3 89: 2}p: F9 G p 3 89: 2}9p F: G p 3

Using Fp 89: 0, and ß 89: 0:
¿ ß 89: }9: G p Fp 89: }9: 89: }p: F9 G p 89: }9p F: G p
¿ ß } G p Fp } 89: }p: F9 G p 89: }9p F: G p
G p Fp } }p 9 F9 G p } :p F: G p
G p Fp } 8:p }:9 F9 G p 89p }:9 F: G p
G p Fp } } :9 F9 28:p G p 3 } :9 F: 289p G p 3
G p Fp } } :9 F9 G: } :9 F: G9
G p Fp } } :9 2F9 G: F: G9 3
G p Fp }
Now the Lie derivative of a scalar is zero ß } 0, so
G p Fp } 0
65
(McMahon, 2006, p. 177) equation (8.7)
66
(McMahon, 2006, p. 178)
67
(McMahon, 2006, p. 179), quiz 8-3, the answer to Quiz 8-3 is (a)
9 Null Tetrads and the Petrov Classification
56 7 5B 7 # 5A 7 # A 7 5i 7 # A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
9.1 68Construct a null tetrad for the flat space Minkowski metric
1
¦ #1
89: §
#A 7
#A 7 sin7 i
1
¬ #1
ª 1 ª̄
89: # 7
« A ®
•
1
and its inverse:
ª ª
© # 7 7
A sin i
• The basis one forms
éLê 5B
éN̂ 5A
éO
ì
A5i
éP
ì
A sin i 5a
• The null tetrad
e 1 1 0 0 éLê 5B 5A
Now we can use the basis one-forms to construct a null tetrad
V 1 1 #1 0 0 é "
N̂ 1 5B # 5A
A5i ÙA sin i 5a
@ √2 0 0 1 Ù é √2
ì
O
(9.10)
@ 0 0 1 #Ù é Pì ! A5i # ÙA sin i 5a
1 1
Written in terms of the coordinate basis
e9 21, 1, 0, 03 V9 21, #1, 0, 03
√2 √2
1 1
@9 20, 0, A, ÙA sin i3 #### @9 20, 0, A, #ÙA sin i3
√2 √2
1 1
Next we use the metric to rise the indices
e L 89L e9 8LL eL 1 S
√2 √2
1 1
e N 89N e9 8NN eN 2#13 S #
√2 √2
eO eP 0
1 1
VL 89L V9 8LL VL 1 S
√2 √2
68
(McMahon, 2006, p. 186), example 9-3 and 9-4
1 1
VN 89N V9 8NN VN 2#13 S m# n
√2 √2
VO VP 0
@L @N 0
1 A 1
@O 89O @9 8OO @O m# nS #
A 7
√2 A√2
1 ÙA sin i 1
@P 89P @9 8PP @P m# 7 7 n S #Ù
A sin i √2 A sin i √2
1 1
Collecting the results
e9 21, 1, 0, 03 e9 21, #1, 0, 03
√2 √2
1 1
V9 21, #1, 0, 03 V9 21, 1, 0, 03
√2 √2
1 1 1 Ù
@9 20, 0, A, ÙA sin i3 @9 m0, 0, # , # n
√2 √2 A A sin i
1 1 1 Ù
@9
#### 20, 0, A, #ÙA sin i3 ####
@9 m0, 0, # , n
√2 √2 A A sin i
56 7 2I, ;, 35I7 25I5¨ # 5; 7 # 5 7

9.2 69The Brinkmann metric (Plane gravitational waves)
1
89: ¦1 §
#1
#1
1
89: ¦ 1 # §
#1
• and its inverse:
#1
56 7 2I, ;, 35I7 25I5¨ # 5; 7 # 5 7 éð # é° # é # é

7 7 7 7
Finding the basis one forms is not so obvious, we write:
5I2I, ;, 35I 25¨ # 5; 7 # 5 7

7 7
éð é° éð # é° # é # é
éð é° 5I
éð # é° 5I 25¨
é 5;
é 5
1 1
éð 2 135I 5¨ 5I éð é°
2 ¦ #1 §
1 1 1 b ºÕ
5¨ #1
é °
21 # 35I # 5¨ 21 # 3éð # 21 3é°
2 2 2 #1
69
(McMahon, 2006, p. 195), example 9-5. The answer to quiz 9-3 is (a) and to quiz 9-4 is (d)
é 5; 5; é
é 5 5 é
• The orthonormal null tetrad
e 1 1 0 0 éð éð é° 5I

Now we can use the basis one-forms to construct a orthonormal null tetrad
V 1 1 #1 0 0 1 1 5I 25¨
é é # é
° ð

°
(9.10)
@ √2 0 0 1 Ù é √2 é Ùé √2 5; Ù5

@ 0 0 1 #Ù é é # Ùé 5; # Ù5
1 1
e9 21, 0, 0, 03 V9 2, 2, 0, 03
√2 √2
1 1
@9 20, 0, 1, Ù3 @9
#### 20, 0, 1, #Ù3
√2 √2
e 89 e9 8° e° 1 S 0 0
1 1
e ° 89° e9 8° e 8°° e° 1 S m n 2#3 S 0
√2 √2
e e 0
2
V 89 V9 8° V° 1 S m n √2
√2
1 2 1
V° 89° V9 8° V 8°° V° 1 S m n 2#3 S m n #
√2 √2 √2
V V 0
@ @° 0
1 1
@ 89 @9 8 @ 2#13 S #
√2 √2
89 @ 8 @ 2#13 S Ù
1 1
@ #Ù
√2 √2
9
1 1
e9 21, 0, 0, 03 e9 20, 1, 0, 03
√2 √2
1 1
V9 2, 2, 0, 03 V9 22, #, 0, 03
√2 √2
1 1
@9 20, 0, 1, Ù3 @9 20, 0, #1, #Ù3
√2 √2
1 1
@9
#### 20, 0, 1, #Ù3 @
9 20, 0, #1, Ù3
√2 √2
• The non-zero Christoffel symbols
1
Γ9:p 2Wp 89: W: 89p # W9 8:p 3 (4.15) Γ 9:p 89K ΓK:p
2
(4.16)
1 W 1 W
Γ Γ ° 8° Γ
2 WI 2 WI
1 W 1 W
Γ Γ Γ ° Γ ° 8° Γ
2 W; 2 W;
1 W 1 W
Γ # Γ 8 Γ
2 W; 2 W;
1 W 1 W
Γ Γ Γ ° Γ ° 8° Γ
2 W 2 W
1 W 1 W
Γ # Γ 8 Γ
2 W 2 W
• The spin coefficients calculated from the null tetrad
1
#F: V9 @
9 e: þ F: e9 @9 e: $ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @
9 e:
2
1
^ #F: V9 @
9 V: < F: e9 @9 V: % F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
2
1
#F: V9 @
9@
: F: e9 @9 @
: D F: e9 V9 @ : # F: @9 @
9@ :
(9.15)
2
1
] #F: V9 @
9 @: \ F: e9 @9 @: ³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
#F: V9 @ 9 e : #F° V9 @ 9 e ° #F° V @ e ° # F° V @ e°

Calculating the spin-coefficients
#2W° V # Γ p° Vp 3@ e° # W° V # Γ p° Vp @ e° 0

^ #F: V9 @ V #F V9 @
9 :
V # F° V9 @
9
V
9 °
#F V @ V # F V @

V # F° V @

V # F° V @
°
V°
#2W V # Γ Vp 3@
p
V # W V # Γ Vp @
p
V # 2W° V # Γ p° Vp 3@

V° # W° V # Γ p° Vp @
V°
Γ ° V° @
V Γ ° V° @ V
1 W #1 1 W 1 1 W W
Γ ° @
Γ ° @ V° V m m n Ù n √2 S √2 m# Ù n
2 W; √2 2 W √2 √2 W; W
#F: V9 @ 9@ : #F V9 @ 9@ # F V9 @
9@
#F V @ @ # F V @ @ # F V @ @ # F V @ @
#2W V # Γ p Vp 3@ @ # W V # Γ p Vp @ @ # W V # Γ p Vp @ @
# W V # Γ p Vp @ @
0
] #F: V9 @ 9 @: 0
þ F: e9 @ e F° e9 @9 e ° F° e @ e ° F° e @ e ° 2∂° e # Γ p° ep 3@ e ° ∂° e # Γ p° ep @ e °
9 :
0
< F: e9 @9 V: F e9 @9 V F° e9 @9 V° F e @ V F° e @ V° F e @ V F° e @ V°
2W e # Γ p ep 3@ V 2W° e # Γ p° ep 3@ V° W e # Γ p ep @ V W° e # Γ p° ep F° e @ V°
0
F: e9 @9 @ : F e9 @9 @ F e9 @9 @ F e @ @ F e @ @
F e @ @ F e @ @
2W e # Γ p ep 3@ @
W e # Γ p ep @ @ W e # Γ p ep @ @ W e # Γ p ep @ @
0
\ F: e9 @9 @: 0
1 1
$ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @ 9 e: 2F° e9 V9 e ° # F° @9 @ 9 e° 3
2 2
1 1
2F° e V e ° # F° @ @ e ° 3 F° e° V° e ° # F° @ @ e°
2 2
1 1
2W° e # Γ p° ep 3V e° # 2W° @ # Γ p° @p 3@ e° J2W° e° # Γ p°° ep 3V° e° # W° @ # Γ p° @p @ e° Q
2 2
0
1 1 1
% F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V: 2F e9 V9 V # F @9 @ 9 V 3 2F° e9 V9 V° # F° @9 @ 9 V° 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
2F e V V # F @ @ V 3 2F° e V V° # F° @ @ V° 3 F e° V° V # F @ @ V
2 2 2
1
F° e° V° V° # F° @ @ V°
2
1
2W e # Γ p ep 3V V # 2W @ # Γ p @p 3@ V
2
1
2W° e # Γ p° ep 3V V° # 2W° @ # Γ p° @p 3@ V°
2
1
J2W e° # Γ p° ep 3V° V # W @ # Γ p @p @ V Q
2
1
J2W° e° # Γ p°° ep 3V° V° # W° @ # Γ p° @p @ V° Q
2
0
1 1 1
D F: e9 V9 @ : # F: @9 @ 9@ : 2F e9 V9 @ # F @9 @ 9@ 3 F e9 V9 @ # F @9 @ 9@
2 2 2
1 1 1
2F e V @ # F @ @ @ 3 F e V @ # F @ @ @ F e° V° @
# F @ @ @
2 2 2
1
F e° V° @
# F @ @ @
2
1
2W e # Γ p ep 3V @ # 2W @ # Γ p @p 3@ @
2
1
JW e # Γ p ep V @ # W @ # Γ p @p @ @ Q
2
1
J2W e° # Γ p° ep 3V° @ # W @ # Γ p @p @ @ Q
2
1
JW e° # Γ p° ep V° @ # W @ # Γ p @p @ @ Q
2
0
1
³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @: 0
2
0 þ 0 $ 0
1 W W
^ m# Ù n < 0 % 0
√2 W; W
0 0 D 0
] 0 \ 0 ³ 0
• The Weyl Scalars and Petrov classification
Ψ ý\ # Æþ # \2 ( 3 # \23$ # $(3 þ2 # # D# 3³)

ΨC ý³ # Æ$ # \2D 3 # ³2( # $(3 þ2] %3 $2D# # #3
(13.22)
(13.23)
Ψ7 Æ(< # Δ # ]( # \ <³( # D # <( 2% %( 3 þ^ # 2Λ

Ψ{ Æ(% # Δα ^2 $3 # 2< ³3 D2%( # ]( 3 %³( # <(
(13.24)
ΨÏ Æ(^ # Δλ 2] ]( 3 # 23% # %( 3 ^3D ³( # <(

(13.25)
(13.26)
ý e 9 F9 Δ V 9 F9 Æ @ 9 F9 Æ( @ 9 F9
Where
(9.13)
We see that Ψ ΨC Ψ7 Ψ{ 0 and

1 W W
ΨÏ Æ(^ @ 9 F9 ^ @ 9 ∂9 Ö m# Ù n×
√2 W; W
1 W W W W
@ ∂+ m# Ù n@ W, m# Ù n
√2 W; W W; W
1 1 W7 W7 1 W7 W7 1 W7 W7 W7
öm# n # 7 Ù mÙ n # Ù 7 ÷ ö 7 # 7 # 2Ù ÷
√2 √2 W; W;W √2 W;W W 2 W; W W;W
ΨÏ Ú 0: This is a Petrov type N, which means there is a single principal null direction of multiplicity 4. This
corresponds to transverse gravity waves.
• The Ricci tensor
Φ77 Æ^ # Δ] # ]7 # ( # ]2% %( 3 ^( # ^2< # 3³ # D#3 Æ^ @9 F9 ^

1 W W 1 W W 1 W W
(9.24)
@9 W9 Ö m# Ù n× @ W Ö m# Ù n× @ W Ö m# Ù n×
√2 W; W √2 W; W √2 W; W
1 1 W7 W7 1 1 W7 W7 1 W7 W7
m# n m n # 7 Ù m#Ù n m n # Ù 7 ö 7 7÷
√2 √2 W; W;W √2 √2 W;W W 2 W; W
1 1 1
Φ77 # }9: V9 V: # }: V V: # }°: V° V:
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
(9.22)
# } V V # }° V° V # }° V V° # }°° V° V°

2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
# } √2 S √2 # }° √2 S m# n # }°° m# n S m# n
2 √2 2 √2 √2
7 1 W7 W7
#} }° # }°° ö 7 7 ÷
4 2 W; W
1 W7 W7
}70 # ö 7 7 ÷
2 W; W
}° }°° 0
• The Weyl tensor calculated from the null tetrad found in example 9-5. This calculation show that
the spin coefficients and the Weyl scalars depend on the chosen null tetrad, and the Ricci tensor
does not (of course).
e9 21, 0, 0, 03 e 9 20, 1, 0, 03
The null tetrad (9.26), (9.27), (9.28)
70
According to the Cartan calculation further below the sign is wrong
1 1
V9 m , 1, 0, 0n V9 m1, # , 0, 0n
2 2
1 1
@9 20, 0, 1, #Ù3 @9 20, 0, #1, Ù3
√2 √2
1 1
@ 9
#### 20, 0, 1, Ù3 @
9 20, 0, #1, #Ù3
√2 √2
^ #F: V9 @ 9 V: #F V9 @ 9 V # F° V9 @
9 V°
#F V @ V # F V @

V # F° V @

V # F° V @
°
V°
#2W V # Γ p Vp 3@ V # W V # Γ p Vp @
V # 2W° V # Γ p° Vp 3@
V°
# W° V # Γ p° Vp @
V°
Γ V° @
°
V Γ V° @
°
V Γ ° @

Γ ° @
V° V
1 W #1 1 W 1 1 W W
Ö m n m#Ù n× 1 S 1 # m Ù n
2 W; √2 2 W √2 2√2 W; W
(9.30)
1W W
ΨÏ Æ (^ @
9 F9 ^ @
9 ∂9 Ö# m Ù n×
2√2 W; W
1 W W W W
m# n @
∂+ m Ù n@ W, m Ù n
2√2 W; W W; W
1 1 W7 W7 1 W7 W7
m# n öm# n 7 Ù m#Ù n Ù 7 ÷
2√2 √2 W; W;W √2 W;W W
1 W W
7 7
W
7
ö 7 # 7 2Ù ÷
4 W; W W;W
(9.31)
1 W W
Φ77 Æ^ @9 F9 ^ @9 W9 Ö# m Ù n×
2√2 W; W
(9.24)
1W W 1 W W
@ W Ö# m Ù n× @ W Ö# m Ù n×
2√2 W; W 2√2 W; W
1 #1 W 7 W7 1 W7 W7 1 W7 W7
m# n öm n 7 Ù mÙ n Ù 7 ÷ ö 7 7 ÷ (9.32)
2√2 √2 W; W;W √2 W;W W 4 W; W
1 1
Φ77 # }9: V9 V: (9.22) V9 m1, # , 0, 0n
2 2
1 1 1 1
# } V V # }° V V # }° V V # }°° V° V°
° °
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 7
# } 1 S 1 # }° 1 m# n # }°° m# n
2 2 2 2
1 7 1 W7 W7
# } }° # } ö ÷
2 2 8 °° 4 W; 7 W 7
1 W7 W7
}71 # ö 7 7÷
2 W; W
}° }°° 0
71
According to the Cartan calculation further below the sign is wrong
• Finding the Ricci tensor of the Brinkmann metric using Cartan’s structure equation
• Cartan’s First Structure equation and the calculation of the curvature one-forms
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é: Γ 9 : Γ 9:p̂ ép̂

(5.9) (5.10)
1 1 W W
5éð 5 m 22I, ;, 3 135I 5¨n m 5; µ 5I 5 µ 5In
2 2 W; W
1 W W
Ö é µ éð é° é µ éð é° ×
2 W; W
1 1 W W
5é° 5 m 21 # 35I # 5¨n # m 5; µ 5I 5 µ 5In
2 2 W; W
1 W W
# Ö é µ éð é° é µ éð é° ×
2 W; W
5é 0
5é 0
1 W ð 1 W ð
• The curvature one-forms summarized in a matrix:
¬ 0 0 é é° 2à3 é é° 2ü3
ª 2 W; 2 W ª̄
ª 1 W ð 1 W ð ª
ª 0 0 é é° 2à3 é é° 2ü3ª
2 W; 2 W
Γ 9 :
«1 W ð 1 W ð ®
é é° 2à3 # é é° 2#à3 0 0
ª2 W; 2 W; ª
ª1 W 1 W ð ª
ª éð é° 2ü3 # é é° 2#ü3 0 0 ª
©2 W 2 W
and A and B will be used later, to make the calculations easier
1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
1 W ð 1 W ð
First we will calculate
àµà é é° µ é é°
2 W; 2 W;
1 W 7 ð
m n é µ éð éð µ é° é° µ éð é° µ é°
2 W;
1 W 7 ð 1 W 7 ð
m n é µ é é µ é m
° ° ð

n é µ é° # éð µ é° 0
2 W; 2 W;
1 W ð 1 W ð
üµü é é° µ é é° 0
2 W 2 W
1 W ð 1 W2I, ;, 3
5à 5 Ö é é° × 5 m 5In
2 W; 2 W;
1 W 7 2I, ;, 3 1 W 7 2I, ;, 3
5; µ 5I 5 µ 5I
2 W; 7 2 W;W
1 W 7 2I, ;, 3 1 W 7 2I, ;, 3
é µ é ð

é °
é µ éð é°
2 W; 7 2 W;W
1 W ð 1 W2I, ;, 3 1 W7 1 W7
5ü 5 Ö é é° × 5 m 5In 5; µ 5I 5 µ 5I
2 W 2 W 2 W;W 2 W 7
1 W 7 1 W 7
é µ éð é° é µ éð é°
2 W;W 2 W 7
Ωðð : 5Γ ðð 0
Now we are ready to calculate the curvature two-forms
Γ ðp̂ µ Γ p̂ ð Γ ðð µ Γ ðð Γ ð° µ Γ ° ð Γ ð µ Γ ð Γ ð µ Γ ð Γ ð µ Γ ð Γ ð µ Γ ð

àµàüµü 0
Ω ð 5Γ ðð Γ ðp̂ µ Γ p̂ ð 0
ð

Ω° ð : 5Γ ° ð 0
Γ ° p̂ µ Γ p̂ ð Γ ° ð µ Γ ðð Γ ° ° µ Γ ° ð Γ ° µ Γ ð Γ ° µ Γ ð Γ ° µ Γ ð Γ ° µ Γ ð

2#à3 µ 2à3 2#ü3 µ 2ü3 0

Ω° ð 0
1 W 7 1 W 7
Ω ð : 5Γ ð 5à é µ é ð

é °
é µ éð é°
2 W; 7 2 W;W
Γ p̂ µ Γ p̂ ð Γ ð µ Γ ðð Γ ° µ Γ ° ð Γ µ Γ ð Γ µ Γ ð 0

1 W 7 1 W 7
Ω ð é µ é ð
é °
é µ éð é°
2 W; 7 2 W;W
1 W 7 1 W 7
Ω ð : 5Γ ð 5ü é µ éð é° é µ éð é°

2 W;W 2 W 7
Γ p̂ µ Γ p̂ ð Γ ð µ Γ ð Γ ° µ Γ ° ð Γ µ Γ ð Γ µ Γ ð 0
ð
1 W 7 1 W 7
Ω ð

é µ éð é° é µ éð é°
2 W;W 2 W 7
Ω° ° 5Γ ° ° 0
Γ ° p̂ µ Γ p̂ ° Γ ° ð µ Γ ð° Γ ° ° µ Γ ° ° Γ ° µ Γ ° Γ ° µ Γ ° Γ ° µ Γ ° Γ ° µ Γ °

#2à3 µ 2à3 # 2ü3 µ 2ü3 0

Ω ° 0
°
1 W 7 1 W 7
Ω ° :

5Γ ° 5à

é µ é é
ð
°
é µ éð é°
2 W; 7 2 W;W
Γ p̂ µ Γ p̂ ° Γ ð µ Γ ð° Γ ° µ Γ ° ° Γ µ Γ ° Γ µ Γ ° 0

1 W 7 1 W 7
Ω ° é µ é ð
é °
é µ éð é°
2 W; 7 2 W;W
1 W 7 1 W 7
Ω ° : 5Γ ° 5ü é µ éð é° é µ éð é°

2 W;W 2 W 7
Γ p̂ µ Γ p̂ ° Γ ð µ Γ ð° Γ ° µ Γ ° ° Γ µ Γ ° Γ µ Γ ° 0

1 W 7 1 W 7
Ω

é µ é é ð
°
é µ éð é°
° 2 W;W 2 W 7
Ω : 5Γ 0
Γ p̂ µ Γ p̂ Γ ð µ Γ ð Γ ° µ Γ ° Γ µ Γ Γ µ Γ 2à3 µ 2à3 # 2à3 µ 2à3 0

Ω 0
Ω :

5Γ

0
Γ µ Γ p̂ Γ µ Γ ð Γ µ Γ ° Γ µ Γ Γ µΓ 2ü3 µ 2à3 # 2ü3 µ 2à3 0

p̂ ð
°
Ω

0
Ω 0

•
1 W 7 1 W 7 1 W 7 1 W 7
¬0 0 é µ é ð

é °
é µ éð é° é µ éð é° é µ éð é°
ª 2 W; 7 2 W;W 2 W;W 2 W 7 ª̄
ª ª
Ω9 : 0 0
1 W 7
é µ éð é°
1 W 7
é µ éð é°
1 W 7
é µ é é
ð °
1 W 7
é µ é ð
é
°
« 2 W; 7 2 W;W 2 W;W 2 W 7 ®
ªú
ª àú 0 0 ª
ª
©ú àú 0 0
•
Now we can write down the independent elements of the Riemann tensor in the non-
1 W7 1 W7
coordinate basis:
R ðð 2Î3 R ðð 23

2 W; 7 2 W 7
1W
7 1 W7
R ð° 2Î3 R ð° 23

2 W; 7 2 W 7
1W
7
1 W7
R ðð 2ý3 R °° 23

2 W;W 2 W 7
1 W7
R ð° 2ý3
2 W;W
1 W7
R °° 2Î3

2 W; 7
1 W7
R °ð 2ý3
2 W;W
1 W7
R °° 2ý3
2 W;W
Where C,D and E will be used later, to make the calculations easier
}9: } p̂ 9p̂:
1 W7 1 W7
(4.46)
}ðð } p̂ ðp̂ð } ðððð } °ð°ð } ðð }

Î
ð
ð 2 W; 7 2 W 7
1 W7 1 W7
}°ð } p̂ °p̂ð } ð°ðð } °°°ð } °ð }

Î
°
ð 2 W; 7 2 W 7
}ð 0
}ð 0
1 W7 1 W7
}°° } p̂ °p̂° } ð°ð° } °°°° } °° }

Î
°° 2 W; 7 2 W 7
}° 0
}° 0
} } p̂ p̂ } ðð } °° } } #Î Î 0

} } p̂ p̂ } ðð } °° } }

#ý ý 0
} } p̂
p̂ } ðð } °
° } } #

0
1 W7 1 W7 1 W7 1 W7

•
¬ 0 0
ª2 W;
ª
7 2 W 7 2 W; 7 2 W 7 ª̄
ª
}9: 1 W 1 W 1 W 1 W
7 7 7 7
«2 W; 7 2 W 7 2 W; 7 2 W 7 0 0®
ª
ª 0 0 0 0ª
ª
© 0 0 0 0
• The Ricci tensor in the coordinate basis:
The transformation: }9: Λp̂9 ΛK: }p̂K

} Λp̂ ΛK }p̂K

Λð ΛK }ðK Λ° ΛK }°K

Λð Λð }ðð Λð Λ° }ð° Λ° Λð }°ð Λ° Λ° }°°
1 1 1 1 1 1
7 7
2 13 2Î 3 2 13 21 # 32Î 3 21 # 3 2 132Î 3 21 # 3 2Î 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
2Î 3
1 W7 1 W7

2 W; 7 2 W 7
}° Λp̂ ΛK° }p̂K

Λð ΛK° }ðK Λ° ΛK° }°K

Λð Λð° }ðð Λð Λ°° }ð° Λ° Λð° }°ð Λ° Λ°° }°°
1 1 1 1
2 13 S 12Î 3 2 132#132Î 3 21 # 3 S 12Î 3 21 # 32#132Î 3
2 2 2 2
0
}°° Λp̂° ΛK° }p̂K

Λð° ΛK° }ðK Λ°° ΛK° }°K

Λð° Λð° }ðð Λð° Λ°° }ð° Λ°° Λð° }°ð Λ°° Λ°° }°°
1 S 12Î 3 12#132Î 3 2#1312Î 3 2#132#132Î 3
0
} } } 0
} 89: }9: 0 S } 0
1 W7 1 W7
•
¬ 0 0 0
ª2 W; 7 2 W 7 ª̄
}9: 0 0 0 0
« ®
ª 0 0 0 0ª
© 0 0 0 0
1 W7 1 W7
|
2 W; 7 2 W 7
10 The Schwarzschild Solution
56 7 c 7[2N3 5B 7 # c 7.2N3 5A 7 # A 7 5i 7 # A 7 sin7 i 5a 7

10.1 72The Riemann and Ricci tensor of the general Schwarzschild metric
éLê c [2N3 5B 5B c Ñ[2N3 éLê

éN̂ c .2N3 5A 5A c Ñ.2N3 éN̂ 1
1 ì #1
éO
ì
A5i 5i éO b ºÕ ¦ §
A #1
1 #1
éP
ì
A sin i 5a 5a éP
ì
A sin i
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é: Γ 9 : Γ 9:p̂ ép̂

(5.9) (5.10)
5éLê 5c [2N3 5B ^ ¼ c [2N3 5A µ 5B ^ ¼ c Ñ.2N3 éN̂ µ éLê

5éN̂ 5c .2N3 5A 0
1
5éO 52A5i3 5A µ 5i c Ñ.2N3 éN̂ µ éO
ì ì
A
1 cot i Oì
5é P 52A sin i 5a3 sin i 5A µ 5a A cos i 5i µ 5a c Ñ.2N3 éN̂ µ é P é µ éP
ì ì ì
A A
72
(McMahon, 2006, p. 204)
0 ^ ¼ c Ñ.2N3 éLê 0 0
¬ 1 Ñ.2N3 Oì 1 Ñ.2N3 Pì
ª
ª^ c é
¼ Ñ.2N3 Lê
0 c é c é ª̄
ª
A A
Γ 9
1 cot i Pì
0 # c Ñ.2N3 éO 0 é ®
ì
«:
A A
ª 1 cot i Pì ª
ª ª
0 # c Ñ.2N3 é P # é 0
ì
© A A
1 1
ì
Γ ^ ¼ c Ñ.2N3 Γ N̂ LêLê ^ ¼ c Ñ.2N3 Γ O N̂ Oì c Ñ.2N3 Γ c Ñ.2N3
Lê ì P
N̂ Lê
A ì
N̂ P A
1 Ñ.2N3 cot i ì cot i
Γ OìOì # c Γ PìPì # Γ
ì

N̂ O P
A A A
ìP
O ì
1 Ñ.2N3
Γ PìPì # c
N̂
A
1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
ΩN̂ Lê : 5Γ N̂ Lê 5^ ¼ c Ñ.2N3 éLê 5^ ¼ c [2N3Ñ.2N3 5B 2^ ¼¼ ^è2^ ¼ # ¼ 33c [2N3Ñ.2N3 5A µ 5B
^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3c Ñ7.2N3 éN̂ µ éLê
ì
ê ì P
Lê
ΩN̂ Lê ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3c Ñ7.2N3 éN̂ µ é Lê
Ω Lê : 5Γ 0
ì
O ì
O
Lê
ì
Γ O Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ O N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ O Oì µ Γ O Lê Γ O Pì µ Γ Γ O N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê
ì ì ì ì
Γ µΓ
ì
O p̂ ê ì P ì
p̂ Lê Lê
1 ^¼
c Ñ.2N3 éO µ ^ ¼ c Ñ.2N3 éLê c Ñ7.2N3 éO µ éLê
ì ì
A¼ A
^
ΩOLê c Ñ7.2N3 éO µ éLê
ì ì
A
0
ì ì
Ω Lê : 5Γ
P P
Lê
ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ Oì µ Γ O Lê Γ Pì µ Γ Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê
ì ê ì
Γ p̂ µΓ
P p̂ P P P P P P
Lê
^¼
c Ñ7.2N3 é P µ éLê
ì
A
^ ¼ Ñ7.2N3 Pì

ì
Ω c é µ éLê
P
Lê A
1 ¼
ΩON̂ : 5Γ O N̂ 5 m c Ñ.2N3 éO n 5c Ñ.2N3 5i #¼ c Ñ.2N3 5A µ 5i c Ñ7.2N3 éO µ éN̂
ì ì ì ì
A A
ì
Γ O Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ ON̂ µ Γ N̂ N̂ Γ O Oì µ Γ O N̂ Γ O Pì µ Γ N̂ 0
ì ì ì ì ì
ì ê P
¼
ΩON̂
ì
c Ñ7.2N3 éO µ éN̂
ì
A
1
5 m c Ñ.2N3 é P n 5c Ñ.2N3 sin i 5a
ì ì
Ω N̂ : 5Γ
P P ì
N̂ A
#¼ c Ñ.2N3 sin i 5A µ 5a c Ñ.2N3 cos i 5i µ 5a
¼ 1
# c Ñ7.2N3 éA µ éað 7 c Ñ.2N3 cot i éi µ éað
A A
ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ Lê µ Γ N̂ Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Γ Oì µ Γ O N̂ Γ Pì µ Γ N̂ Γ Oì µ Γ O N̂
ì ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ N̂
P P Lê P N̂ P P P P
p̂
cot i Pì 1 Ñ.2N3 Oì
é µ c é
A A
¼

ì
Ω c Ñ7.2N3 éað µ éA
P
N̂ A
P P ì
O ì
O A A
ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ Lê µ Γ L Oì Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Oì Γ Oì µ Γ O Oì Γ Pì µ Γ Oì Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Oì
ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ Oì
P P ê P P P P P
p̂
1
# 7 c Ñ7.2N3 é P µ éO
ì ì
A
1 # c Ñ7.2N3 Pì

ì
Ω é µ éO
P ì
A7
ì
O
^ ¼ Ñ7.2N3 Oì ^ ¼ Ñ7.2N3 Pì
¬0 ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3c Ñ7.2N3 éN̂ µ éLê c é µ éLê c é µ éLê
ª A A ª̄
ª ¼ Ñ7.2N3 Oì ¼ Ñ7.2N3 að ª
ú 0 c é µ éN̂ c é µé A
Ω9 : A A
« ®
1 # c Ñ7.2N3 Pì
ªú àú 0 é µé ª
ìª
O
ª A7
©ú àú àú 0
^¼ ^¼
^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3c Ñ7.2N3
ì
R } OLêOìLê c Ñ7.2N3 } LêPìLê
ì
c Ñ7.2N3
N̂ P
LêN̂ Lê
A A
¼ Ñ7.2N3 ì ¼ Ñ7.2N3
} N̂ OìN̂ c } N̂ PìN̂ c
ì
O P
A A
ì 1 # c Ñ7.2N3
} OìPìOì
P
A7
}9: } p̂ 9p̂:
ì ì
}LêLê } p̂ Lêp̂Lê } L LêLêLê } N̂ LêN̂ Lê } OLêOìLê } LêPìLê } N̂ LêN̂ Lê } OLêOìLê }
(4.46)
ê ì P ì P
ì Lê
LêP
^ ¼ Ñ7.2N3
^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 2 c
A
ì ì
}N̂ N̂ } p̂ N̂ p̂N̂ } L N̂ LêN̂ } N̂ N̂ N̂N̂ } ON̂ OìN̂ } #RN̂ LêN̂ Lê } ON̂ OìN̂ }
ê ì P ì P
ì N̂
N̂ P ì N̂
N̂ P
¼
# ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 # 2 c Ñ7.2N3
A
}OìOì
ì ì
ê ì P ì ì P
ìP
O ì
ìO ìP
O ì
ìO
^ ¼ Ñ7.2N3 ¼ Ñ7.2N3 1 # c Ñ7.2N3
# c c
A A A 7
}PìPì
ì ì ì ì
} p̂ Pìp̂Pì } L PìLêPì } N̂ PìN̂ Pì } OPìOìPì } PìPìPì #} LêPìLê } N̂ PìN̂ } OìPìOì
ê ì P P P P
^ ¼ Ñ7.2N3 ¼ Ñ7.2N3 1 # c Ñ7.2N3

# c c
A A A7
•
^¼
¬m^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 2 n c Ñ7. 0 0 0
ª A ª̄
ª ¼ ª
ª 0 # m^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 # 2 n c Ñ7. 0 0 ª
}9:
«
A
^ ¼ Ñ7. ¼ Ñ7. 21 # c Ñ7. 3 ®
0 0 # c c 0
ª A A A7 ª
ª ª
ª ^¼ ¼ 21 # c Ñ7. 3ª
© 0 0 0 # c Ñ7. c Ñ7.
A A A
7
10.2 73The Riemann tensor of the Schwarzschild metric

7d ÑC
Solving the vacuum equations we find ^ # and c 7[ 1 # c 7. J1 # Q
7d
N N
,
2@ 2@ ÑC 7
56 7 m1 # n 5B 7 # m1 # n 5A # A 7 5i 7 # A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
A A
1 5 1 5 2@ 1 2@ @
First we calculate
^ ¼ c Ñ7[ 2c 7[ 3 c Ñ7[ m1 # n c Ñ7[ m 7 n 7
2 5A 2 5A A 2 A A # A2@
5 1 Ñ7[ 5 7[ 5 1 5 7
^ ¼¼ Ö c 2c 3× #^ ¼ c Ñ7[ 2c 7[ 3 c Ñ7[ 7 2c 7[ 3
5A 2 5A 5A 2 5A
1 5 2@ 2@
#2^ ¼ ^ ¼ c Ñ7[ m 7 n #2^ ¼ ^ ¼ # { c Ñ7[
2 5A A A
2@
R LêN̂ Lê ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3c Ñ7.2N3 2^ ¼¼ 2^ ¼ ^ ¼ 3c 7[2N3 m#2^ ¼ ^ ¼ # { c Ñ7[ 2^ ¼ ^ ¼ n c 7[2N3
N̂
A
2@
# {
A
^ ¼ Ñ7.2N3 ^ ¼ 7[2N3 1 1 Ñ7[ 2@ 7[2N3 @
} LêOìLê c
ì
O
c c m 7 nc {
A A A2 A A
¼ Ñ7.2N3 @
} N̂ OìN̂ c
ì
# {
O
A¼ A
ì ^ Ñ7.2N3 @
} LêPìLê c {
P
A¼ A
ì Ñ7.2N3 @
} N̂ PìN̂ c # {
P
A A
73
(McMahon, 2006, p. 215)
2@
ì 1 # J1 # A Q
} 1 # c Ñ7.2N3 1 # c 7[2N3 2@
P

ìP
O ì
ìO
A7 A7 A7 A{
2@ @ @
ì
RN̂ LêN̂ Lê # { } OLêOìLê { }
ì P
A A ì Lê
LêP A{
@ ì @
} N̂ OìN̂ # { } # {
ì
O P
A ì N̂
N̂ P A
ì 2@
} OìPìOì {
P
A
10.3 74Calculation of the scalar

in the Schwarzschild metric
}9:pK }9:pK }N̂ LêN̂ Lê }N̂ LêN̂ Lê }N̂ LêLêN̂ }N̂ LêLêN̂ }LêN̂ LêN̂ }LêN̂ LêN̂ }LêN̂ N̂Lê }LêN̂ N̂Lê
}OìLêOìLê }OLêOLê }OìLêLêOì }OLêLêO }LêOìLêOì }LêOLêO }LêOìOìLê }LêOOLê
ì ì ì ì ì ì ìì
}OìN̂ OìN̂ } ON̂ ON̂ }OìN̂ N̂Oì } ON̂ N̂O }N̂ OìN̂ Oì } N̂ ON̂ O }N̂ OìOìN̂ } N̂ OON̂
}PìLêPìLê }PLêPLê }PìLêLêPì }PLêLêP }LêPìLêPì }LêPLêP }LêPìPìLê }LêPPLê

}PìN̂ PìN̂ } PN̂ PN̂ }PìN̂ N̂Pì } PN̂ N̂P }N̂ PìN̂ Pì } N̂ PN̂ P }N̂ PìPìN̂ } N̂ PPN̂
}PìOìPìOì } POPO }PìOìOìPì }POOP }OìPìOìPì } OPOP }OìPìPìOì }OPPO

ìììì ì ìì ì ìììì ìì ìì
2@ 2@ 2@ 2@ 2@ 2@ 2@ 2@
m { n m { n m# { n m# { n m { n m { n m# { n m# { n
A A A A A A A A
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ @
J# { Q J# { Q J { Q J { Q J { Q J { Q J# { Q J# { Q
A A A A A A A A
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ @
J { Q J { Q J# { Q J# { Q J { Q J { Q J# { Q J# { Q
A A A A A A A A
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ @
J# { Q J# { Q J { Q J { Q J# { Q J# { Q J { Q J { Q
A A A A A A A A
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ @
J { Q J { Q J# { Q J# { Q J { Q J { Q J# { Q J# { Q
A A A A A A A A
2@ 2@ 2@ 2@ 2@ 2@ 2@ 2@
m# { n m# { n m { n m { n m# { n m# { n m { n m { n
A A A A A A A A
48@7

A/
(10.35)
10.4 75Geodesics in the Schwarzschild Spacetime
5 Wã Wã
To find the geodesic we use the Euler-Lagrange equation
0 m 9n # 9
56 W;l W;
(10.36)
2@ 7 2@ ÑC 7
where
ã m1 # n Bl # m1 # n Al # A 7 il 7 # A 7 sin7 i al 7
A A
; 9 B:
Wã
0
WB
Wã 2@
2 m1 # n Bl
WBl A
74
(McMahon, 2006, p. 216), equation (10.35)
75
(McMahon, 2006, p. 216)
5 Wã 4@ 2@
m n Al Bl 2 m1 # n B
56 WBl A 7 A
4@ 2@
0 7 Al Bl 2 m1 # n B
A A
2@
¿ 0 B Al Bl
A2A # 2@3
(10.37)
; 9 A:
Wã 2@ 7 2@
Bl Al 7 # 2Ail 7 # 2A sin7 i al 7
WA A 7 2A # 2@37
Wã 2@ ÑC
#2 m1 # n Al
WAl A
5 Wã 2@ ÑC 2@ Ñ7 2@ 7
m n #2 m1 # n A 2 m1 # n Al
56 WAl A A A7
2@ ÑC 4@
#2 m1 # n A Al 7
A 2A # 2@37
2@ ÑC 2@ 2@
0 #2 m1 # n A Al 7 # 7 Bl 7 2Ail 7 2A sin7 i al 7
A 2A # 2@3 7 A
@ @2A # 2@3
¿ 0 A # Al 7 Bl 7 # 2A # 2@3il 7 # 2A # 2@3 sin7 i al 7
A2A # 2@3 A{
(10.38)
; 9 i:
Wã
#2A 7 cos i sin i al 7
Wi
Wã
#2A 7 il
Wil
5 Wã
m n #4AAl il # 2A 7 i
56 Wil
0 #4AAl il # 2A 7 i 2A 7 cos i sin i al 7
2
¿ 0 i Al il # cos i sin i al 7
A
(10.39)
; a:
9
Wã
0
Wa
Wã
#2A 7 sin7 i al
Wal
5 Wã
#4A sin7 i Al al # 4A 7 cos i sin i il al # 2A 7 sin7 i a
56 Wal
0 #4A sin7 i Al al # 4A 7 cos i sin i il al # 2A 7 sin7 i a
2
¿ 0 a Al al 2 cot i il al
A
(10.40)
10.5 76The meaning of the integration constant: The choice of ,

We can use the geodesic equations to justify the choice of 2@ by investigating the geodesic equations in
the classical limit i.e. A 0 2@, KM 1 1 and ¨ KM 2 T, where ¨ is the velocity and < is the proper time. We
KL KN
want to investigate the case of a radially infalling particle i.e. 5i 0 and 5a 0. We also want to work in
SI-units so we have to substitute @ by p Â . Also remember that Bl K4 pKM 1 p , Al K4 pKM p and
3d KL KL C KN KN °
A K4Â p Â KMÂ p Â , where is the particle acceleration. We use equation (10.38):

KÂ N KÂ N 9
76
(McMahon, 2006, p. 218)
@ @2A # 2@3 7
0 A # Al 7 Bl # 2A # 2@3il 7 # 2A # 2@3 sin7 i al 7
A2A # 2@3 A{
same dimension. It turns out that they don’t and therefore the third term has to be multiplied by T 7 , in
Now before we carry on with the physics we also have to be sure that each term in this equation has the
C
which case each term gets the dimension77
Ì¡É½LÔ
@ @2A # 2@3 7 7
.
0 A # Al 7 T Bl # 2A # 2@3il 7 # 2A # 2@3 sin7 i al 7

A2A # 2@3 A{
@ @2A # 2@3 7 7
0 A # Al 7 T Bl 5i 0, 5a 0
A2A # 2@3 A{
@ @
0 A # 7 Al 7 7 T 7 Bl 7 A 0 2@
A A
@¨ 7
@ 1 @ @T 7
0 7 # 7 7 7 7 # 7 ¨ 7 7 Bl p , Al p , A p Â
C ° 9
T A T A T A A
|@ 7 |@ |@
0 # 7 J Q 7 @1 7
A T̈ A T
|@
# 7 ¨2T
A
Multiplying with
on both sides we get precisely the Newtonian gravitational law
|
@
ã
# 7
A
10.6 78Time Delay
metric. We can choose to work in the plane with i 7 , and together with 56 7 0 (light rays are placed
j
To describe the time delay of a light ray outside a massive body, like the Sun we can use the Schwarzschild
2@ 2@ ÑC 7
on the cone) we can rewrite the Schwarzschild line element:
0 m1 # n 5B 7 # m1 # n 5A # A 7 5a 7
A A
Now we would like to describe the time delay of the light ray as a function of the distance, A from the mas-
sive body, and therefore we have to get rid of the a’s. It’s not that difficult. If we use polar coordinates the
least distance, A , the light ray passes the massive body is:
A A sin a
A
a sinÑC
A
5a 5 A A 1
JsinÑC Q 79 # 7
5A 5A A A
E1 # JA Q
7
A
5a 7
A 7
1
m n Ï

5A A A 7
1 # J A Q
2@ 2@ ÑC 7
Now we can begin rewriting the Schwarzschild line element and solve the differential equation
0 m1 # n 5B # m1 #
7
n 5A # A 7 5a 7
A A
77
7d ÑC
This actually originates from the line element of the Schwarzschild metric itself, because in order to get the same
dimension of each term, the first term has to be multiplied by T 7 : 56 7 J1 # Q T 7 5B 7 # J1 # Q 5A 7 #
7d
N N
A 5i # A sin i 5a
7 7 7 7 7
78
sinÑC I
79 K C K
(McMahon, 2006, p. 229)
K Â5CÑ K
(13.20) (Spiegel, 1990)
2@ 5a 7 2@ A7 1
2@ 7 5B 7 1 A m1 #
7
n m n 1 A 7 m1 # n
m1 # n m n A 5A A AÏ A 7
A 5A 1 # J A Q
2@ A 7 m1 # 2@A n
7
2@ A 7 A 7
J1 # A Q J A Q 1 # J A Q J1 # A Q J A Q A{
1
A 7 A 7 A 7
1 # J Q 1 # J Q 1 # J Q
A A A
2@A7
m1 # { n
5B 7 A
⇒ m n
5A A 7 2@ 7
m1 # J Q n J1 # Q
A A
2@A 7 2@A 7
5AE1 # { 5AE1 # {
⇒ 5B A 1 80 A m1 2@n
2@ A 7 A
E1 # JA Q
7
J1 # A Q E1 # J A Q A
5A 2@ @A7
1 81 m1 n 1 # {
A 7 A A
E1 # J Q
A
5A 2@ @A7
1 1 # {
A 7 A A
E1 # J Q
A
To get the total time delay between points 2AC , A7 3 we have to integrate from A to AC and from A to A7
2@ @A7 2@ @A7
N7 m1 # n 5A NÂ m1
LÂ
A A A # A { n 5A
6 5B 6
{
⇒ 6
E1 # JA Q E1 # JA Q
L7 N8 7 N8 7
A A
N7
1 N7
2@ N7
@A7
6 5A 6 5A # 6 5A
E1 # J QA 7 A 7 A 7
AE1 # J A Q A { E1 # J A Q
N8 N8 N8
A
NÂ
1 NÂ
2@ NÂ
@A7
6 5A 6 5A # 6 5A
E1 # J Q A 7 A 7 A 7
A E1 # J A Q A { E1 # J A Q
N8 N8 N8
A
N7
A N7
1 N7
1
6 5A 2@ 6 5A # @A7 6 5A
N8 5A # A N8 5A # A N8 A 5A 7 # A
7 7 7 7 7 7
NÂ
A NÂ
1 NÂ
1
6 5A 2@ 6 5A # @A7 6 5A
N8 5A 7 # A N8 5A 7 # A N8 A 7 5A 7 # A
7 7 7
⇒ B7 # BC 82EAC 7 # A7 # EA 7 # A7
832@ òln JAC 5AC 7 # A 7 Q # ln JA 5A 7 # A 7 Qó
C
1 1 : ·UA : 1 0 (20.8) (Spiegel, 1990)
80
CÑ9
√1 # : 1 1 # 7 ·UA : 1 0 (20.12) (Spiegel, 1990)
81 9
√; 7 # 7 (14.210) (Spiegel, 1990)

K
;5
Â Ñ9Â
82
ln; √; 7 # 7 (14.210) (Spiegel, 1990)

K
;5
Â Ñ9Â
83
5AC 7 # A 7 5A 7 # A 7
#84@A7 ø # ù EA7 7 # A7 # EA 7 # A7
A 7 AC A 7 A
2@ òln JA7 5A7 7 # A 7 Q # ln JA 5A 7 # A 7 Qó
5A7 7 # A 7 5A 7 # A 7
#@A7 ø # ù
A 7 A7 A 7 A
EAC 7 # A7 EA7 7 # A7

AC 5AC 7 # A 7 A7 5A7 7 # A 7 5AC 7 # A 7 5A7 7 # A 7
@ ø2 ln Ö ×# # ù
A7 AC A7
We can use this formula to calculate the time delay from e.g. Venus to Earth. The first term is the ordinary
flat space distance, and the delay is characterized by the remaining terms. We have A7 A¡ , AC A° . Re-
3
member to get the right unit we must multiply by p <.
@| A° 5A° 7 # A 7 A¡ 5A¡ 7 # A 7 5A° 7 # A 7 5A¡ 7 # A 7
⇒ BK¡Ì9 ø2 ln Ö × # # ù
T{ A7 A° A¡
10.7 85Use the geodesic equations to find the Christoffel symbols for the general
Schwarzschild metric.
5 Wk Wk
To find the geodesic we use
0 m 9n # 9
56 W;l W;
(4.36)
1 1 1 1 1
k 89: ;l 9 ;l : c 7[2N3 Bl 7 # c 7.2N3 Al 7 # A 7 il 7 # A 7 sin7 i al 7
where
2 2 2 2 2
(4.35)
; 9 B:
Wk
0
WB
Wk
c 7[2N3 Bl
WBl
5 Wk 5^
m n 2c 7[2N3 Al Bl c 7[2N3 B
56 WBl 5A
5^
0 2c 7[2N3 Al Bl c 7[2N3 B
5A
5^
¿ 0 B 2 Al Bl
5A
; A:
9
Wk 5^ 5
c 7[2N3 Bl 7 # c 7.2N3 Al 7 # Ail 7 # A sin7 i al 7
WA 5A 5A
Wk
#c 7.2N3 Al
WAl
5 Wk 5
m n #2c 7.2N3 Al 7 # c 7.2N3 A
56 WAl 5A
5 7 5^
0 #c 7.2N3
Al # c 7.2N3 A # c 7[2N3 Bl 7 Ail 7 A sin7 i al 7
5A 5A

K 5 Â Ñ9Â
; 9Â
Â 5 Â Ñ9Â
84
(14.214) (Spiegel, 1990)
85
(McMahon, 2006, p. 231) quiz 10-1. Answer: 10-1 is (a)
5 7 5^
¿ 0 A Al c 7[2N3Ñ.2N3 Bl 7 # Ac Ñ7.2N3 il 7 # A sin7 i c Ñ7.2N3 al 7
5A 5A
; 9 i:
Wk
#A 7 cos i sin i al 7
Wi
Wk
#A 7 il
Wil
5 Wk
m n #2AAl il # A 7 i
56 Wil
0 #2AAl il # A 7 i A 7 cos i sin i al 7
2
A
; 9 a:
Wk
0
Wa
Wk
#A 7 sin7 i al
Wal
5 Wk
56 Wal
0 #2A sin7 i Al al # 2A 7 cos i sin i il al # A 7 sin7 i a
2
A
5^
•Collecting the results
0 B 2 Al Bl
5A
5 7 5^
0 A Al c 7[2N3Ñ.2N3 Bl 7 # Ac Ñ7.2N3 il 7 # A sin7 i c Ñ7.2N3 al 7
5A 5A
2
0 i Al il # cos i sin i al 7
A
2
0 a Al al 2 cot i il al
A
57 ; 9 5; : 5; p
• Now we can find the Christoffel symbols from the equation
Γ 9 0
56 7 :p
56 56
(4.33)
5^ 5 1 1
Γ LNL Γ LLN Γ NNN Γ ONO Γ OON Γ Γ
P P
5A 5A A NP PN A
5^
Γ N LL c 7[2N3Ñ.2N3 Γ O PP # cos i sin i Γ Γ cot i
P P
5A OP PO
Γ OO
N
#Ac Ñ7.2N3
Γ N PP #A sin7 i c Ñ7.2N3
56 7 c 7[2L,N3 5B 7 # c 7.2L,N3 5A 7 # A 7 5i 7 # A 7 sin7 i 5a 7

10.8 86The Ricci tensor for the general time dependent Schwarzschild metric.
éLê c [2L,N3 5B 5B c Ñ[2L,N3 éLê

éN̂ c .2L,N3 5A 5A c Ñ.2L,N3 éN̂ 1
1 ì ¦ #1
éO
ì
A5i 5i éO b ºÕ §
A #1
1 #1
éP
ì
A sin i 5a 5a éP
ì
A sin i
• Cartan’s First Structure equation and the calculation of the Cartan structure coefficients Γ 9: :
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:
(5.9) Γ 9 : Γ 9:p̂ ép̂ (5.10)
5éLê 5c [2L,N3 5B ^ ¼ c [2L,N3 5A µ 5B ^ ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 éN̂ µ éLê

5éN̂ 5c .2L,N3 5A lc .2L,N3 5B µ 5A lc Ñ[2L,N3 éLê µ éN̂
1
5éO 52A5i3 5A µ 5i c Ñ.2N,L3 éN̂ µ éO
ì ì
A
1 cot i Oì
5é P 52A sin i 5a3 sin i 5A µ 5a A cos i 5i µ 5a c Ñ.2N,L3 éN̂ µ é P é µ éP
ì ì ì
A A
forms are antisymmetric in the sense that: Γ9: #Γ:9 (5.11). This means that Γ L N̂ b LêLê ΓLêN̂ #b LêLê ΓN̂ Lê
ê
In this case we have to be particular careful in reading off the curvature one forms. The curvature one-
#b LêLê bN̂ N̂ Γ N̂ Lê Γ N̂ Lê . But in the former calculation we found that Γ L N̂ ^ ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 éLê and Γ N̂ Lê lc Ñ[2L,N3 éN̂ ,
ê
which means that we in order to fulfill the antisymmetric properties need to require that Γ L N̂ Γ N̂ Lê
ê
lc Ñ[2L,N3 éN̂ ^ ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 éLê , because Γ L N̂ ^ ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 éLê 2something that makes ΓLêN̂ antisymmetric), and
ê
Γ N̂ Lê lc Ñ[2L,N3 éN̂ (something that makes ΓN̂ Lê antisymmetric).
0 lc Ñ[2L,N3 éN̂ ^ ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 éLê 0 0

¬
1 Ñ.2L,N3 Oì 1 Ñ.2L,N3 Pì
ªlc Ñ[2L,N3 éN̂ ^ ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 éLê 0 c é c é ª̄
ª A A ª
Γ 9
1 cot i Pì
0 # c Ñ.2L,N3 éO 0 é ®
ì
«:
A A
ª 1 cot i Pì ª
ª ª
0 # c Ñ.2L,N3 é P # é 0
ì
© A A
(McMahon, 2006, p. 231), quiz 10-2. Answer to quiz 10-2: }NL J Q

7 K.
N KL
86
1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
ΩN̂ Lê : 5Γ N̂ Lê 5lc Ñ[2L,N3 éN̂ ^ ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 éLê 5lc .2L,N3Ñ[2L,N3 5A ^ ¼ c [2L,N3Ñ.2L,N3 5B
2 ll # ^l c .2L,N3Ñ[2L,N3 5B µ 5A 2^ ¼¼ ^è2^ ¼ # ¼ 33c [2L,N3Ñ.2L,N3 5A µ 5B
ò # J ll # ^l Q c Ñ7[2L,N3 ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3c Ñ7.2L,N3 ó éN̂ µ éLê
ì
ê ì P
Lê
ΩN̂ Lê ò # J ll # ^l Q c Ñ7[2L,N3 ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3c Ñ7.2L,N3
ó éN̂ µ éLê
ΩOLê : 5Γ O Lê 0
ì ì
ì
Γ O Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ O N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ O Oì µ Γ O Lê Γ O Pì µ Γ Γ O N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê
ì ì ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ Lê
ì
O ê ì P ì
p̂ Lê
1
c Ñ.2L,N3 éO µ lc Ñ[2L,N3 éN̂ ^ ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 éLê
ì
A
l ^¼
ΩOLê
ì
c Ñ.2L,N3Ñ[2L,N3 éO µ éN̂ c Ñ7.2L,N3 éO µ éLê
ì ì
A A
0
ì ì
Ω Lê : 5Γ
P P
Lê
ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ Oì µ Γ O Lê Γ Pì µ Γ Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê
ì ì
Γ p̂ µΓ
P p̂ P ê P P P P P
Lê
1
c Ñ.2L,N3 é P µ lc Ñ[2L,N3 éN̂ ^ ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 éLê
ì
A
l ^¼

ì
Ω c Ñ.2L,N3Ñ[2L,N3 é P µ éN̂ c Ñ7.2L,N3 é P µ éLê
P ì ì
Lê
A A
1
ΩON̂ : 5Γ O N̂ 5 m c Ñ.2L,N3 éO n 5c Ñ.2L,N3 5i #lc Ñ.2L,N3 5B µ 5i # ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 5A µ 5i
ì ì ì
A
l ¼
c Ñ[2L,N3Ñ.2L,N3 éO µ éLê c Ñ7.2L,N3 éO µ éN̂
ì ì
A A
ì
Γ O Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ ON̂ µ Γ N̂ N̂ Γ O Oì µ Γ O N̂ Γ O Pì µ Γ N̂ 0
ì ì ì
ì ê ì ì P
l ¼
ΩON̂
ì
c Ñ[2L,N3Ñ.2L,N3 éO µ éLê c Ñ7.2L,N3 éO µ éN̂
ì ì
A A
1
5 m c Ñ.2L,N3 é P n 5c Ñ.2L,N3 sin i 5a
ì ì
Ω N̂ : 5Γ
P P ì
N̂ A
#lc Ñ.2L,N3 sin i 5B µ 5a # ¼ c Ñ.2L,N3 sin i 5A µ 5a c Ñ.2L,N3 cos i 5i µ 5a
l ¼ 1
c Ñ[2L,N3Ñ.2L,N3 éað µ éB̂ c Ñ7.2L,N3 éað µ éA 7 c Ñ.2L,N3 cot i éi µ éað
A A A
ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ N̂ Γ Oì µ Γ O N̂ Γ Pì µ Γ N̂ Γ Oì µ Γ O N̂
ì ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ N̂
P P ê P P P P P
p̂
cot i Pì 1 Ñ.2N3 Oì
é µ c é
A A
l ¼

ì
Ω c Ñ[2L,N3Ñ.2L,N3 éað µ éB̂ c Ñ7.2L,N3 éað µ éA
P
N̂
A A
P P ì
O ì
O A A
ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ Lê µ Γ L Oì Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Oì Γ Oì µ Γ O Oì Γ Pì µ Γ Oì Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Oì
ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ Oì
P P ê P P P P P
p̂
1 Ñ7.2L,N3 Pì
# c é µ éO
ì
A7
1 # c Ñ7.2L,N3 Pì

ì
Ω é µ éO
P ì
A
ì
O 7
l Ñ.2L,N3Ñ[2L,N3 Oì ^¼ l Ñ.2L,N3Ñ[2L,N3 Pì ^¼
¬0 ò # J ll # ^l Q c Ñ7[2L,N3 ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3c Ñ7.2L,N3 ó éN̂ µ é Lê c é µ éN̂ c Ñ7.2L,N3 éO µ é Lê
ì
c é µ éN̂ c Ñ7.2L,N3 é P µ éLê
ì
ª A A A A ª̄
Ω9 :
ª l ¼ l ¼ ª
ú 0 c Ñ[2L,N3Ñ.2L,N3 éO µ é Lê c Ñ7.2L,N3 éO µ é N̂ c Ñ[2L,N3Ñ.2L,N3 é P µ é Lê c Ñ7.2L,N3 é P µ éN̂
ì ì ì ì
« A A A A ®
ªú 1 # c Ñ7.2L,N3 Pì ª
àú 0 é µ éO
ì
ª A7 ª
©ú àú àú 0
•
^ ¼ Ñ7.2L,N3 ^ ¼ Ñ7.2L,N3
Now we can find the independent elements of the Riemann tensor in the coordinate basis:
# J ll # ^l Q c Ñ7[2L,N3 ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3c Ñ7.2L,N3 }
ì
R } OLêOìLê c c
N̂ ì P
LêN̂ Lê
A ì Lê
LêP A
l l
}
ì
} OLêOìN̂
ì P
c Ñ.2L,N3Ñ[2L,N3 c Ñ.2L,N3Ñ[2L,N3
A A
ì N̂
LêP
¼ Ñ7.2L,N3 ¼ Ñ7.2L,N3
}
ì
} ON̂ OìN̂ c c
ì P
A ì N̂
N̂ P A
1 # c Ñ7.2L,N3
}
ì
P

A7
OìP
ìOì
}9: } p̂ 9p̂:
ì ì
}LêLê } } } } OLêOìLê } LêPìLê }
(4.46)
} OLêOìLê }
p̂ Lê N̂ ì P N̂ ì P
Lêp̂Lê LêLêLê Lê N̂ Lê LêN̂ Lê ì Lê
LêP
^ ¼ Ñ7.2L,N3
# J ll # ^l Q c Ñ7[2L,N3 ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 2 c
A
l
}N̂ Lê ê ì ì
P ì ì
} p̂ N̂ p̂Lê } L N̂ LêLê } N̂ N̂ N̂Lê } ON̂ OìLê } N̂ PìLê } ON̂ OìLê } N̂ PìLê 2 c Ñ.2L,N3Ñ[2L,N3
P
A
ì ì
}N̂ N̂ } N̂ p̂N̂ } N̂ LêN̂ } N̂ N̂N̂ } N̂ OìN̂ } N̂ PìN̂ #R LêN̂ Lê } N̂ OìN̂ } N̂ PìN̂
p̂ Lê N̂ Oì P N̂ ì
O P
¼
J ll # ^l Q c Ñ7[2L,N3 # ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 # 2 c Ñ7.2L,N3
A
}OìOì
ì ì
ê ì P ì ì P
ìP
O ì
ìO ìP
O ì
ìO
^ ¼ ¼ 1 # c Ñ7.2L,N3

# c Ñ7.2L,N3
A A A7
}PìPì
ì ì ì ì
} p̂ Pìp̂Pì } L PìLêPì } N̂ PìN̂ Pì } OPìOìPì } #} } }
ê ì P P P P
PìP
ìPì ì Lê
LêP ì N̂
N̂ P ìP
O ì
ìO
^ ¼ ¼ 1 # c Ñ7.2L,N3
# c Ñ7.2L,N3
A A A7
^¼ l
¬# J ll # ^l Q c Ñ7[ m^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 2 n c Ñ7. 2 c Ñ.Ñ[ 0 0
ª A A ª̄
ª l ¼ ª
}9:
ª 2 c Ñ.Ñ[ J ll # ^l Q c Ñ7[ # m^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 # 2 n c Ñ7. 0 0 ª
A A
« ^ ¼ ¼ Ñ7. 21 # c Ñ7. 3 ®
ª 0 0 m# nc 0 ª
A A A7
ª ª
ª ^ ¼ ¼ Ñ7. 21 # c Ñ7. 3ª
0 0 0 m# nc

© A A A7
• The Ricci tensor in the coordinate basis:
The transformation: }9: Λp̂9 ΛK: }p̂K

}LL
7
Λp̂L ΛKL }p̂K ΛLê L }LêLê

^ ¼ Ñ7.2L,N3
c 7[2L,N3 # J ll # ^l Q c Ñ7[2L,N3 ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 2 c
A
^ ¼ 7[2L,N3Ñ7.2L,N3
# J ll # ^l Q ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 2 c
A
l l
}NL Λp̂N ΛKL }p̂K ΛN̂ N ΛLê L }N̂ Lê

c .2L,N3 c [2L,N3 2 c Ñ.2L,N3Ñ[2L,N3 2
A A
}NN
7
Λp̂N ΛKN }p̂K ΛN̂ N }N̂ N̂

¼ Ñ7.2L,N3
c l l
ÖJ # ^l Q c
7.2L,N3 Ñ7[2L,N3
# ^ ^
¼¼ ¼ 2^ ¼ ¼3
# # 2 c ×
A
¼
J ll # ^l Q c Ñ7[2L,N3=7.2L,N3 # ^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 # 2
A
7 ^ ¼ ¼ 1 # c Ñ7.2L,N3
}OO Λp̂O ΛKO }p̂K JΛOO Q }OìOì A 7 Ü# c Ñ7.2L,N3 Ý
ì
A A A7
2#^ ¼ ¼ 3A # 1c Ñ7.2L,N3 1
7 ^ ¼ ¼ 1 # c Ñ7.2L,N3
}PP
ì
Λp̂P ΛKP }p̂K JΛ P Q }PìPì A 7 sin7 i Ü# c Ñ7.2L,N3 Ý
P
A A A7
J2#^ ¼ ¼ 3A # 1c Ñ7.2L,N3 1Q sin7 i
^¼ λl
¬# J ll # ^l Q m^ ¼¼ ^ ¼ 2^ ¼ # ¼ 3 2 n c 7[Ñ7. 2 0 0
ª A r ª̄
}9:
ª λl ¼ ª
2 J l l # ^l Q c Ñ7[=7.
# m^ ^ ¼¼ ¼ 2^ ¼ ¼3
# #2 n 0 0
« r A ®
ª 0 0 2#^ ¼ ¼ 3A # 1c Ñ7. 1 0 ª
ª ª
0 0 0 J2#^ ¼ ¼ 3A # 1c Ñ7. 1Q sin7 i

©
10.9 The Schwarzschild metric with nonzero cosmological constant.

10.9.1 87The Ricci rotation coefficients and Ricci tensor for the Schwarzschild metric with non-
#·2A35B 7 5A 7 A 7 5i 7 A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
C
56 7
zero cosmological constant.
¹2N3
·2A3 1 # # ΛA
7d C 7
N {
Where
where the primes should not be mistaken for the derivative 5/5A.
Now we can compare with the line element of the Schwarzschild metric with zero cosmological constant,
56 7 c 7[N 5B ¼ 7 # c 7.N 5A ¼ 7 # A ¼ 7 5i ¼ 7 # A ¼ 7 sin7 i ¼ 5a ¼ 7

ñ ñ
c [N 5B ¼ 5·2A35B
And choose:
ñ
c .N 5A ¼ 5A
ñ C
5¹2N3
Aè5i ¼ A5i
A sin i ¼ 5a ¼ A sin i 5a
¼
Comparing the two metrics we see: a ¼ a, i ¼ i, A ¼ A, c [N 5·2A3, ^ #, B ¼ B

ñ
Next we can use the former calculations of the Schwarzschild metric with zero cosmological constant to
find the Ricci rotation coefficients and the Ricci tensor for the Schwarzschild metric with non-zero cosmo-
logical constant.
5^2A ¼ 3 5 5 5B ñ 5
But first we need to calculate
c Ñ[N ¼ c [N c Ñ[N ¼ m5·2A3 ¼ n c Ñ[N J5·2A3Q
ñ ñ ñ
5A ¼ 5A 5A 5B 5A
5·2A3 1 1 5·2A3
c Ñ[N ñ

5A 25·2A3 2·2A3 5A
57 ^2A ¼ 3 5 1 5·2A3 5 1 5·2A3 #1 5·2A3 1 57 ·2A3
7
¼ö ÷ ö ÷ 7
5A ¼ 7 5A 2·2A3 5A 5A 2·2A3 5A 2· 2A3 5A 2·2A3 5A 7
5·2A3 5 2@ 1 7 2@ 2 1
m1 # # ΛA n 7 # ΛA # 2·2A3 ΛA 7 # 13
5A 5A A 3 A 3 A
57 ·2A3 5 2@ 2 4@ 2 2 5·2A3
m # ΛAn # { # Λ # m ΛAn
5A 7 5A A 7 3 A 3 A 5A
• The Ricci rotation coefficients
2@ 2
5^2A ¼ 3 Ñ.Nñ 1 5·2A3 1 5·2A3 # Λr
Γ N̂
c 5·2A3 A7 3
Γ Lê
5A 2·2A3 5A 25·2A3 5A
Lê Lê
2@ 1
N̂ Lê ¼
2E1 # A # 3 ΛA 7
1
@ # 3 ΛA { 3@ # ΛA {

√9A # 18@ # 3ΛA {
EA # 2@ # 1 ΛA {
3
87
(McMahon, 2006, pp. 231-32), quiz 10-3 and 10-4. The answer to quiz 10-3 is (b) and the answer to quiz 10-4 is (a)
1 Ñ.Nñ 1 1 2@ 1 7
Γ N̂ OìOì Γ N̂ PìPì #Γ O N̂ Oì #Γ P N̂ Pì #
ì ì
c # 5·2A3 # =1 # # ΛA
A ¼ A A A 3
cot i ¼ cot i
Γ O PìPì
ì
#Γ P OìPì # #
ì
A ¼ A
• The Ricci tensor
57 ^ 5^ 7 5^ 5 2 5^
}LêLê ö ¼ 7 m ¼ n # m ¼ n m ¼ n ¼ ¼ ÷ c Ñ7.N
ñ
5A 5A 5A 5A A 5A
(10.24)
57 ^ 5^ 7 2 5^
ö ¼ 7 2 m ¼ n ¼ ¼ ÷ c 7[N
ñ
5A 5A A 5A
#1 5·2A3 1 5 7 ·2A3 1 5·2A3 2 1 5·2A3
7 7
ø 7 2 ù ·2A3
2· 2A3 5A 2·2A3 5A 7 2·2A3 5A A 2·2A3 5A
1 57 ·2A3 2 1 5·2A3
ö ÷ ·2A3
2·2A3 5A 7 A 2·2A3 5A
1 2 5·2A3 2 1 5·2A3
ø Ö# ΛA× ù ·2A3 #Λ
2·2A3 A 5A A 2·2A3 5A
57 ^ 5^ 7 5^ 5 2 5
}N̂ N̂ # ö ¼ 7 m ¼ n # m ¼ n m ¼ n # ¼ ¼ ÷ c Ñ7.N #}LêLê Λ
ñ
5A 5A 5A 5A A 5A
(10.25)
1 5^ 1 5 Ñ7.Nñ 1 # c Ñ7.N 2 5^ Ñ7.Nñ 1 # c Ñ7.N

ñ ñ
}OìOì }PìPì # ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ c # ¼ ¼c
A 5A A 5A Aè7 A 5A A¼7
(10.26)
2 1 5·2A3 1 # ·2A3 1 5·2A3 1 # ·2A3
# ·2A3 #
A 2·2A3 5A A 7 A 5A A7
1 1 1 # ·2A3 1 1 # ·2A3
# # 2·2A3 ΛA 7 # 13 7 2·2A3 ΛA 7 # 13
A A A 7 A A7
Λ
Alternatively we could use the formula calculated earlier on page 138: }9: b9: Λ valid in vacuum systems
with a cosmological constant and positive signature, from which we immediately can see that #}LêLê
}N̂ N̂ }OìOì }PìPì Λ
10.9.2 88The
general Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: The Ricci
scalar
56 7 c 7[2N3 5B 7 # c 7.2N3 5A 7 # A 7 25i 7 sin7 i 5a 7 3

The metric
cosmological constant Ω89:

In this case we can write the Einstein equation in the local frame (non-coordinate basis) – we name the
If you compare this to quiz 10-3 and 10-4 page 231-32 you can conclude that Ω #Λ. The reason is that the metric
88
(McMahon, 2006, p. 277), quiz 12-1. And the answer to quiz 12-1 is (c)
in the two cases changes signature, which implies that in the first case } 4Λ, and in the second } 4Ω #4Λ. You
89
might also check the proofs on page 138.
1
0 }9: # b 9: } b 9: Ω
2
1
(6.6)
0 b }9: # b 9: b9: } b 9: b9: Ω

:
9
2
1
} # 4} 4Ω
2
¿ } 4Ω
10.9.3 90Thegeneral Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: Integration

constants
2A3 ln y # ^2A3
We know that
è2A3 #^ ¼ 2A3
1
c Ñ7.2N3 7 c 7[2N3
y
and
Ac 7[2N3 c 2A^ ¼ 2A3c 7[2N3

¼ 7[2N3
We also need to find
¼
1
^ ¼ 2A3 Ac
7[2N3
¿ #
2Ac 7[2N3 2A
As in quiz 12-1 we use the Einstein equation in the non-coordinate basis, but this time for the coordinate i
1
0 }OìOì # b OìOì } b OìOì Ω
2
1
(6.6)
}OìOì } # Ω
2
1
}OìOì 4Ω # Ω
2
}OìOì Ω
¿ }OìOì #Ω
^¼ ¼ 1 # c Ñ7.2N3
Earlier (p.211) we calculated the Ricci tensor:
#Ω # c Ñ7.2N3 c Ñ7.2N3
A A A7
^ ¼
1 c 7[2N3
#2 7 c 7[2N3 7 # 7 7
y A A y A
¼
Ac 7[2N3 1 c 7[2N3 1 c 7[2N3
#2 Ö # × 7 7# 7 7
2Ac 7[2N3 2A y A A y A
82A3 Ac 7[2N3
Renaming
8¼ 2A3 1 82A3 1 82A3

#Ω # # #
82A3 A y 7 A 7 A 7 y 7 A {
¿ y 7 y 7 ΩA 7 8¼ 2A3
82A3 Ac 7[2N3
We guess the solution (polynomials with exponents higher than 3 cannot contribute):
à üA ÎA 7 ýA {
¼ 2A3
8 ü 2ÎA 3ýA 7
y y ΩA ü 2ÎA 3ýA 7
7 7 7
Now comparing the coefficients we find
(McMahon, 2006, p. 277), quiz 12-2 and 12-3. The answers to quiz 12-2 is: Ac 7[2N3 à üA y 7 ΩA { and quiz 12-
C
{
90
3 is ü y 7 .
ü y7
Î 0
1
ý y 7Ω
3
1
and we can conclude that
Ac 7[2N3 à y 7 A y 7 ΩA {
3
à 1
c 7[2N3 y 7 y 7 ΩA 7
A 3
56 7 c 7[2N3 5B 7 # c 7.2N3 5A 7 # A 7 5i 7 # A 7 sin7 i 5a 7

and the line element
à 1 7 7 à 1 7 7 ÑC 7
becomes
56 7 m y 7
y Ω A n 5B 7
# m y 7
y ΩA n 5A # A 7 5i 7
A 3 A 3
# A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
If y 1 and Ω 0 this should be identical to the ordinary Schwarzschild vacuum metric, which means
7
that à has to be equal to: à #2@
10.9.4 91Thegeneral Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: The spatial
part of the line element.
56 7 c 7[2N3 5B 7 # c 7.2N3 5A 7 # A 7 5i 7 # A 7 sin7 i 5a 7

The line element
56 7 5B 7 # 7 2B35\ 7
can in Gaussian normal coordinates be written as
5\ 7 8ºÕ 5;º 5;Õ

In this case we want to find the spatial part of the line element
and to do that we will use the method outlined on page 260, where the metric is found from the Ricci-
}ºÕ 2k8ÕÌ
tensor:
1
¿ 8ºÕ }
2k ºÕ
1
8NN }
2k NN
1 7
ΛN̂ N }N̂ N̂
2k
1
c .2N3 2#Ω3
7

2k
Ω 7.2N3
# c
2k
1
In the former quiz we found that
c Ñ7.2N3 7 c 7[2N3
y
1 1 1
7 m#2@ y 7 A y 7 ΩA { n
y A 3
2@ 1 7
1 # 7 ΩA
y A 3
Ω 1
8NN # 2k 2@ 1
1 # 7 3 ΩA 7
y A
91
(McMahon, 2006, p. 277), quiz 12-4
1
8OO }
2k OO
1 7
JΛO O Q }OìOì
ì
2k
1
2A37 2#Ω3
2k
Ω 7
# A
2k
1
8PP }
2k PP
1 ì 7
JΛ P Q }PìPì
P
2k
1
2A sin i37 2#Ω3
2k
Ω 7 7
# A sin i
2k
Ω 5A 7 Ω 7 7 Ω 7 7
5\ # # A 5i # A sin i 5a 7
2@ 1
7
2k 1 # ΩA 7 2k 2k
y7A 3
where we can omit the common factor # and finally get if we choose y 1
Ω
7>
5A 7
7 A 7 5i 7 A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
5\ 2@ 1 7
1 # A 3 ΩA
10.9.5 NEW - 92The effect of the cosmological constant over the scale of the solar system
element of a radially moving (i.e. 5a 0, 5i 03 light ray 256 7 03 in the solar system with a sun mass
To check the effect of the cosmological constant over the scale of the solar system we will look at the line
@ 0 in a universe with a cosmological constant Λ proportional to the size of the Universe.
1 5A 7
The line element:
7 93 m1 ΛA 7 n 5B 7 #
56 3 1
1 3 ΛA 7
5A
5B 23 1
1 3 ΛA 7
ÈÂ
5A
; 5B 6
1
È7 1 ΛA 7
3
3 ÈÂ 5A
6
Λ È7 3 A 7
Λ
ÈÂ
3 Λ 3
94 ? = tanÑC ÜA= Ý@
Λ 3 Λ
È7
3 3
= tanÑC 2}7 # }C 3=
Λ Λ
Notice: If we set Λ 0 we get the usual Minkowski line element.

92
(McMahon, 2006, p. 277), Quiz 12-5, answer (c)
93
; Â Â tanÑC (Spiegel, 1990) eq.( 14.162)

K C
9 = 9 9
94
1 0 Ù· 2}7 # }C 3 2 Λ
So the effect of the cosmological constant on a small scale is negligible.
2@
10.10 95The Petrov type of the Schwarzschild spacetime
¬1 #
ª A ª̄
ª 1 ª
89: #
2@
« J1 # Q ®
A
ª
ª #A 7 ª
ª
© 7
#A sin i
7
1
¬
2@
ªJ1 # A Q ª̄
ª ª
ª 2@ ª
# m1 # n
8 9: A
« 1 ®
• and its inverse:
ª # ª
ª A7 ª
ª 1 ª
© # 7 7
A sin i
1
2@ éLê
é =1 # 5B 5B
E1 # 2@
Lê
A A
1 1
5A 2@ N̂
éN̂ 2@ 5A =1 # é ¦ #1 §
E1 # A b ºÕ
A #1
1 ì #1
éO
ì
A5i 5i éO
A
1
éP
ì
A sin i 5a 5a éP
ì
A sin i
Now we can use the basis one-forms to construct a orthonormal null tetrad (9.10)
95
(McMahon, 2006, p. 232), quiz 10-5
2@ 1
5A"=1 # 5B
A
A B E1 # 2@
e 1 1 0 0 éLê éLê éN̂ A
A B
V 1 1 #1 0 0 éN̂ " 1 éLê # éN̂ " 1
A B
A ì ìB 2@ 1
@ √2 0 0 1 Ù éO √2 éO Ùé P √2 A=1 # 5B # 5AB
ì
A

@ 0 0 1 #Ù é Pì !
é # Ùé !
A E1 # 2@ B
ì
O ì
P
A A B
A5i ÙA sin i 5a
A5i # ÙA sin i 5a !
1 2@ 1 1 2@ 1
e9 =1 # A , , 0, 0 V9 =1 # A , # , 0, 0
√2 E1 # 2@ √2 E1 # 2@
A A
1 1
@9 20, 0, A, ÙA sin i3 @9
#### 20, 0, A, #ÙA sin i3
√2 √2
1 1 2@ 1 1
eL 8LL eL =1 #
2@ √2 A
E1 # 2@
J1 # A Q √2
A
2@ 1 1 1 2@
eN 8NN eN # m1 # n # =1 #
A √2 A
E1 # 2@
√2
A
eO eP 0
1 1 2@ 1 1
VL 8LL VL =1 #
2@ A
J1 # A Q √2 E1 # 2@
√2
A
2@ 1 1 1 2@
VN 8NN VN # m1 # n # " =1 #
A √2 A
E1 # 2@
√2
A !
VO VP 0
@L @N 0
1 1 1 1
@O 8OO @O m# n A #
A 7 √2 √2 A
1 1 1 1
@P 8PP @P # 7 7 ÙA sin i #Ù
A sin i √2 √2 A sin i
1 2@ 1 1 1 2@
e9 =1 # A , , 0, 0 e9 , #=1 #
A
, 0, 0
√2 E1 # 2@ √2 E1 # 2@
A A
1 2@ 1 1 1 2@
V9 =1 # A , # , 0, 0 V9 , =1 #
A
, 0, 0
√2 E1 # 2@ √2 E1 # 2@
A A
1 1 1 1
@9 20, 0, A, ÙA sin i3 @9 m0, 0, # , #Ù n
√2 √2 A A sin i
1 1 1 1
@9
#### 20, 0, A, #ÙA sin i3 @
9 m0, 0, # , Ù n
√2 √2 A A sin i
1
#F: V9 @
9 e: þ F: e9 @9 e: $ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @
9 e:
2
1
^ #F: V9 @
9 V: < F: e9 @9 V: % F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
2
1
#F: V9 @
9@
: F: e9 @9 @
: D F: e9 V @
9 :
# F: @9 @ @
9 :
(9.15)
2
1
] #F: V9 @
9 @: \ F: e9 @9 @: ³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
#F: V9 @ 9 e:
#FL V9 @ 9 e L # FN V9 @ 9 eN
#FL VO @ O e L # FN VO @ O e N # FL VP @
P e L # FN VP @ P eN
#2WL VO # Γ pLO Vp 3@ O e L # 2WN VO # Γ pNO Vp 3@ O e N # WL VP # Γ pLP Vp @
P e L # WN VP # Γ pNP Vp @
P eN
0
^ #F: V9 @ 9 V:
0
#F: V9 @ 9@ :
#FO V9 @ @ # FP V9 @
9 O
9@P
#FO VO @ O@ O # FP VO @ O@ P # FO VP @ P@ O # FP VP @ P@
P
#2WO VO # Γ pOO Vp 3@ O@ O # WP VO # Γ pPO Vp @ O@ P # WO VP # Γ pOP Vp @ P@
O
# WP VP # Γ PP Vp @
p
P@ P
Γ OO VN @
N
O@ O Γ PP VN @
N
P@ P
7 7
1 1 1 1
#2A # 2@3VN Ö m# n× # 2A # 2@3 sin7 i VN Ö mÙ n×
√2 A √2 A sin i
0
] #F: V9 @ 9 @:
0
þ F: e9 @9 e:
FL e9 @9 e L FN e9 @9 e N
FL eO @O e L FN eO @O e N FL eP @P e L FN eP @P e N
2WL eO # Γ pLO ep 3@O e L 2WN eO # Γ pNO ep 3@O e N WL eP # Γ pLP ep @P e L WN eP # Γ pNP ep @P e N
0
< F: e9 @9 V:
0
F: e9 @9 @:
FO e9 @9 @ O FP e9 @9 @ P
FO eO @ @
O O
FP eO @ @ O P
FO eP @P @ O FP eP @P @ P
2WO eO # Γ pOO ep 3@O @

O WP eO # Γ pPO ep @O @
P WO eP # Γ pOP ep @P @
O
WP eP # Γ PP ep @P @
p
P
#Γ OO eN @ @
N
# Γ PP eN @ @
O O N

P P
7
2@ 1 1 1 1
A m1 # n Ö m# n×
A √2 A
E1 # 2@
√2
A
2@ 1 1 1 1 1 1
A m1 # n sin7 i Ö m#Ù n× m Ù n
A A sin i √2 A sin i
E1 # 2@
√2 √2
A
1 2@ 1
=m1 # n
√2 A A
\ F: e9 @9 @:
#Γ NOO eN @O @O # Γ NPP eN @P @P
0
1
$ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @ 9 e:
2
1 1
2FL e9 V9 e L # FL @9 @ 9 e L 3 2FN e9 V9 e N # FN @9 @ 9 eN 3
2 2
1 1 1
FL eL VL e L # FL @O @ O eL FN eL VL e N # FN @O @ O e N FL eN VN e L # FL @P @ P eL
2 2 2
1
FN eN VN e N # FN @P @ P eN
2
1 1
J2WL eL # Γ pLL ep 3VL e L # 2WL @O # Γ pLO 3@ O e L Q J2WN eL # Γ pNL ep 3VL e N # 2WN @O # Γ pNO 3@ O eN Q
2 2
1
J2WL eN # Γ pLN ep 3VN e L # WL @P # Γ pLP @ P eL Q
2
1
J2WN eN # Γ pNN ep 3VN e N # WN @P # Γ pNP @ P eN Q
2
1 1 1
2#Γ NLL eN 3VL e L J2WN eL # Γ LNL eL 3VL e N # WN @O # Γ ONO @O @ O e N Q 2#Γ LLN eL 3VN e L
2 2 2
1
m2WN eN # Γ NNN eN 3VN e N # JWN @P # Γ NP @P Q @ P eN n
P
2
1 1 1 2@ 1 1
2#Γ NLL eN 3 Ü#2WN eL # Γ LNL eL 3 # WN @O # Γ ONO @O =1 # Ý 2#Γ LLN eL 3
4 2@ 4 A A 4
1# A
1 2@ 2@ Ù
Ü#2WN eN # Γ NNN eN 3 m1 # n JWN @P # Γ NP @P Q =1 # Ý
P
4 A A A sin i
1 @ 2@ 1 1 "
# m1 # n "
A A7 A 2@B
E1 # 2@ 1 # A
Ø
27
A !
!
1 2@ @ 1 2@ 1 2@ 1
Ø Ü# ÜWN Ü
=1 # Ý# 7 =1 # Ý # mWN 2A3 # An =1 # Ý
A A 1# 2@ A A A A
27 A
1 @ 1 2@
Ø Ü# A 7
=1 # Ý
2@ A
27 1# A
1 1 @ 1 1 2@
# WA " " m1 # n
5
2@ A2 1 # 2@ 2@ A
22 E A E1 # A !
1# A !
1 2@ Ù
mWA 2ÙA sin i3 # ÙA sin in =1 #
A A A sin i
1 @ 1 1 @ 1 @ 1 " 1 @ 1
# " " "
A7 Ø A# A7
#
A7 B Ø # A7
E1 # 2@ E1 # 2@ 2@ 2@
Ø
27 27 E1 # 2 7 E1 #
A ! A A !! A !

1 @ 1 @ 1 " 2@ "
ØAA# A# A 7 { B m1 # nB
{ A7 A B
2 2@ 7 2@ 7
J1 # A Q J1 # A Q
7
!!
1 @ 1
# { 7
A
27 E1 # 2@
A
1
% F: e9 V V # F: @9 @
9 :
9 V:
2
1 1
2FL e9 V9 VL # FL @9 @ 9 VL 3 2FN e9 V9 VN # FN @9 @ 9 VN 3
2 2
1 1 1 1
2FL eL VL VL 3 2FN eL VL VN 3 2FL eN VN VL 3 2FN eN VN VN 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
2WL eL # Γ LL ep 3V V 2WN eL # Γ NL ep 3V V 2WL eN # Γ pLN ep 3VN VL 2WN eN # Γ pNN ep 3VN VN
p L L p L N
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
2#Γ LL eN 3V V 2WN eL # Γ NL eL 3V V 2#Γ LN eL 3V V 2WN eN # Γ NNN eN 3VN VN
N L L L L N L N L
2 2 2 2
1 N 1 1 1 N
# Γ LL eN 2V 3 WN eL V V # Γ NL eL V V WN eN 2V 3 # Γ NN eN 2VN 37
L 7 L N L L N N 7
2 2 2 2
1 1 @ 1 1 @ 1 1 @ 1 1 @ 1 1 @
# Ø # #
A7 A7 A7 A7 A7
27 E1 # 2@ 27 E1 # 2@ 27 E1 # 2@ 27 E1 # 2@ 27 E1 # 2@
Ø { Ø Ø
A A A A A
1 1 @
# {
A7
27 E1 # 2@
A
1
D F: e9 V9 @ : # F: @9 @ 9@ :
2
1 1
FO e9 V9 @ O # FO @9 @ 9@ O FP e9 V9 @ P # FP @9 @ 9@
P
2 2
1 1 1
FO eL VL @
O # FO @O @ O@ O FP eL VL @
P # FP @O @ O@ P FO eN VN @
O # FO @P @
P@
O
2 2 2
1
FP eN VN @ P # FP @P @ P@ P
2
1
J2WO eL # Γ pOL ep 3VL @
O # 2WO @O # Γ p OO @p 3@ O@ OQ
2
1
JWP eL # Γ pPL ep VL @
P # WP @O # Γ p PO @p @ O@ PQ
2
1
J2WO eN # Γ pON ep 3VN @
O # WO @P # Γ p OP @p @ P@ OQ
2
1
JWP eN # Γ pPN ep VN @ P # WP @P # Γ p PP @p @ P@ PQ
2
1 P 1 1
Γ PO @P @ O@ P J# JWO @P # Γ OP @P Q @ P@ O Q Γ O PP @O @ P@P
P
2 2 2
11 1 1 1 1
Ø cot i #WO 2ÙA sin i3 # cot i 2ÙA sin i3@ P@ O Ø cos i sin i
A 2 A sin7 i
27 27
11
{ cot i
A
27
1
³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
1 P 1 1
Γ PO @P @ O @P J# JWO @P # Γ OP @P Q @ P @O Q Γ O PP @O @ P @P
P
2 2 2
11 1 1 1
# Ø cot i #WO 2ÙA sin i3 # cot i 2ÙA sin i3@ P @O # Ø cot i
A 2 A
27 27
11
# { cot i
A
27
1 @ 1
#
0 þ 0 $ 2@ A
{ 7
1# A 27 E
1 1 @
# {
^ 0 < 0 % A7
27 E1 # 2@
A
1 2@ 1 1 1
0 =m1 # n D { A cot i
√2 A A 27
11
] 0 \ 0 ³ # { A cot i
27
Ψ ý\ # Æþ # \2 ( 3 # \23$ # $(3 þ2 # # D# 3³) (13.22)
ΨC ý³ # Æ$ # \2D 3 # ³2( # $(3 þ2] %3 $2D# # #3

Ψ7 Æ(< # Δ # ]( # \ <³( # D # <( 2% %( 3 þ^ # 2Λ
(13.23)
Ψ{ Æ(% # Δα ^2 $3 # 2< ³3 D2%( # ]( 3 %³( # <(

(13.24)
ΨÏ Æ(^ # Δλ 2] ]( 3 # 23% # %( 3 ^3D ³( # <(

(13.25)
(13.26)
ý e 9 F9 Δ V 9 F9 Æ @ 9 F9 Æ( @ 9 F9
Where
(9.13)
Ψ 0
ΨC ý³ # Æ$ # ³(
e 9 F9 ³ # @9 F9 $ # ³(
e 9 W9 ³ # @9 W9 $ # ³(
1 2@ 1 1 11 1 2@ 1
Ü# =1 # Ý WN Ö# { cot i× # Ö# { cot i× Ü =m1 # n Ý
√2 A A A √2 A A
27 27
1 2@ 1 1
Ü=1 # Ý cot i WN m n 7
4 A A A
0
Ψ7 #Δ 2%
#V9 F9 2%
#V9 W9 2%
1 2@ 1 2@ 1 1 2@ 1 1 1 @
#Ü =1 # Ý WN Ü =m1 # n Ý 2 Ü =m1 # n Ý # { "
√2 A √2 A A √2 A A 2@ A 7
2 7 E1 #
A !
1 2@ @ 1 2@ 1 1@
# Ü =1 # Ý { # =m1 # n 7" # {
2 A A A A 2A
E1 # 2@
A !
1 2@
7# {
2A A
Ψ{ Æ(% # Δα
@ 9 W9 % # V9 W9 α
1 2@ 11
#Ü =1 # Ý WN Ö { cot i×
√2 A A
27
1 2@ 1
96 cot i =1 #
4 A A7
ΨÏ 0
Ψ7 Ú 0: This is a Petrov type D, which means there are two principal null directions. The Petrov type D is
associated with the gravitational field of a star or a black hole. The two principal null directions correspond
to ingoing and outgoing congruence of light rays.
96
This should be 0. However, the result is reproduced in FE-12 concerning the Reissner-Nordström metric.
10.11 97The deflection of a light ray in a Schwarzschild metric with two dif-
ferent masses
2@C 2@7 ÑC 7
The metric
56 7 m1 # n 5B 7 # m1 # n 5A # A 7 5i 7 # A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
A A
2@C 7 2@7 ÑC 7
Copying the method pp 224-229
0 m1 # n Bl # m1 # n Al # A 7 al 7
A A
(10.52’)
2@C 7 7
c 7 98 m1 # n Bl e 7 A Ï a 7l
A
2@C ÑC 7 2@7 ÑC 7 e 7
0 m1 # n c # m1 # n Al # 7
A A A
(10.53’)
A¼e 1 ¼ 1
Al A ¼ al 7 #eI¼ I¼ m n # A ¼
A A A7
if
2@ 2@ ÑC
2@
0 c 7 # m1 # C
n m1 #
7
n e 7 I¼ # m1 #
7
ne I
C 7 7
A A A
21 # 2@C I3 7 ¼ 7
c7 # e I # 21 # 2@C I3e 7 I7
21 # 2@7 I3
Differentiating with respect to A
2@C I¼ 21 # 2@C I3 7 ¼ 7 21 # 2@C I3 7
e 7 I¼ # 2@7 I¼ e I # 2I¼ I¼¼ e 2@C I¼ e 7 I7
7
0 21 # 2@7 I3 21 # 2@7 I3 7 21 # 2@7 I3
# 2I¼ I21 # 2@C I3e 7
2@C 21 # 2@C I3 ¼ 7 21 # 2@CI3
I¼ e 7 Ö I¼ # 2@7 I # 2I¼¼ 2@C I7 # 2I21 # 2@C I3×
7
21 # 2@7 I3 21 # 2@7 I3 7 21 # 2@7I3
@C 21 # 2@7 I3I¼ # @7 21 # 2@C I3I¼ # 21 # 2@C I321 # 2@7 I3I¼¼ @C 21 # 2@7 I37 I7
7 7
0
# 21 # 2@C I321 # 2@7 I37 I
2@C # @7 3I # 21 # 2@C I321 # 2@7 I3I¼¼ @C 21 # 2@7 I37I7 # 21 # 2@C I321 # 2@7 I37I
¼ 7
2@C # @7 3I¼ # 21 # 2@C I321 # 2@7 I3I¼¼ 23@C I # 1321 # 2@7 I37 I
7
In the limit where @I N 1 0

d
0 2@C # @7 3I¼ 7 # I¼¼ I

From which we can conclude, that the deflection is somehow dependent on 2@C # @7 3
10.12 99The non-zero Weyl scalars of the Reissner-Nordström spacetime
corresponds to the gravitational field of a charged non-rotating, spherically symmetric of mass @101.
The Reissner-Nordström spacetime is a static solution to the Einstein-Maxwell field equations100, which
2@ c 7 2@ c 7
ÑC
56 7 1 # 7 5B 7 # 1 # 7 5A 7 # A 7 5i 7 # A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
A A A A
The metric:
97
(McMahon, 2006, p. 326) final exam 13
(McMahon, 2006, p. 325), final exam 12, If c 7 0 the results from Quiz 10-5 are reproduced
98
Killing vectors p.220
99
100
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein-Maxwell_equations#Einstein.E2.80.93Maxwell_equations
101
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reissner%E2%80%93Nordstr%C3%B6m_metric
2@ c 7
¬1 # 7
ª A A ª̄
ª ª
89: 2@ c 7 ÑC
« # 1 # 7 ®
The metric
A A
ª ª
tensor:
ª #A 7 ª
© #A 7 sin7 i
¬1 # 2@ c
7 ÑC
ª A A7 ª̄
ª ª
ª 2@ c 7
ª
# 1 # 7
8 9: A A
« ®
and its in-
1
ª # ª
verse:
ª A7 ª
ª 1 ª
© # 7 7
A sin i
• The Christoffel symbols
5 Wã Wã
To find the geodesic we use the Euler-Lagrange equation
0 m 9n # 9
56 W;l W;
(10.36)
2@ c 7 7 2@ c 7
ÑC
where
ã 1 # 7 Bl # 1 # 7 Al 7 # A 7 il 7 # A 7 sin7 i al 7
A A A A
; 9 B:
Wã
0
WB
Wã 2@ c 7
2 1 # 7 Bl
WBl A A
5 Wã @A # c 7
2@ c 7
m n 4 Al Bl 2 1 # 7 B
56 WBl A{ A A
@A # c 7
2@ c 7
0 4 Al B l 2 1 # 7 B
A{ A A
2@ c 7 ÑC
@A # c 7
¿ 0 B 2 1 # 7 Al Bl
A A A{
; 9 A:
Wã 2@ 2c 7 7 2@ c 7 2@ 2c 7 7
Ñ7
7 # { B 1 #l 7 7 # { Al # 2Ail 7 # 2A sin7 i al 7
WA A A A A A A
@A # c 7 7 2@ c 7 @A # c 7 7
Ñ7
2 Bl 2 1 # 7 Al # 2Ail 7 # 2A sin7 i al 7
A{ A A A{
Wã 2@ c 7 ÑC
#2 1 # 7 Al
WAl A A
5 Wã 2@ c 7 2@ c 7 2@ 2c 7 7
ÑC Ñ7
m n #2 1 # 7 A 2 1 # 7 # { Al
56 WAl A A A A A7 A
2@ c 7 2@ c 7 @A # c 7 7
ÑC Ñ7
#2 1 # 7 A 4 1 # 7 Al
A A A A A{
2@ c 7 2@ c 7 @A # c 7 7 @A # c 7 7
ÑC Ñ7
#2 1 # 7 A 4 1 # 7 Al # 2 Bl
A A A A A{ A{
0
2@ c 7 @A # c 7 7
Ñ7
# 2 1 # 7 Al 2Ail 7 2A sin7 i al 7
A A A{
2@ c 7 2@ c 7 @A # c 7 7 @A # c 7 7
ÑC Ñ7
#2 1 # 7 A 2 1 # 7 Al # 2 Bl 2Ail 7
A A A A A{ A{
2A sin7 i al 7
2@ c 7 @A # c 7 7 2@ c 7 @A # c 7 7
ÑC
A # 1 # 7 Al 1 # 7 Bl
A A A{ A A A{
¿ 0
2@ c 7 7 2@ c 7
# A 1 # l
7 i # A 1 # 7 sin7 i al 7
A A A A
; 9 i:
Wã
#2A 7 cos i sin i al 7
Wi
Wã
#2A 7 il
Wil
5 Wã
m n #4AAl il # 2A 7 i
56 Wil
0 #4AAl il # 2A 7 i 2A 7 cos i sin i al 7
2
A
(10.39)
; 9 a:
Wã
0
Wa
Wã
#2A 7 sin7 i al
Wal
5 Wã
56 Wal
0 #4A sin7 i Al al # 4A 7 cos i sin i il al # 2A 7 sin7 i a
2
A
(10.40)
•
2@ c 7 @A # c 7
ÑC
0 B 2 1 # 7 Al Bl
A A A{
2@ c 7 @A # c 7 7 2@ c 7 @A # c 7 7 2@ c 7 7
ÑC
A # 1 # 7 Al 1 # Bl # A 1 # 7 il
A A A{ A A7 A{ A A
0
2@ c 7
# A 1 # 7 sin7 i al 7
A A
2
0 i Al il # cos i sin i al 7
A
2
0 a Al al 2 cot i il al

A
•
2@ c 7 @A # c 7
ÑC
We can now find the Christoffel symbols:
Γ LNL 1 # 7
A A A{
2@ c 7 @A # c 7
ÑC
Γ NNN # 1 # 7
A A A{
2@ c 7 @A # c 7
Γ NLL 1 # 7
A A A{
2@ c 7
Γ N OO #A 1 # 7
A A
2@ c 7
Γ N PP #A 1 # 7 sin7 i
A A
1
Γ ONO
A
Γ O PP # cos i sin i
1
Γ
P
NP
A
Γ cot i
P
OP
C C
2@ c 7 7 5B 1 # 2@ c
7 Ñ
7
é Lê
1 # 7 5B éLê
A A A A7
C C 1
2@ c 7 5A 1 # 2@ c éN̂
Ñ 7 7
7
é N̂
1 # 7 5A #1
A A A A7 b ºÕ ¦ §
#1
1 #1
éO
ì
A5i 5i éOì
A
1
éP
ì
A sin i 5a 5a éP
ì
A sin i
C C
2@ c 7 7 2@ c 7
Ñ
7
1 #
" 7 5B 1 # 7 5A
e 1 1 0 0 éLê éLê é N̂ A A A A
A B
V 1 1 #1 0 0 éN̂ " 1 éLê # é N̂ " 1
A B
C C
2@ c 7 7
2@ c 7 Ñ7
@ √2 0 0 1 Ù éO
ì
√2 é O Ùé P
ì ì
√2 A1 # 7 5B # 1 # 7 5AB
A A A A

@ 0 0 1 #Ù é Pì ! é Oì # Ùé Pì ! A B
A5i ÙA sin i 5a
A5i # ÙA sin i 5a !
C C
1
Ö1 # 2@ c , 1 # 2@ c
7 7 7 Ñ
0×
7
e9 , 0,
√2 A A7 A A7
C C
1
Ö1 # 2@ c , # 1 # 2@ c
7 7 7 Ñ
V9 , 0, 0×
7
√2 A A7 A A7
1
@9 20, 0, A, ÙA sin i3
√2
1
@9
#### 20, 0, A, #ÙA sin i3
√2
C C
2@ c 7 1 2@ c 7 7 1 2@ c 7
ÑC Ñ
7
e L
8LL eL 1 # 7 1 # 7 1 # 7
A A √2 A A √2 A A
C C
2@ c 7 1 2@ c 7 1
2@ c 7 7
Ñ
7
e N
8 eN # 1 #
NN
7 1 # 7 # 1 # 7
A A √2 A A √2 A A
eO e 0
P
C C
2@ c 7 1 2@ c 7 7 1 2@ c 7
ÑC Ñ
7
V L
8LL VL 1 # 7 1 # 7 1 # 7
A A √2 A A √2 A A
C C
2@ c 7 1 2@ c 7 7 1 2@ c 7 7
Ñ
V N
8 VN # 1 #
NN
7 Ü# 1 # 7 Ý 1 # 7
A A √2 A A √2 A A
VO VP 0
@L @N 0
1 1 1 1
@O 8OO @O m# n A#
A √2
7
√2 A
1 1 1 1
@P 8PP @P # 7 7 ÙA sin i #Ù
A sin i √2 √2 A sin i

1 1
C C C C
Ö1 # 2@ c , 2@ c 7 Ö1 # 2@ c 2@ c 7 7
7 7 Ñ 7 Ñ
e9 , 0, 0× e 0, 0×
7 7
1 # 7 , # 1 # 7 ,
9
√2 A A7 A A √2 A A7 A A
1 1
C C C C
Ö1 # 2@ c , 2@ c 7 Ö1 # 2@ c 2@ c 7 7
7 7 Ñ 7 Ñ7
V9 0, 0× V9 7 , 0, 0×
7
# 1 # 7 , , 1 #
√2 A A7 A A √2 A A7 A A
1 1 1 1
@9 20, 0, A, ÙA sin i3 @9 m0, 0, # , #Ù n
√2 √2 A A sin i
1 1 1 1
@9
#### 20, 0, A, #ÙA sin i3 @
9 m0, 0, # , Ù n
√2 √2 A A sin i
1
#F: V9 @
9 e: þ F: e9 @9 e: $ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @
9 e:
2
1
^ #F: V9 @
V 9 : < F: e9 @ V 9 : % F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
(9.15)
2
1
#F: V9 @
9@
: F: e9 @9 @
: D F: e9 V9 @
: # F: @9 @
9@ :
2
1
] #F: V9 @
9 @: \ F: e9 @9 @: ³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
#F: V9 @ 9 e:
#FL V9 @ 9 e L # FN V9 @
9 eN
#FL VO @ e # FN VO @
O L
O e N # FL VP @
P e L # FN VP @ P eN
#2WL VO # Γ pLO Vp 3@ O e L # 2WN VO # Γ pNO Vp 3@ O e N # WL VP # Γ pLP Vp @
P e L # WN VP # Γ pNP Vp @
P eN
0
^ #F: V9 @ 9 V: 0
#F: V9 @ 9@ :
#FO V9 @ @
9 O
# FP V9 @ 9@P
#FO VO @ O@ O # FP VO @ O@ P # FO VP @ P@ O # FP VP @ P@
P
#2WO VO # Γ pOO Vp 3@ O@ O # WP VO # Γ pPO Vp @ O@ P # WO VP # Γ pOP Vp @ P@
O
# WP VP # Γ pPP Vp @ P@ P
Γ NOO VN @
O@ O Γ NPP VN @ P@P
7 7
2@ c 7 1 1 2@ c 7 1 1
#A 1 # 7 VN Ö m# n× # A 1 # 7 sin7 i VN Ö mÙ n×
A A √2 A A A √2 A sin i
0
] #F: V9 @ 9 @:
0
þ F: e9 @9 e:
FL e9 @9 e L FN e9 @9 e N
FL eO @O e L FN eO @O e N FL eP @P e L FN eP @P e N
2WL eO # Γ pLO ep 3@O e L 2WN eO # Γ pNO ep 3@O e N WL eP # Γ pLP ep @P e L WN eP # Γ pNP ep @P e N
0
< F: e9 @9 V:
0
F: e9 @9 @:
FO e9 @9 @ O FP e9 @9 @ P
FO eO @O @ O FP eO @O @ P FO eP @P @ O FP eP @P @ P
2WO eO # Γ OO ep 3@ @
p O
WP eO # Γ PO ep @ @
O p O
WO eP # Γ pOP ep @P @
P
O
WP eP # Γ pPP ep @P @ P
#Γ NOO eN @O @ O # Γ NPP eN @P @ P
C 7
2@ c 7 1 2@ c 7 1 1
Ñ
7
A 1 # 7 1 # 7 Ö m# n×
A A √2 A A √2 A
C
2@ c 7 1 2@ c 7 1 1 1 1
Ñ
7
A 1 # 7 sin7 i 1 # 7 Ö m#Ù n× m Ù n
A A √2 A A √2 A sin i √2 A sin i
C
1 2@ c7 7 1
1 # 7
√2 A A A
\ F: e9 @9 @:

#Γ NOO eN @O @O # Γ NPP eN @P @P
0
1
$ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @ 9 e:
2
1 1
2FL e9 V9 e L # FL @9 @ 9 e L 3 2FN e9 V9 e N # FN @9 @ 9 eN 3
2 2
1 1 1
FL eL VL e L # FL @O @ O eL FN eL VL e N # FN @O @ O e N FL eN VN e L # FL @P @ P eL
2 2 2
1
FN eN VN e N # FN @P @ P eN
2
1 1
J2WL eL # Γ pLL ep 3VL e L # 2WL @O # Γ pLO 3@ O e L Q J2WN eL # Γ pNL ep 3VL e N # 2WN @O # Γ pNO 3@ O eN Q
2 2
1
J2WL eN # Γ pLN ep 3VN e L # WL @P # Γ pLP @ P eL Q
2
1
J2WN eN # Γ pNN ep 3VN e N # WN @P # Γ pNP @ P eN Q
2
1 1 1
2#Γ NLL eN 3VL e L J2WN eL # Γ LNL eL 3VL e N # WN @O # Γ ONO @O @ O e N Q 2#Γ LLN eL 3VN e L
2 2 2
1
m2WN eN # Γ NNN eN 3VN e N # JWN @P # Γ NP @P Q @ P eN n
P
2
C
1 1 1 2@ c 7 7 1
2#Γ NLL eN 3VL e L Ü WN 1 # 7 # Γ LNL eL Ý VL e N # m WN 2A3 # Γ ONO @O n @
O eN
2 2 √2 A A √2
1
2#Γ LLN eL 3VN e L
2
C
1 1 2@ c 7 1
Ñ
7
Ü WN 1 # 7 # Γ NNN eN Ý VN e N # m WN 2ÙA sin i3 # Γ NP @P n @
P eN
P
2 √2 A A √2
1
2#Γ NLL eN 3VL e L
2
C
1 1 2@ 2c 7 1 2@ c 7 1
Ñ
7
Ü 7 # { 1 # 7 O eN
# Γ LNL eL Ý VL e N # m # Γ ONO @O n @
2 √2 A A 2 A A √2
1
2#Γ LLN eL 3VN e L
2
{
1 1 2@ 2c 7 1 2@ c 7
Ñ
7
Ü 7 # { m# n 1 # 7 # Γ NNN eN Ý VN e N
2 √2 A A 2 A A
1
P eN
# m 2Ù sin i3 # Γ NP @P n @
P
√2

1
2#Γ NLL eN 3VL e L
2
C
1 1 @A # c 7 2@ c 7
Ñ
7
Ü 1 # 7
2 √2 A{ A A
C
2@ c 7 @A # c 7 1 2@ c 7 7 × L N 1 1 1
ÑC
# 1 # 7 1 # V e # m # O eN
An @
A A A{ √2 A A7 √2 A √2
1
2#Γ LLN eL 3VN e L
2
{
1 1 @A # c 7 2@ c 7
Ñ
7
Ü# 1 # 7
2 √2 A{ A A
C
2@ c 7 @A # c 7 1 2@ c 7 7 × N N
ÑC Ñ
1 # 7 1 # 7 V e
A A A{ √2 A A
1 1 1
# m 2Ù sin i3 # P eN
ÙA sin in @
√2 A √2
1 1
2#Γ NLL eN 3VL e L 2#Γ LLN eL 3VN e L
2 2
1 N
# 2Γ LL eN VL Γ LLN eL VN 3e L
2
C C
1 2@ c 7 @A # c 7 1 2@ c 7 1 2@ c 7
Ñ Ñ
7 7
# 1 # 7 1 # 7 1 # 7
2 A A A{ √2 A A √2 A A
C C
2@ c 7 @A # c 7 1 2@ c 7 7 1 2@ c 7 7 Ý L
ÑC
1 # 7 1 # 1 # 7 e
A A A{ √2 A A 7 √2 A A
C
1 @A # c 7 1 2@ c 7
Ñ
7
# 1 # 7
2 A{ √2 A A
C
1 @A # c 7 2@ c 7
Ñ
7
# { 1 # 7
A{ A A
2 7
1
% F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
2
1
# 2Γ NLL eN VL Γ LLN eL VN 3VL
2
C
1 @A # c 7 2@ c 7 7
Ñ
# { 1 # 7
A { A A
27
1
D : # F: @9 @
F: e9 V9 @ 9@
:
2
1 1
O # FO @9 @
FO e9 V9 @ 9@
O FP e9 V9 @
P # FP @9 @
9@
P
2 2

1 1 1
FO eL VL @
O # FO @O @ O@ O FP eL VL @ P # FP @O @ O@ P FO eN VN @
O # FO @P @
P@
O
2 2 2
1
FP eN VN @ P # FP @P @ P@ P
2
1
J2WO eL # Γ pOL ep 3VL @ O # 2WO @O # Γ p OO @p 3@ O@ OQ
2
1
JWP eL # Γ pPL ep VL @ P # WP @O # Γ p PO @p @ O@ PQ
2
1
J2WO eN # Γ pON ep 3VN @ O # WO @P # Γ p OP @p @ P@ OQ
2
1
JWP eN # Γ pPN ep VN @ P # WP @P # Γ p PP @p @ P@ PQ
2
1 P
JΓ PO @P @ O@ P # JWO @P # Γ OP @P Q @ P@ O Γ OPP @O @ P@ PQ
P
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
mcot i ÙA sin i m# n # m WO 2ÙA sin i3 # cot i ÙA sin in @O
2 √2 √2 A √2 √2
1 1 1
# cos i sin i A Ù n@ P
√2 √2 A sin i
1
# Ù cos i @P
2
1 1 1
# Ù cos i Ù
2 √2 A sin i
11
{ cot i
A
27
1
³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
1
# Ù cos i @P
2
1 1 1
# Ù cos i m#Ù n
2 √2 A sin i
11
# { cot i
A
27
C
1 @A # c 7 2@ c 7
Ñ
7
0 þ 0 $ # { 1 # 7
A{ A A
27
C
1 @A # c 7 2@ c 7
Ñ
7
^ 0 < 0 % # { 1 # 7
A{ A A
27
C
11
0 1 2@ c 7 7 1 D { cot i
1 # 7 A
√2 A A A 27
11
] 0 \ 0 ³ # { cot i
A
27

Ψ ý\ # Æþ # \2 ( 3 # \23$ # $(3 þ2 # # D# 3³)

ΨC ý³ # Æ$ # \2D 3 # ³2( # $(3 þ2] %3 $2D# # #3
(13.22)
Ψ7 Æ(< # Δ # ]( # \ <³( # D # <( 2% %( 3 þ^ # 2Λ

(13.23)
Ψ{ Æ(% # Δα ^2 $3 # 2< ³3 D2%( # ]( 3 %³( # <(

(13.24)
ΨÏ Æ(^ # Δλ 2] ]( 3 # 23% # %( 3 ^3D ³( # <(

(13.25)
(13.26)
ý e 9 F9 Δ V 9 F9 Æ @ 9 F9 Æ( @ 9 F9
Where
(9.13)
Ψ 0
ΨC ý³ # Æ$ # ³2( # $(3 $D#
e 9 F9 ³ # @9 F9 $ # ³( ³$( $D#
e L WL ³ e N WN ³ # @O WO $ # @P WP $ # ³(
e N WN ³ # ³(
C C
1 2@ c 7 7 11 1 1 1 2@ c 7 7 1
# 1 # 7 WN Ö# { cot i× # Ö# { cot i× 1 # 7
√2 A A A A √2 A A A
2 7 2 7
C
1 2@ c 7 7 11 1 1
# 1 # 7 WN Ö# { cot i× # Ö# { cot i×
√2 A A A A
27 27
0
Ψ7 #Δ 2% %( 3
#VL ∂L # VN ∂N 2%
#VN ∂N 2%
C
1 2@ c 7 7 1
#V ∂N Ü 1 #
N
7 Ý
√2 A A A
C C
1 2@ c 7 7 1 1 @A # c 7 2@ c 7 7
Ñ
2 Ü 1 # 7 Ý Ü# { 1 # 7 Ý
√2 A A A A { A A
27
C C C
1 2@ c 7 7 1 2@ c 7 7 1 2@ 2c 7 1 2@ c 7 71
Ñ
# 1 # 7 Ü1 # 7 m# 7 n 7 # { 1 # 7 Ý
√2 A A √2 A A A A A 2 A A A
1 1 @A # c 7
# Ö ×
2 A A{
1 2@ c 7 1 2@ 2c 7 1 1 1 1 @A # c 7
# Ö1 # 7 m# 7 n 7 # { × # Ö ×
2 A A A A A 2A 2 A A{
11 1 2@ c 7 @ c7 @A # c 7
# Ö# 7 # { 7 # { ×
2A A A A A A A{
1 2@ 3c 7
7# { Ï
2A A 2A
A 7 # 4A@ 3c 7

2A Ï
Ψ{ Æ(% # Δα D%( %³(
@ 9 W9 % # V9 W9 α
@ O WO % @ P WP % # VL WL α # VN WN α

C
1 2@ c 7 7 11
# Ü 1 # 7 Ý WN Ö { cot i×
√2 A A A
27
C
1 1 2@ c 7 7
cot i 7 1 # 7
4 A A A
ΨÏ 0
11 Black Holes
11.1 102The Path of a Radially Infalling Particle103
2@ 5B 7 2@ ÑC 5A 7 5i 7 5a 7
Particle orbits in the Schwarzschild space time are described by
1 m1 # n m n # m1 # n m n # A 7 m n # A 7 sin7 i m n
A 5< A 5< 5< 5<
(10.44)
where < is the local particle time (proper time) and t can be described as a distant observers (our) time. For
paths along radial lines we can set 5i 5a 0, and rearrange the Schwarzschild line element:
2@ 5B 7 2@ ÑC 5A 7
1 m1 # n m n # m1 # n m n
A 5< A 5<
2@ 2@ 7 5B 7 5A 7
¿ 1# m1 # n m n #m n
A A 5< 5<
On page 220 we investigated the Killing vector ` 21,0,0,03 and found that J1 # N Q KM is a conserved
7d KL
quantity and, since J1 # Q 1 1 ·UA A 1 ∞, J1 # N Q KM must have the overall value 1:

7d KL 7d KL
N KM
2@ 5B 2@ 7 5B 7
1 m1 # nm n 1 m1 # n m n
A 5< A 5<
and from the Schwarzschild line element above we can conclude
2@ 5A 7 5A 2@
m n =
A 5< 5< A
Notice that for 1 ∞: 1, and the particle proper time, <, and the time of the distant observer, B, are
KL
KM
equal. Notice also that for A 1 ∞: 0, which means the velocity of the particle is zero in this limit. Also
KN
KM
has to be negative because 5Adecreases as the particle moves inwards. Next we rearrange
KN
KM
notice that
5B # 1 √A
the two equations into a differential equation:
5A √2@ J1 # 2@Q
A
(i)
We can solve this by integration from A (far out) to A (in the vicinity of 2@), and find the B2A3 which de-
scribes the particles path from our distant point of view, or more popular: what happens to the poor astro-
1 N8
√A
naut as he approaches the black holes event horizon from viewed from our distant position.
B # B 6 5A
√2@ N J1 # 2@Q
A
102
(McMahon, 2006, p. 238)
103
A more thorough review of the physical interpretation of the equations can be found here:
http://physicssusan.mono.net/upl/9129/Radiallyinfallingparticle.pdf

1 A {/7
N8
6 5A
√2@ N 2A # 2@3
N8 2;
1 2@3{/7
6 5; ; A # 2@
√2@ N ;
N8 52;
22; 2@3{/7 2@3
N8
1
Öö ÷ 2@ 6 5; ×
√2@ 3 ;
104
N N
1 22; 2@3{/7 5;
N8 N8
Öö 2@252; 2@3÷ 22@37
6 ×
√2@ 3 N N ; √; 2@
N8
1
22; 2@3{/7 4@7 √; 2@ # √2@
105 ö 4@52; 2@3 ln ÷
√2@ 3 √2@ √; 2@ √2@ N
N8
2A {/7 1 √A # √2@
ö 4@√A 22@3{/7 ln ÷ A ; 2@
√2@ 3 √A √2@ N
N8
2 N8 √A # √2@
ôA {/7
6@√AõN ö2@ ln ÷
3√2@ √A √2@ N
2 5A # √2@ √A √2@
A {/7 # A {/7 6@5A # 6@√A 2@ ln
3√2@ √A √2@ √A # √2@
Ù· A 1 A 1 2@: We set $ 1 # 7d 1 0, $ 1 # 7d 1 0
N8 N
2 { { 5A # √2@ √A √2@

B # B mA 7 # A 7 6@5A # 6@√An 2@ ln
3√2@ √A √2@ √A # √2@
5A # √2@ √A √2@
1 2@ ln
5A √2@ √A # √2@
A A
E #1 E
2@ 2@ 1
2@ ln
A A
E E #1
2@ 1 2@
51 # $ # 1 √1 # $ 1
1 2@ ln
51 # $ 1 √1 # $ # 1
1 1
1 # 2 $ # 1 1 # 2 $ 1
1 2@ ln
1 1
1 # 2 $ 1 1 # 2 $ # 1
1 1
# 2 $ 2 # 2 $
2@ ln
1 1
2 # 2 $ # 2 $
$
1 2@ ln
$
A
1 # 2@
2@ ln A
1 # 2@
2@ # A
2@ ln
2@ # A
5; ; 5; (14.102) (Spiegel, 1990)

29=:3D/Â 729=:3D/Â 29=:32DEÂ3/Â
; É
104
; √9=: √: ln √9=:=√: Ù· F 0 (14.87) (Spiegel, 1990)

105 K C √9=:Ñ√:

1
¿ 2@ # A 10622@ # A 3 exp #2B # B 3
2@
Another way to come around this is to insert $ 1 # 1 0 in the differential equation (i) and solve it.
N
7d
5B # 1 √A
5A √2@ J1 # 2@Q
A
A 1
#E
2@ J1 # 2@Q
A
1
1 #√1 # $
1
1#J Q
1$
1
1 #√1 # $
21
1 # # $3
1
√1 # $
$
1 1
1 m1 # $n
2 $
1
1 ·UA $ 1 0
$
5B 1
A
5A 1 # 2@
N8
1
B # B 6 A 5A
N 1#
2@
CÑ7d8
1
#2@ 6 5; ; 1 # A/2@
CÑ7d ;
#2@ln ;CÑ7d8
CÑ7d
A N8
#2@ òln J1 # Qó
2@ N
A A
#2@ Jln J1 # Q # ln J1 # QQ
2@ 2@
A
J1 # 2@ Q
#2@ ln A
J1 # Q
2@
2A # 2@3
#2@ ln
2A # 2@3
LÑL
A # 2@ 2A # 2@3c Ñ 7d8
The Kruskal coordinates ' F 2,

11.2 107The Schwarzschild metric in Kruskal Coordinates.
NA B
I c Ïd E # 1 cosh
2@ 4@
N A B
¨ c Ïd E # 1 sinh
(11.5)
2@ 4@
where
106
(d'Inverno, 1992, p. 219)
107
(McMahon, 2006, p. 242)

N A
I7 # ¨ 7 c 7d J # 1Q
2@
(11.8)
WI 1 N A B ¨
We calculate
c Ïd E # 1 sinh
WB 4@ 2@ 4@ 4@
W¨ 1 N A B I
c Ïd E # 1 cosh
WB 4@ 2@ 4@ 4@
WI 1 N A B N 1 1 B I 1
c Ïd E # 1 cosh c Ïd cosh Ü Ý
WA 4@ 2@ 4@ 2@ A 4@ 4@ 1 # 2@
2E #1 A
2@
W¨ 1 N A B N 1 1 B ¨ 1
c Ïd E # 1 sinh c Ïd sinh Ü Ý
WA 4@ 2@ 4@ 2@ A 4@ 4@ 1 # 2@
2E2@ # 1 A
WI WI
Now we can use the chain rule
5I 5B 5A
WB WA
W¨ W¨
5¨ 5B 5A
WB WA
WI WI
Written as a matrix
5I 5B
Ò Ó ¦ WB WA § Ò Ó
5¨ W¨ W¨ 5A
WB WA
WI WI ÑC W¨ WI
With the inverse
5B 1 #
Ò Ó 108 ¦ WB WA § Ò5IÓ ¦ WA WA § Ò5IÓ
5A W¨ W¨ 5¨ WI W¨ WI W¨ W¨ WI 5¨
# #
WB WA WB WA WA WB WB WB
¬ ¨ 1 I 1
1 ª Ü Ý # Ü Ýª̄
4@ 1 # 2@ 4@ 1 # 2@ 5I
« A A ® Ò5¨ Ó
¨ 7 1 I 7 1 ª I ¨ ª
J4@Q Ü 2@ Ý # J 4@Q Ü 2@Ý © #
1# A 1# A 4@ 4@
¨ #I
4@ 2@ 2@ Ò5IÓ
7 #I m1 # n ¨ m1 # n 5¨
¨ #I 7
A A
4@
5B 7 2¨5I # I5¨3
¨ # I7
16@7
5B 7 7 2¨ 7 5I7 I7 5¨ 7 # 2I¨5I5¨3
2¨ # I7 37
4@ 2@
5A 7 m1 # n 2#I5I ¨5¨3
¨ #I 7 A
16@ 7
2@ 7 7 7
5A 7 7 m1 # n 2I 5I ¨ 7 5¨ 7 # 2I¨5I5¨3
2¨ # I7 37 A
Next we find
ÑC 5 #
Ò Ó Ò Ó
C
T 5 9KÑ:p #T
108

2@ 2@ 16@7
m1 # n 5B 7 m1 # n 2¨ 7 5I7 I7 5¨ 7 # 2I¨5I5¨ 3
A A 2¨ 7 # I7 37
2@ ÑC 7 2@ 16@7
m1 # n 5A m1 # n 2I7 5I7 ¨ 7 5¨ 7 # 2I¨5I5¨3
A A 2¨ 7 # I7 37
2@ 2@ ÑC 7
Inserting into the Schwarzschild metric
56 7 m1 # n 5B 7 # m1 # n 5A # A 7 25i sin7 i 5a3
A A
2@ 16@7
m1 # n 7 ¨ 7 5I7 I7 5¨ 7 # 2I7 5I7 ¨ 7 5¨ 7 3
A 2¨ # I7 37
#A 7 25i sin7 i 5a3
2@ 16@7
m1 # n 7 25¨ 7 # 5A 7 3 # A 7 25i sin7 i 5a3
A 2I # ¨ 7 3
2@ Ñ N A ÑC
16@7 m1 # n c 7d J # 1Q 25I7 # 5¨ 7 3 # A 7 25i sin7 i 5a3
A 2@
32@{ Ñ N
c 7d 25¨ 7 # 5I7 3 # A 7 25i sin7 i 5a3
A
(11.7)
The Kruskal coordinates ' Í 2,

N A B
I c Ïd E1 # sinh
2@ 4@
N A B
¨ c Ïd E1 # cosh
(11.6)
2@ 4@
N A
# 1Q
where
I7 # ¨ 7 c 7d J
2@
(11.8)
WI 1 N A B ¨
We calculate
c Ïd E1 # cosh
WB 4@ 2@ 4@ 4@
W¨ 1 N A B I
c Ïd E1 # sinh
WB 4@ 2@ 4@ 4@
WI 1 N A B N 1 1 B I 1
c Ïd E1 # sinh # c Ïd sinh Ü Ý
4@ 2@ 4@ 2@ A 4@ 4@ 2@
WA 2E1 # 2@ # 1
A
W¨ 1 N A B N 1 1 B ¨ 1
c Ïd E1 # cosh # c Ïd cosh Ü Ý
WA 4@ 2@ 4@ 2@ A 4@ 4@ 2@ # 1
2E1 # 2@ A
WI WI ÑC W¨ WI
As before we find
5B 1 #
Ò Ó ¦ WB WA § Ò5IÓ ¦ WA WA § Ò5IÓ
5A W¨ W¨ 5¨ WI W¨ WI W¨ W¨ WI 5¨
# #
WB WA WB WA WA WB WB WB
¬ ¨ 1 I 1
1 ª Ü Ý # Ü Ýª̄
4@ 2@ 4@ 2@ 5I
# 1 # 1 Ò Ó
« A A ® 5¨
¨ 7 1 I 7 1 I ¨
J4@Q Ü2@ Ý # J4@Q Ü2@ Ýª© # ª

4@ 4@
A #1 A #1

¨ #I
4@ 2@ 2@ 5I
7 Ò Ó
¨ # I7 #I m A # 1n ¨ m A # 1n 5¨
4@
5B 7 2¨5I # I5¨3
¨ # I7
16@ 7
5B 7 7 2¨ 7 5I7 I7 5¨ 7 # 2I¨5I5¨3
2¨ # I7 37
4@ 2@
5A 7 m # 1n 2#I5I ¨5¨3
¨ #I 7 A
16@7 2@ 7
5A 7 7 m # 1n 2I7 5I7 ¨ 7 5¨ 7 # 2I¨5I5¨3
2¨ # I7 37 A
2@ 2@ 16@7
Next we find
m1 # n 5B 7 m1 # n 7 2¨ 7 5I7 I7 5¨ 7 # 2I¨5I5¨ 3
A A 2¨ # I7 37
2@ ÑC 7 2@ 16@7
m1 # n 5A m1 # n 2I7 5I7 ¨ 7 5¨ 7 # 2I¨5I5¨3
A A 2¨ 7 # I7 37
2@ 2@ ÑC 7
Inserting into the Schwarzschild metric we find as before
56 7 m1 # n 5B 7 # m1 # n 5A # A 7 25i sin7 i 5a3
A A
32@{ Ñ N
c 7d 25¨ 7 # 5I7 3 # A 7 25i sin7 i 5a3
A
(11.7)
11.3 109The inverse metric of the Kerr Spinning Black Hole
2@A 4@A sin7 i Σ 2 7 @A sin7 i

56 7
The Kerr metric of a spinning black hole
m1 # n 5B 7 5B5a # 5A 7 # Σ5i 7 # A 7 7 sin7 i 5a 7
Σ Σ Δ Σ
(11.9)
Δ A 7 # 2@A 7
where
Σ A 7 7 cos7 i
A 7 7 # 7 sin7 i
Δ 2@A # 7 sin7 i
2@A 2@A sin7 i

the metric tensor
¬ m1 # n
ª Σ Σ ª̄
ª Σ ª
#
89: Δ
« #Σ ®
ª2@A sin7 i 2 @A sin i
7 7 ª
ª # A 7 7 sin7 i ª
© Σ Σ
8LL 8LP
with the inverse
¬
ª Δ ª̄
ª # ª
Σ
8 9:
1
« # ®
ª
ª Σ ª
ª
©8PL 8PP
109
(McMahon, 2006, p. 246)

1 2@A
¬ 22A 7 7 37 # Δ7 sin7 i3
ªΣΔ ΣΔ ª̄
Δ
ª # ª
Σ
« 1 ®
#
ª Σ ª
ª 2@A 2Δ # 7 sin7 i3ª
© #
ΣΔ ΣΔ sin7 i
where we can calculate 8LL , 8LP , 8PP from the inverse110
1 8PP #8LP
89: 7 #8PL 8LL
8LL 8PP # 8PL
1 2@A 2 @A sin i 2@A sin i

7 ÑC
First we calculate the common factor
7 7 7
7 Ö# m1 # n A 7 7 sin7 i # ×
8LL 8PP # 8PL Σ Σ Σ
ÑC
2@A 27 @A sin7 i 2@A 7 7 1
# m1 # n A
7 7
#m n sin i
Σ Σ Σ sin7 i
27 @A sin7 i 2@A 7 27 @A sin7 i 2@A 7 7 1
ÑC
# A 7 7 A 7 #m n sin i
Σ Σ Σ Σ sin7 i
ÑC
27 @A sin7 i 2@A 7 1
Ö# A
7 7
2A 7 3×
Σ Σ sin7 i
2@A 7 7 2@A 7 1
ÑC
# mA 7 7
sin in 2A 7 3
Σ Σ sin7 i
2@A 7 7 2@A 7 1
ÑC
# mA
7 7
sin in 2A cos i sin i3
7 7 7 7
Σ Σ sin7 i
2@A 7 1 2@A ÑC 1
ÑC
#2A 7 7 3 2A 7 cos7 i3 m#2A 7
73
Σn
Σ sin7 i Σ sin7 i
1
2#2A 7 7 3 2@A3ÑC 7
sin i
1
#
Δ sin7 θ
8PP
8LL
Now we can calculate the inverse metric
8LL 8PP # 8PL

7
8PP
#
Δ sin7 i
27 @A sin7 i
# mA 7 7 n sin7 i
Σ
#
Δ sin7 i
1 27 @A sin7 i
A 7 7
Δ Σ
1
2Σ2A 7 7 3 27 @A sin7 i3
ΣΔ
1
2A 7 7 cos7 i32A 7 7 3 2A 7 7 # Δ37 sin7 i
ΣΔ
ÑC 5 #
Ò Ó Ò Ó
C
T 5 9KÑ:p #T
110

1
2A 7 7 cos7 i32A 7 7 3 2A 7 7 37 21 # cos7 i3 # Δ7 sin7 i
ΣΔ
1
22A 7 7 37 # Δ7 sin7 i3
ΣΔ
8LP
(11.13)
8LP #
8LL 8PP # 8PL
7
8LP

Δ sin7 i
1 2@A sin7 i

Δ sin7 i Σ
2@A

ΣΔ
8LL
(11.13)
8PP
8LL 8PP # 8PL
7
8LL
#
Δ sin7 i
1 2@A
# m1 # n
Δ sin i
7 Σ
1
# 2Σ # 2@A3
ΣΔ sin7 i
1
# 2Δ 2@A # 7 sin7 i # 2@A3
ΣΔ sin7 i
2Δ # 7 sin7 i3
#
ΣΔ sin7 i
(11.13)
12 Cosmology
Light travelling in the universe can be described by the line element 56 7 5B 7 # 7 2B35; 7 , where
12.1 NEW - 111Light travelling in the Universe
5; 7 5;C 7 5;7 7 5;{ 7 and the ;º are commoving coordinates. Light travel along null geodesic i.e.
56 7 0. We can now write ;L 8 92L3 for the total commoving distance light emitted at time B can travel by
L KL
time B . If we multiply this by the value of the scale factor 2B 3 at time B , then we will have calculated the
physical distance that the light has traveled in this time interval. This algorithm can be widely used to calcu-
are in causal contact. As you can see, for accelerated expansion, even for arbitrarily large B the integral is
late how far light can travel in any given time interval, revealing whether to points in space , for example
bounded, showing that the light will never reach arbitrarily distant commoving locations. Thus, in a uni-
verse with accelerated expansion, there are locations with which we can never communicate.
12.2 112Spaces of Positive, Negative, and Zero Curvature
5A 7
According to (12.5) the spatial part of a homogenous, isotropic metric is
5\ 7 A 7 5i 7 A 7 sin7 i 5a
1 # yA 7
(12.5)
5\ 7 5K 7 A 7 2K35i 7 A 7 2K3 sin7 i 5a 7

rewriting it in a more general form
(12.6)
we see that
111
(Greene, s. 516) note 10
112
(McMahon, 2006, p. 262)

5A 7
5K 7
1 # yA 7
5A
5K
√1 # yA 7
and in order to identify the metric for the different y-values we solve the latter differential equation.
y 0:
; 5K ; 5A
K A
A K
A 2K3 K 7
7
5\ 7 5K 7 K 7 5i 7 K 7 sin7 i 5a 7
and the metric
y F 0:
5A
; 5K ;
√1 # yA 7
5A 1 5; 1
K ; ; 113 sinÑC ; ; √yA
√1 # yA 7 √y √1 # ; 7 √y
1
sinÑC √yA
√y
1 1
A sin√yK sin√yK
√y √y
1
A 7 2K3 sin7 √yK
y
if y 1 we get
A 7 2K3 sin72K3
5\ 7 5K 7 sin72K3 5i 7 sin7 2K3 sin7 i 5a 7

and the metric
y Í 0:
5A
; 5K ; k #y
√1 kA 7
5A
;
K
E1 √kA
7
1 5;
; ; √kA √#yA
√k √1 ; 7
1
114 ln J; 5; 7 1Q
√k
1
115 sinhÑC ;
√k
1
sinhÑC√#yA
√#y
1
A sinh√#yK
√#y
; sinÑC
K
59Â Ñ Â 9
113
(14.237) (Spiegel, 1990)
; ln; √; 7 # 7 (14.210) (Spiegel, 1990)
K
5 Â Ñ9Â
114
sinh ÑC
; ln; √; 7 1 (8.55) (Spiegel, 1990)
115

1

sinh√#yK
√#y
1
A 7 2K3 sinh7√#yK
#y
if y #1 we get
A 7 2K3 sinh72K3
5\ 7 5K 7 sinh7 2K3 5i 7 sinh7 2K3 sin7 i 5a 7

and the metric
Note: We have omitted the constants of integration because of symmetry reasons. The metrics have to
fulfill the requirement of homogeneity and isotropy
12.3 116The Robertson-Walker metric

12.3.1 117Find
the components of the Riemann tensor of the Robertson-Walker metric (Homog-
7 2B3
enous, isotropic and expanding universe) using Cartan’s structure equations
The metric: 56 7 #5B 7 5A 7 7 2B3A 7 5i 7 7 2B3A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
1 # yA 7
éLê 5B
2B3 √1 # yA 7 N̂
éN̂ 5A 5A é
√1 # yA 7 2B3
#1
1 1
2B3A5i 5i éO b ºÕ ¦ §
ì
é
ì
O
2B3A 1
1
1
é 2B3A sin i 5a 5a éP
ì
P ì
2B3A sin i
• Cartan’s First Structure equation and the calculation of the curvature one forms:
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:

5éLê 0
2B3 l l
5éN̂ 5 5A 5B µ 5A # éN̂ µ éLê
√1 # yA 7 √1 # yA 7
l √1 # yA 7 N̂
5éO
ì
522B3A5i3 l A5B µ 5i 5A µ 5i éLê µ éO é µ éO
ì ì
A
5é P
ì
522B3A sin i 5a3 l A sin i 5B µ 5a sin i 5A µ 5a A cos i 5i µ 5a
116
117

1 √1 # yA 7 N̂ 1 1 ì 1
l A sin i éLê µ é P sin i é µ é P A cos i éO µ éP
ì ì ì
A sin i A sin i A A sin i
l Lê √1 # yA 7 cot i
é µ éP éN̂ µ é P éO µ é P
ì ì ì ì
A A
l N̂ l Oì l Pì
• The curvature one-forms summerized in a matrix
¬ 0 é é é
ª ª̄
ª l N̂ √1 # yA 7 Oì √1 # yA 7 Pì ª
ª é 0 é é ª
A A

Γ 9 : « l Oì √1 # yA 7 Oì cot i Pì ®
é # é 0 é
ª A A ª
ª ª
ªl Pì √1 # yA Pì
7 cot i Pì ª
© é #
A
é #
A
é 0
Where refers to the column and the row
• Curvature two forms:
1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
l l l
ΩN̂ Lê : 5Γ N̂ Lê 5 m éN̂ n 5 m 5An 5 m 5An 5B µ 5A
√1 # yA 7 √1 # yA 7 √1 # yA 7
√1 # yA 7 N̂ Lê
éLê µ é é µ éN̂
√1 # yA 7
ì
Γ N̂ p̂ µ Γ p̂ Lê Γ N̂ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ N̂ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ N̂ Oì µ Γ O Lê Γ N̂ Pì µ Γ Lê 0
ê ì P

ΩN̂ Lê éLê µ éN̂

l ì l
ΩOLê : 5Γ O Lê 5 m éO n 5 m A5in 52l A5i3 A5B µ 5i l 5A µ 5i
ì ì

1 ì √1 # yA 7 N̂ 1 Oì Lê √1 # yA 7 N̂
AéLê µ éO l é µ é é µ éO l é µ éO
ì ì
A A A 7
ì
Γ O Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ ON̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ O Oì µ Γ O Lê Γ OPì µ Γ Lê Γ ON̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê
ì ì ì ì ì ì
Γ Op̂ µ Γ p̂ Lê
ì ê P
l √1 # yA 7 Oì
é µ éN̂
7 A

ΩOLê éLê µ éO
ì ì

5(9 é P 3 5 J9 A sin i 5aQ 52l A sin i 5a3
ì ì 9l 9l
Ω Lê : 5Γ
P P ì
Lê
A sin i 5B µ 5a l sin i 5A µ 5a l A cos i 5i µ 5a
√1 # yA 7 N̂ cot i ì
éLê µ é P l é µ é P l 7 éO µ é P
ì ì ì
A
7 A
Γ Lê µ Γ L Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ Oì µ Γ O Lê Γ P µ Γ Lê Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Lê Γ Oì µ Γ OLê
ì ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ Lê
P P ê P P P P P P
p̂

l √1 # yA 7 Pì l cot i ì
é µ éN̂ 7 é P µ éO
ì
A
7 A
Lê

ì
Ω é µé
P ì
P
Lê
√1 # yA 7 Oì √1 # yA 7
ΩON̂ : 5Γ O N̂ 5 é 5 A5i 5 J51 # yA 7 5iQ
ì ì
A A
#yA #y
5A µ 5i 7 éN̂ µ éO
ì
√1 # yA 7
ì
Γ O N̂ µ Γ N̂ N̂ Γ O Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ O Oì µ Γ ON̂ Γ O Pì µ Γ Γ O Lê µ Γ L N̂
ì ì ì ì
ì ì ê ì P ê
N̂
l 7 ì
m n éO µ éN̂

#2l 7 y3 N̂
ΩON̂
ì
é µ éO
ì
7
√1 # yA 7 Pì
5 é 5 J51 # yA 7 sin i 5aQ
ì ì
Ω N̂ : 5Γ
P P
N̂ A
#yA
sin i 5A µ 5a 51 # yA 7 cos i 5i µ 5a
√1 # yA 7
#yA √1 # yA 7 cot i Oì
7 éN̂ µ é P é µ éP
ì ì
A 7 A 7
Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ N̂ Γ Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ Oì µ Γ ON̂ Γ Pì µ Γ N̂ Γ Lê µ Γ L N̂ Γ Oì µ Γ ON̂
ì ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ N̂
P P P ê P P P P ê P
p̂
l 7 N̂ √1 # yA 7 cot i Oì
# é µ é # é µ éP
ì
P ì
7 A
7 7
#2l 7 y3 N̂

ì
Ω é µé
P ì
P
N̂
7
ì ì cot i Pì cot i
Ω ì: 5Γ 5m é n 5m A sin i 5an 52cos i 5a3 # sin i 5i µ 5a
P P
O ì
O A A
1
# 7 7 éO µ é P
ì ì
A
Γ Lê µ Γ L Oì Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Oì Γ Oì µ Γ O Oì Γ Pì µ Γ Oì Γ Lê µ Γ L Oì Γ N̂ µ Γ N̂ Oì
ì ì
Γ µ Γ p̂ Oì
p̂
l 7 ì 1 # yA 7 Pì
m n é P µ éO # é µ éO
ì ì
2A37
2l 7 y3 Pì

ì
Ω é µ éO
P ì
ì
O 7
Lê Lê Lê
• Summarized in a matrix
¬0 é µ éN̂ é µ éO é µ éP
ì ì
ª ª̄
ª #2l 7 y3 N̂ ì #2l y3 N̂
7 ª
Ω9 : ú 0 é µé é µé
O Pì
7 7
« ®
2l 7 y3 Pì
ªú àú 0 é µ é
ì ª
O
ª 7 ª
©ú àú àú 0

• Now we can read off the elements in the Riemann tensor in the non-coordinate basis
ì
} N̂ LêN̂ Lê # } OLêOìLê # } LêPìLê #
ì P


2l 7 y3 ì 2l 7 y3
} ON̂ OìN̂ }
ì P

7 7
ì N̂
N̂ P
ì l 7 y
Γ
P

7
ìP
O ì
ìO
12.3.2 The Einstein tensor and Friedmann-equations for the Robertson Walker metric
} b 9: }9: #}LêLê }N̂ N̂ }OìOì }PìPì #} p̂ Lêp̂Lê } p̂ N̂ p̂N̂ } p̂ Oìp̂Oì } p̂ Pìp̂Pì

ì ì ì
#} N̂ LêN̂ Lê # } OLêOìLê # } } L N̂ LêN̂ } ON̂ OìN̂ } } L OìLêOì } N̂ OìN̂ Oì } } L PìLêPì } N̂ PìN̂ Pì
ì P ê ì P ê P ê
ì Lê
LêP ì N̂
N̂ P ìP
O ì
ìO
} OPìOìPì
ì
ì ì ì
#2}N̂ LêN̂ Lê # 2} OLêOìLê # 2} 2} ON̂ OìN̂ 2} 2}
ì P ì P P
ì Lê
LêP ì N̂
N̂ P ìP
O ì
ìO
2l 7 y3 2l 7 y3 2l 7 y3 a 2l 7 k3
2 2 2 2 2 2
7 7 7 a a7
1
|9: }9: # b9: }
2
1
(4.48)
|LêLê }LêLê # bLêLê }

2
ì 1 ì ì ì
} N̂ LêN̂ Lê } OLêOìLê } J#2}N̂ LêN̂ Lê # 2} OLêOìLê # 2} LêPìLê 2} ON̂ OìN̂ 2} N̂ PìN̂ 2} OìPìOì Q
ì P ì P ì P P
ì Lê
LêP 2
ì ì (l 7 k3
} ON̂ OìN̂ } } OìPìOì 3
ì P P
ì N̂
N̂ P a7
1
|N̂ Lê }N̂ Lê # bN̂ Lê } } p̂ N̂ p̂Lê 0
2
|OìLê |PìLê |LêN̂ |OìN̂ |PìN̂ |LêOì |N̂ Oì |PìOì |LêPì |N̂ Pì |OìPì 0
1
|N̂ N̂ }N̂ N̂ # bN̂ N̂ }
2
ì 1 ì ì ì
} N̂ LêN̂ } ON̂ OìN̂ } N̂ PìN̂ # J#2}N̂ LêN̂ Lê # 2}OLêOìLê # 2} LêPìLê 2} ON̂ OìN̂ 2} N̂ PìN̂ 2} OìPìOì Q
Lê ì P ì P ì P P
2
ì ì ì ì
} L N̂ LêN̂ } ON̂ OìN̂ } N̂ PìN̂ } N̂ LêN̂ Lê } OLêOìLê } LêPìLê # } ON̂ OìN̂ # } N̂ PìN̂ # } OìPìOì
ê ì P ì P ì P P
ì ì l 7 y 2 l 7 y
} OLêOìLê } #} # # # #
ì P P
ì Lê
LêP ìP
O ì
ìO
7 7
1
|OìOì }OìOì # bOìOì }
2
ì 1 ì ì ì
} L OìLêOì } N̂ OìN̂ Oì } ì # J#2} LêN̂ Lê # 2} LêOì Lê # 2} LêP ì Lê 2} N̂ O
ì N̂ 2} N̂ P 2} ìQ
ê P N̂ ì
O P ì
O P P
ìP
O ìO
2 ì N̂ ìP
O ìO
ì ì ì ì
} OìLêOì } OìN̂ Oì } OìPìOì } LêN̂ Lê } LêOìLê } LêPìLê # } N̂ OìN̂ # } N̂ PìN̂ # } OìPìOì
Lê N̂ P N̂ ì
O P ì
O P P
ì ì l 7 y 2 l 7 y
} N̂ LêN̂ Lê } LêPìLê # } N̂ PìN̂ # # # #
P P
7 7
1
|PìPì }PìPì # bPìPì }
2

1 ì ì ì
} L PìLêPì } N̂ PìN̂ Pì } OPìOìPì # J#2}N̂ LêN̂ Lê # 2} OLêOìLê # 2} LêPìLê 2} ON̂ OìN̂ 2} N̂ PìN̂ 2} OìPìOì Q
ê ì ì P ì P P
2
ì ì ì
} PìLêPì } PìN̂ Pì } PìOìPì } N̂ LêN̂ Lê } OLêOìLê } LêPìLê # } ON̂ OìN̂ # } N̂ PìN̂ # } OìPìOì
Lê N̂ ì
O ì P ì P P
l 7 y 2 l 7 y
} N̂ LêN̂ Lê } OLêOìLê # } ON̂ OìN̂ # # # #
ì ì
7 7
(l 7 k3
¬3 0 0 0
ª a7 ª̄
ª 2 l 7 y ª
ª 0 # 0 0 ª
7
|9: « 2 l 7 y ®
0 0 # 0
ª 7 ª
ª ª
ª 2 l y ª
7
0 0 0 #
© 7
• The Friedmann equations:
Given the Einstein equation ( if T | 13: |9: # Λb9: 89:

0 0 0
(7.14)
0 0 0
9: 8 ¦ § (7.16)
0 0 0
and the stress-energy tensor:
0 0 0
(l 7 k3
You can find the Friedmann- equations
¬3 0 0 0
a7
0 0 0
ª ª̄
ª 2 l 7 y ª
0 0 0
ª 0 # 0 0 ª #1
8 ¦ §
7 1
# Λ¦ §
«
0 0
2 l 7 y
# 0
® 1 0 0 0
0 0 0
ª 7 ª 1
ª ª
ª 2 l 7 y ª
0 0 0 #
© 7
3
2y l 7 3 Λ 8
7
1
(7.17)
2 7 2y l 7 3 Λ #8 (8.18)

7 2B3
12.3.3 The Einstein tensor for the Robertson Walker metric – Alternative version.
56 7 #5B 7 5A 7 7 2B3A 7 5i 7 7 2B3A 7 sin7 i 5a 7
1 # yA 7

taken for the derivative 5/5A.

Now we can compare with the Tolman-Bondi – de Sitter line element, where the primes should not be mis-
56 7 5Bè7 # c Ñ7ä2L ,N 3 5Aè7 # } 7 2Bè, Aè35iè7 # } 7 2Bè, Aè3 sin7 iè 5aè7

ñ ñ
5Bè 5B
And chose:
2B3
c ÑäL ,N 5Aè 5A
ñ ñ
√1 # yA 7
}2B ¼ , A ¼ 35i ¼ 2B3A5i
}2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 sin iè 5a ¼ 2B3A sin i 5a
Comparing the two metrics we see: 5a ¼ 5a, 5i ¼ 5i, i ¼ i, }2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 2B3A, 5B ¼ 5B
Next we can use the former calculations of the Tolman-Bondi – de Sitter metric to find the Einstein tensor
for the Robertson-Walker metric.
5á2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 5 2B3 5A 5 √1 # yA 7 5A ¼ l 2B3

But first we need to find
ál c ÑäL ñ ,N ñ
c äL ñ ,N ñ
#
5B ¼ 5B ¼
√1 # yA 7 5A 5B
¼ 2B3 5A 2B3
5 l 2B3 5 l 2B3 2B32B3 # l 2B3l 2B3 l 2B3 2B3
7
á ¼ # # # #
5B 2B3 5B 2B3 2B37 2B3 2B3
¼ ¼3
5á2B , A 5 ñ ñ 5A 5 √1 # yA 5A 7 ¼
áè c ÑäL ,N ¼ c äL ,N c ÑäL ,N ¼
ñ ñ ñ ñ
5A ¼ 5A 5A 5A 2B3 5A
yA
# c ÑäL ,N
ñ ñ
2B3√1 # yA 7
¼ ¼3
5}2B ,A 52B3A
}l l 2B3A
5B ¼ 5B
5l 2B3A 5l 2B3A
} 2B3A
5B ¼ 5B
5}2B ¼ , A ¼ 3 5A 5 √1 # yA 7 ÑäL ñ ,Nñ
}è 22B3A3 c 2B3 51 # yA 7 c ÑäL ,N
ñ ñ
5A ¼ 5A 5A
¼ 2B3
5 5A 5 2B3 5A
}èè ¼ J51 # yA 7 c ÑäL ,N Q ¼ 51 # yA 7 0
ñ ñ
5A 5A 5A √1 # yA 7 5A ¼
5 5A 5 l 2B3√1 # yA 7 ÑäL ñ ,Nñ
}l è ¼ 2l 2B3A3 ¼ 2l 2B3A3 c
5A 5A 5A 2B3
1
7 ò1 # 2}}l ál }l
Tolman –Bondi – de Sitter Robertson-Walker
7
l (B)7 y
|LêLê } |LêLê 3
# 22}} ¼¼ 2}} ¼ á¼ 2} ¼ 37 3c 7ä2L,N3 õ 2B37
c ä2L,N3
|N̂ Lê #2 ò}l } ¼ áló
¼
|N̂ Lê 0
}
1 2B3 l 2B37 y
|N̂ N̂ ò2}¼ 37 c 7ä2L,N3 # 2}} # 1 # }l ó |N̂ N̂ # 2
7
} 7 2B3 2B37

1 2B3 l 2B37 y
|OìOì òá # ál ó ô2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3c 7ä2L,N3 }l ál # } õ |OìOì # 2
7
} 2B3 2B37
1 2B3 l 2B37 y
|PìPì òá # ál ó ô2} ¼¼ } ¼ á ¼ 3c 7ä2L,N3 }l ál # } õ |PìPì # 2
7
} 2B3 2B37
12.4 118Manipulating the Friedmann equations.
3
•Show that the two Friedman equations
2y l 7 3 Λ 8
7
1
(7.17)
2 7 2y l 7 3 Λ #8

(8.18)
5 5
can be manipulated into:
2{ 3 2{ 3 0
5B 5B
3
• Rewriting (7.17):
8
2y l 7 3 Λ
7
8{ 3(y l 7 3 Λa{
5 5
8 2{ 3 23(y l 7 3 Λa{ 3 3l (y l 7 3 6l 3Λ7 l
5B 5B
1
• Rewriting (7.18):
#8 2 7 2y l 7 3 Λ

5 { 1 5 1
#8 2 3 m2 7 2y l 7 3 Λn 2{ 3 m2 7 2y l 7 3 Λn 37 l
5B 5B
6l 3l (y l 7 3 3Λ7 l
5
¿ 8 2{ 3 #26l 3l (y l 7 3 3Λ7 l 3
5B
5 5
• Now adding
8 2{ 3 8 2{ 3 3l (y l 7 3 6l 3Λ7 l # 26l 3l (y l 7 3 3Λ7 l 3
5B 5B
0 Q.E.D.
ing with l use a change of variables

12.5 119Parameters in an flat universe with positive cosmological constant: Start-
/
- . .
/ /-
Î Λ 7
We have
l 7
3
l 7 Î Λ
J Q {
3
2Λ {
and
I
3Î
2Λ 7
Il l
Î
118
(McMahon, 2006, p. 165), quiz 7-3
119
(McMahon, 2006, p. 278), quiz 12-6. The answer to quiz 12-6 is (a)

I
3 l

Il l
3
I
1 Il 7 2Λ Λ
Rearranging we get
m n 3I 3
3I
2Λ Λ
Il 3= I I 7
3 3
√3Λ√I√I 2
5I
; 5B ;
√3Λ√I√I 2
1
B # B 120 2 ln√I 2 √I
√3Λ
1 7
ln√I 2 √I
√3Λ
1
ln2I 2 2√I√I 2
√3Λ
1
ln J2I 2 25I7 2IQ
√3Λ
1
ln J2I 2 252I 137 # 1Q
√3Λ
1
ln 2 JI 1 52I 137 # 1Q
√3Λ
1
Jln 2 ln JI 1 52I 137 # 1QQ
√3Λ
1
121 (ln 2 coshÑC2I 133
√3Λ
I cosh√3Λ(B # B 3 # ln 2 # 1
3C
{ ôcosh√3Λ(B # B 3 # ln 2 # 1õ
2Λ
Leaving out the constants of integration #√3ΛB # ln 2 we get
3C
{ ôcosh√3ΛB # 1õ
2Λ
13 Gravitational Waves
Requiring that } 9:pK , }9: and } are unchanged under a gauge-transformation of first order in $, show that
13.1 122Gauge transformation - The Einstein Gauge
; 9 1 ; 9 ; 9 $a 9
this is fulfilled by the coordinate transformations
ñ
z9: 1 z9: z9: # a9,: # a:,9

¼
(13.11)
á 9:,9 1 á ¼ :,9 á 9:,9 # Ma:

9
ln52R; ´3 R2; 3 (14.280) (Spiegel, 1990)

K 7
529=:32=¶3 √9
120
∫
cosh ; ln; √; 7 # 1 (8.56) (Spiegel, 1990)
ÑC
121
122
(McMahon, 2006, p. 286)

where a 9 is a function of position and Na 9,: N 2 1. We have

1 W 7 z:K W 7 zK¹ W 7 z:p W 7 zp¹
} 9:pK $b 9¡ # p ¹ p : K ¹ # K :
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
(13.4)
1 W 7 zp 9 W 7 zp : W7z
}9: $ : p 9 p # Oz9: # 9 :
2 W; W; W; W; W; W;
(13.5)
W 7 zpK
} $ p K # Oz
W; W;
(13.6)
1
á9: z9: # b9: z
2
The Einstein gauge transformation is a coordinate transformation that leaves } 9:pK , }9: and } unchanged.
(13.8)
; 9 1 ; 9´ ; 9 $a 9
The coordinate transformation that will do this is
(13.11)
56 7 89: 5; 9 5; :
In order to show this you only have to convince yourself that the line element is unchanged. Checking
2b9: $z9: 35; 9 5; :

56´ 89´:´ 5; 9´ 5; :´
7
2b´9: $z´9: 35; 9´ 5; :´ b´9: b9:

2b9: $z´9: 352; 9 $a 9 35; : $a :
W; 9 Wa 9 W; : Wa :
2b9: $z´9: 3 p 5; p $ p 5; p K 5; K $ K 5; K
W; W; W; W;
2b9: $z´9: 3Æp9 5; p $a 9,p 5; p ÆK: 5; K $a :,K 5; K
2b9: $z´9: 3Æp9 ÆK: 5; p 5; K $a 9,p ÆK: 5; p 5; K $a :,K Æp9 5; p 5; K $ 7 …
2b9: $z´9: 35; 9 5; : $a 9,p 5; p 5; : $a :,K 5; 9 5; K
2b9: $z´9: 35; 9 5; : $b 9¡ a¡,p 5; p 5; : $b :¹ a¹,K 5; 9 5; K
2b9: $z´9: 35; 9 5; : b9: $b 9¡ a¡,p 5; p 5; : $b :¹ a¹,K 5; 9 5; K $ 7 …
2b9: $z´9: 35; 9 5; : $Æ:¡ a¡,p 5; p 5; : $Æ9 a¹,K 5; 9 5; K
¹
2b9: $z´9: 35; 9 5; : $a:,p 5; p 5; : $a9,K 5; 9 5; K
2b9: $z´9: 35; 9 5; : $a:,9 5; 9 5; : $a9,: 5; 9 5; :

Renaming the dummy variables
b9: $z´9: $a:,9 $a9,: 5; 9 5; :

2b9: $z9: 35; 9 5; :
z´9: z9: # a:,9 # a9,:

if
Next we are going to investigate the transformation of the derivative of the trace reverse á 9:,9 1 á ¼ :,9
9
Q.E.D
á 9:,9 # Ma:
á ¼ :,9 b 9p áp:,9
9 ¼
1
b 9p mz¼ p:,9 # bp: z,9 ¼
n
2
1
b 9p mz¼ p:,9 # bp: z¼KK,9 n
2
1
b mz p:,9 # bp: b ¡K z¼¡K,9 n
9p ¼
2
1
b zp:,9 # a:,p9 # ap,:9 # b 9p bp: b¡K z¡K,9 # aK,¡9 # a¡,K9
9p
2
1 1
b 9p mzp:,9 # bp: b ¡K z¡K,9 n # b 9p a:,p9 ap,:9 # bp: b ¡K aK,¡9 a¡,K9
2 2

1 1
b 9p mzp:,9 # bp: zKK,9 n # b 9p a:,p9 # b 9p ap,:9 # bp: b ¡K aK,¡9 a¡,K9
2 2
1 1
b 9p mzp:,9 # bp: z,9 n # Ma: # b 9p ap,:9 # b 9p bp: b ¡K aK,¡9 a¡,K9
2 2
1
b 9p áp:,9 # Ma: # b 9p ap,:9 # Æ:9 b ¡K aK,¡9 a¡,K9
2
1
á 9:,9 # Ma: # a 9,:9 # Æ:9 a ¡,¡9 a K,K9
2
1
á 9:,9 # Ma: # a 9,:9 # a ¡ ,¡: a K,K:
2
1
Renaming the dummy variables
á 9:,9 # Ma: # a 9,:9 # a 9,9: a 9,9:
2
á ¼ :,9 á 9:,9 # Ma:
9
P.288: The choice of á ¼ 0 leads to123

9
Q.E.D.
:,9
á ¼ :,9 b 9p áèp:,9
9
1
b 9p mz¼ p:,9 # bp: z¼ ,9 n
2
1 9 ¼
b z p:,9 # Æ: z ,9
9p ¼
2
1
z¼ :,9 # z¼ ,: 0
9
2
13.2 Plane waves
Here we want to show that the Riemann tensor only depends on z , z , z and z . For symmetry rea-
13.2.1 124The Riemann tensor of a plane wave
sons it is only necessary to show that the Riemann tensor does not depend on zLL and zL . The Riemann
1 W 7 zK¹ W 7 z:K W 7 z:p W 7 zp¹

tensor
} 9:pK $b 9¹ p : # p ¹ K ¹ # K :
2 W; W; W; W; W; W; W; W;
(13.4)
z9: z9: 2B # 3
For plane waves we have
Wz9: Wz9:
0
W; W
Wz9: W2B # 3 Wz9: Wz9:

We also need
#
W W W2B # 3 W2B # 3
Wz9: W2B # 3 Wz9: Wz9:

WB WB W2B # 3 W2B # 3
Wz9: Wz9:
#
W WB
W 7 z9: W 7 z9:

W 7 WB 7
and
123
However I don’t know how to show that the Riemann-tensor keeps the same form if we make this choice
124
(McMahon, 2006, pp. 288,13)

zLL zL zL zL

zL z z z "
z9: A
zL z z z B
z z z z
L !
1
zLL zL zL # 2zLL z 3
2 "
zL z z #zL
A
A
B
B
A zL z #z #zL B
(13.16)
1
# 2 2zLL z 3 #zL #zL z !
1
The Minkowski
#1
b 9:
#1
#1
The dependence on zLL
5 · B 2 B3:
1 W 7 zLL W 7 z:L W 7 z:p W 7 zpL
} L :pL $b LL p : # p 7 #
2 W; W; W; WB W B WBW; :
B:
1 W 7 zLL W 7 zLL W 7 zLp W 7 zpL
} L LpL $ p # p 7 # 7 0
2 W; WB W; WB W B W B
;:
1 W 7 zLL W 7 zL W 7 zp W 7 zpL 1 W 7 zL W 7 zp
} L pL $ p # p 7 # $ # p 7
2 W; W; W; WB W B WBW; 2 W; WB W B
T B:
1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} L LL $ # 7 7 0
2 W B W B
T ;:
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 z
} L L $ # 7 $ 7
2 W;WB W B 2 W B
T :
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 z
} L L $ # 7 $ 7
2 WWB W B 2 W B
T :
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} L $ #
L
7 $ 7 # 7 0
2 WWB W B 2 W B W B
:
1 W7z W7z W7z W 7 zpL 1 W 7 zL W 7 zp
} L pL $ p LL # p L 7 p # $ # p 7
2 W; W W; WB W B WBW 2 W; WB W B
T B:
1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} L LL $ # 7 7 0
2 W B W B
T ;:
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 z
} L L $ # 7 $ 7
2 W;WB W B 2 W B
T :

1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 z

} L L $ # 7 $ 7
2 WWB W B 2 W B
T :
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} L L $ # 7 $ 7 # 7 0
2 WWB W B 2 W B W B
:
1 W 7 zLL W 7 zL W 7 zp W 7 zpL
} L pL $ p # p 7 #
2 W; W W; WB W B WBW
T B:
1 W 7 zLL W 7 zL W 7 zL W 7 zLL
} L LL $ # 7 7 # 0
2 WBW W B W B WBW
T ;:
1 W 7 zLL W 7 zL W 7 z W 7 zL 1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} L L $ # 7 # $ # 7 7 0
2 W;W W;WB W B WBW 2 W B W B
T :
1 W 7 zLL W 7 zL W 7 z W 7 zL 1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} L L $ # 7 # $ # 7 7 0
2 WW WWB W B WBW 2 W B W B
T :
1 W 7 zLL W 7 zL W 7 z W 7 zL
} L L $ 7 # 7 #
2 W WWB W B WBW
1 1
W 7 # 2 2zBB z 3 W 7 # 2 2zBB z 3
1 W 7 zLL W 7 z "
$A 7 7 B
2 W B W B
7 W B W B
7
!
0
5 B:
1 9¹ W 7 zL¹ W 7 zLL W 7 zLp W 7 zp¹
} 9LpL
$b p # p ¹ # 7
2 W; WB W; W; WBW; ¹ W B
;2 · ;3:
1 W 7 zL W 7 zLL W 7 zLp W 7 zp 1 W 7 zL W 7 zp
} LpL $b p # p

# 7 # $ p # 7
2 W; WB W; W; WBW; W B 2 W; WB W B
T ;:
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 z
} LL # $ # 7 $ 7
2 W;WB W B 2 W B
T :
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 z
} LL # $ # 7 $ 7
2 WWB W B 2 W B
T :
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} LL # $ # 7 # $ # 7 7 0
2 WWB W B 2 W B W B
2 · 3:
1 W 7 zL W 7 zLL W 7 zLp W 7 zp 1 W 7 zL W 7 zp
} LpL $b p # p # 7 # $ p # 7

2 W; WB W; W WBW W B 2 W; WB W B
T ;:

1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 z

} LL # $ # 7 $ 7

2 W;WB W B 2 W B
T :
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 z
} # $ # 7 $ 7

LL
2 WWB W B 2 W B
T :
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} # $ # 7 # $ # 7 7 0

LL
2 WWB W B 2 W B W B
2 · 3:
1 W 7 zL W 7 zLL W 7 zLp W 7 zp 1 W 7 zL W 7 zLL W 7 zLp W 7 zp
} LpL $b p # p # 7 # $ p # p # 7
2 W; WB W; W WBW W B 2 W; WB W; W WBW W B
T ;:
1 W 7 zL W 7 zLL W 7 zL W 7 z
} LL # $ # # 7 0
2 W;WB W;W WBW W B
T :
} LL # $ # # 7 0
2 WWB WW WBW W B
T :
} LL # $ # 7 # 7 0
2 WWB W WBW W B
The dependence on zL
5 B, · ; 2 ;3:
1 W 7 zL W 7 z:L W 7 z:p W 7 zp 1 W 7 zL W 7 zp
} :pL $b p : # p # # $ #
2 W; W; W; W; WBW; WBW; : 2 W; p W; : WBW; :
;:
} pL 0
:
} pL 0
:
1 W 7 zL W 7 zp
} pL # $ p #
2 W; W WBW
B, 5 ;:
1 W 7 z¹ W 7 zL W 7 zLp W 7 zp¹ 1 9¹ W 7 z¹ W 7 zL
} 9Lp $b 9¹ p # p ¹ # $b #
2 W; WB W; W; W;W; ¹ W;WB 2 W; p WB W; p W; ¹
B2 · B3:
1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} L Lp $b LL p # p 0
2 W; WB W; WB
;2 · ;3:
1 W 7 z W 7 zL 1 W 7 z
} Lp $b p # p # $ p
2 W; WB W; W; 2 W; WB
2 · 3:
1 W 7 z W 7 zL 1 W 7 z
} Lp $b p # p # $ p

2 W; WB W; W 2 W; WB
2 · 3:
1 W 7 z W 7 zL 1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} Lp $b p # p $b # p p 0
2 W; WB W; W 2 W; WB W; WB

B, T ;:
1 W 7 zK¹ W 7 zLK W 7 zL W 7 z¹ 1 9¹ W 7 zL W 7 z¹
} 9LK
$b 9¹ # # $b #
2 W;WB W;W; ¹ W; K W; ¹ W; K WB 2 W; K W; ¹ W; K WB
B2 · B3:
1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} L LK $b LL K # K 0
2 W; WB W; WB
;2 · ;3:
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 z
} LK $b K # K $ K
2 W; W; W; WB 2 W; WB
2 · 3:
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 z
} LK $b K # K $ K

2 W; W W; WB 2 W; WB
2 · 3:
1 W 7 zL W 7 z 1 W 7 zL W 7 zL
} LK $b K # K # $ # K K 0
2 W; W W; WB 2 W; WB W; WB
T B, · ;2 ;3:
1 W 7 zK W 7 z:K W 7 z:L W 7 zL 1 W 7 zK W 7 zL
} :LK $b # # # $ #
2 WBW; : WBW; W; K W; W; K W; : 2 WBW; : W; K W; :
Riemann tensor only depends on z , z , z and z .

• The nonzero calculated elements of the Riemann tensor, from which we can conclude that the
1 W 7 z 1 W 7 z 1 W 7 z

} L L $ 7 } LL $ 7 }

$ 7
2 W B 2 W B 2 W B
LL
1 W 7 z 1 W 7 z 1 W 7 z

} L L $ 7 } L # $ 7 }

# $ 7
2 W B 2 W B 2 W B
L
1 W 7 z 1 W 7 z 1 W 7 z

} L L } LL }

$ 7 $ 7 LL $ 7
2 W B 2 W B 2 W B
1 W 7 z 1 W 7 z 1 W 7 z
} L L $ 7 } L $ 7 }

$ 7
2 W B 2 W B 2 W B
L
1 W 7 z
} L # $ 7
2 W B
1 W 7 z
} L # $ 7
2 W B
13.2.2 125The line element of a plane wave in the Einstein gauge
1
The perturbation
zLL zL zL # 2zLL z 3
2 "
zL z z #zL
z9: A
A
B
B
A zL z #z #zL B
(13.16)
1
# 2 2zLL z 3 #zL #zL z !
the perturbation in the Einstein gauge
125
(McMahon, 2006, pp. 290,12)

0 0 0 0
0 z¼ z¼ 0
zè9:
0 z¼ #z¼ 0
(13.17)
0 0 0 0
z´9: z9: # a:,9 # a9,:

with the transformation
where we can assume that a9 a9 2B # 3
1) z and z are unchanged by the transformation

How to prove (13.17)126:
Wa
z´ z # a, # a, z # 2 z
W;
Wa Wa
z´ z # a, # a, z # # z
W; W
2) Choosing the remaining elements z9:¼
0 leaves z and z unchanged
Wa
z´LL zLL # aL,L # aL,L zLL # 2 L 0
WB
WaL
¿ zLL 2
WB
Wa Wa Wa
z´L zL # a,L # aL, zL # # L zL # 0
WB W; WB
Wa
¿ zL
WB
Wa Wa Wa
z´L zL # a,L # aL, zL # # zL # 0
WB W; WB
Wa
¿ zL
WB
Wa Wa
z´L zL # a,L # aL, zL # # L 0
WB W
WaL Wa
z´L zL # aL, # a,L zL # # 0
W WB
Wa Wa
¿ zL zL L
WB W
Wa
z´ z # a, # a, z # 2 0
W
Wa
¿ z 2
W
13.2.3 127The line element of a plane wave
0 0 0 0
With
0 z z 0
z9:
0 z #z 0
(13.17)
0 0 0 0
56 7 89: 5; 9 5; :
we find the line element
2b9: $z9: 35; 9 5; :
126
(d'Inverno, 1992, pp. 277-278)
127
(McMahon, 2006, p. 291)

2bLL $zLL 35B 7 2bL $zL 35B5; bL $zL 5B5 2bL $zL 35B5
2bL $zL 35;5B 2b $z 35; 7 b $z 5;5
2b $z 35;5 bL $zL 55B b $z 55;
b $z 5 7 b $z 55 2bL $zL 355B
2b $z 355; b $z 55 2b $z 35 7
5B # 21 # $z 35; 7 $z 5;5 $z 55; # 21 $z 35 7 # 5 7
7
5B 7 # 21 # $z 35; 7 # 21 $z 35 7 # 5 7 2$z 5;5

Q :
56 7 5B 7 # 21 # $z 35; 7 # 21 $z 35 7 # 5 7
Q :
(13.18)
56 7 5B 7 # 5; 7 # 5 7 # 5 7 2$z 5;5 (13.19)
5; # 5 5; 5
Considering the following transformation
5; ¼ 5 ¼
√2 √2
1 #1
5; 25; 5 3
¼ ¼
5 25; ¼ # 5 ¼ 3
√2 √2
1 ¼7 1 ¼7 1 ¼7 1 ¼7
5; 5; 5 5;è5è
7
5 5; 5 # 5;è5è
7
2 2 2 2
1
5;5 # 25; # 5 3 ¼7 ¼7 5; 5
7 7
5; 5 ¼7
¼7
2
56 7 5B 7 # 5; 7 # 5 7 # 5 7 2$z 5;5
we can rewrite the line element
5B 7 # 5; ¼7 # 5 ¼7 # 5 7 # $z 25; ¼7 # 5 ¼7 3
5B 7 # 1 $z 5; ¼7 # 1 # $z 5 ¼7 # 5 7 (13.20)
56 7 5R5 # 7 2R35; 7 # 7 2R35 7

13.2.4 128The Rosen line element
1
¬
ª 2 ª̄
1
89:
«2 ®
ª #7 2R3 ª
© # 7 2R3
56 7 5R5 # 7 2R35; 7 # 7 2R35 7

7 7 7 7
éì # éCì # é7ì # é{ì
7 7
éì éCì éì # éCì # é7ì # é{ì
5R éì éCì
5 éì # éCì
128
(McMahon, 2006, p. 298)

1
éì 25R 53 5R éì éCì
2
1 1
éCì 25R # 53 5 éì # éCì
2 #1
1 b ºÕ ¦ §
é ì
7 2R35; 5; é7ì #1
2R3 #1
1
é ì
{ 2R35 5 é{ì
2R3
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:

1
(5.9)
5éì 5 25R 53 0

2
1
5éCì 5 25R # 53 0
2
5 5 ì 1 1 5 7ì
5é7ì 522R35;3 5R µ 5; é éCì µ é7ì # é µ éì éCì
5R 5R 2R3 5R
5 5 ì 1 1 5 {ì
5é{ì 522R353 5R µ 5 é éCì µ é{ì # é µ éì éCì
5R 5R 2R3 5R
1 5 7ì 1 5 {ì
•
The curvature one-forms summarized in a matrix:
¬ 0 0 é 2à3 é 2ü3
ª 5R 5R ª̄
1 5 7ì 1 5 {ì
ª 0 0 é 2à3 é 2ü3ª
Γ 9 : 5R 5R
« 1 5 1 5 ®
é7ì 2à3 # é7ì 2#à3 0 0
ª 5R 5R ª
ª1 5 {ì 1 5 {ì ª
© 5R é 2ü3 # 5R é 2#ü3 0 0

and A and B will be used later, to make the calculations easier
1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
1 5 7ì 5 57 57 ì 1
First we will calculate
5à 5 m é n 5 m 5;n 5R µ 5; é éCì µ é7ì
5R 5R 5R 7 5R 7
1 57 ì
é µ é é µ é
ì
7 ì
C ì
7
5R 7

1 5 {ì 5 57 57 ì 1 {ì
5ü 5m é n 5 m 5n 5R µ 5 é é ì
C
µ é
5R 5R 5R 7 5R 7
1 57 ì
é µ é{ì éCì µ é{ì
5R 7
Ω ì 5Γ ì Γ p̂ µ Γ p̂ ì Γ ì µ Γ ì Γ Cì µ ΓC ì Γ 7ì µ Γ 7 ì Γ {ì µ Γ { ì 0
ì ì ì ì ì ì ì ì ì ì ì
Now we are ready to calculate the curvature two-forms
ΩC ì 5ΓC ì ΓC p̂ µ Γ p̂ ì ΓC ì µ Γ ì ΓC Cì µ ΓC ì ΓC 7ì µ Γ 7 ì ΓC {ì µ Γ { ì 0
Ω7 ì 5Γ 7 ì Γ 7 p̂ µ Γ p̂ ì 5Γ 7 ì Γ 7 ì µ Γ ì Γ 7 Cì µ ΓC ì Γ 7 7ì µ Γ 7 ì Γ 7 {ì µ Γ { ì
ì ì ì ì ì ì ì ì ì ì ì ì
1 57 ì
é µ é7ì éCì µ é7ì
5R 7
Ω{ ì 5Γ { ì Γ { p̂ µ Γ p̂ ì 5Γ { ì Γ { ì µ Γ ì Γ { Cì µ ΓC ì Γ { ì7 µ Γ 7 ì Γ { {ì µ Γ { ì
1 57 ì
5R 7
ΩC Cì 5ΓC Cì ΓC p̂ µ Γ p̂ Cì ΓC ì µ Γ Cì ΓC Cì µ ΓC Cì ΓC 7ì µ Γ 7 Cì ΓC {ì µ Γ { Cì 0
Ω7 Cì 5Γ 7 Cì Γ 7 p̂ µ Γ p̂ ìC 5Γ 7 Cì Γ 7 ì µ Γ Cì Γ 7 Cì µ ΓC Cì Γ 7 ì7 µ Γ 7 ìC Γ 7 {ì µ Γ { Cì
1 57 ì
é µ é7ì éCì µ é7ì
5R 7
Ω{ Cì 5Γ { Cì Γ { p̂ µ Γ p̂ Cì 5Γ { Cì Γ { ì µ Γ Cì Γ { Cì µ ΓC Cì Γ { 7ì µ Γ 7 Cì Γ { {ì µ Γ { Cì
1 57 ì
5R 7
Ω7 7ì 5Γ 7 7ì Γ 7 p̂ µ Γ p̂ 7ì Γ 7 ì µ Γ 7ì Γ 7 Cì µ ΓC 7ì Γ 7 7ì µ Γ 7 7ì Γ 7 {ì µ Γ { 7ì 0
Ω{ 7ì 5Γ { 7ì Γ { p̂ µ Γ p̂ 7ì Γ { ì µ Γ 7ì Γ { Cì µ ΓC 7ì Γ { 7ì µ Γ 7 7ì Γ { {ì µ Γ { 7ì
1 5 {ì 1 5 7ì 1 5 {ì 1 5 7ì
é µ é é µ m# é n0
5R 5R 5R 5R
Ω{ {ì 5Γ { {ì Γ { p̂ µ Γ p̂ ì{ Γ { ì µ Γ {ì Γ { Cì µ ΓC {ì Γ { 7ì µ Γ 7 {ì Γ { {ì µ Γ { {ì 0
1 57 ì 1 57 ì
•
¬0 0 7 é
µ é7ì éCì µ é7ì é µ é{ì éCì µ é{ì
ª 5R 5R 7 ª̄
Ω : 0 0 1 5 éì µ é7ì éCì µ é7ì 1 57 ì
9 7
« é µ é{ éC µ é{ ®
ì ì ì
5R 7 5R 7
ªú àú 0 0 ª
©ú àú 0 0
• Now we can write down the independent elements of the Riemann tensor in the non-
1 57 1 57
coordinate basis:
R7 ì7ìì # R #
ì ì
{
5R 7 5R 7
ì ì
{ ì
1 5 7
1 57
R7 ì7ìCì # R ì #
ì ì
{
5R 7 5R 7
ì{
ìC
1 5 7
1 57
R7 Cì7ìCì # R #
ì ì
{
5R 7 5R 7
ì ì
C{C ì

}9: } p̂ 9p̂:
1 57 1 57
(4.46)
}ìì } p̂ ìp̂ì } ììì }CìCìì } 7ìì7ì } {ì{ìì #

ì ì ì ì
5R 7 5R 7
1 57 1 57
}Cìì } p̂ Cìp̂ì } Cììì }CCìCìì } 7Cì7ìì } {Cì{ìì #
ì ì ì ì
5R 7 5R 7
}7ìì } p̂ 7ìp̂ì } 7ììì }C7ìCìì } 77ì7ìì } {7ì{ìì
ì ì ì ì
0
}{ìì } p̂ {ìp̂ì } {ììì }C{ìCìì } 7{ì7ìì } {{ì{ìì 0
ì ì ì ì
1 57 1 57
}ìCì } p̂ ìp̂Cì } ììCì }CìCìCì } 7ì7ìCì } {ì{ìCì #
ì ì ì ì
5R 7 5R 7
1 57 1 57
}CìCì } p̂ Cìp̂Cì } CììCì }CCìCìCì } 7Cì7ìCì } {Cì{ìCì #
ì ì ì ì
5R 7 5R 7
}Cì7ì } p̂ Cìp̂7ì } Cìì7ì }CCìCì7ì } 7Cì7ì7ì } {Cì{ì7ì
ì ì ì ì
0
}Cì{ì } p̂ Cìp̂{ì } Cìì{ì }CCìCìì{ } 7Cìì7{ì } {Cì{ì{ì 0
ì ì ì ì
}ì7ì } p̂ ìp̂7ì } ìì7ì }CìCìì7 } 7ìì77ì } {ì{ì7ì 0

ì ì ì ì
}Cì7ì } p̂ Cìp̂7ì } Cìì7ì }CCìCì7ì } 7Cì7ì7ì } {Cì{ì7ì 0

ì ì ì ì
1 57 1 57
}7ì7ì } p̂ 7ìp̂7ì } 7ìì7ì }C7ìCìì7 } 77ìì77ì } {7ì{ì7ì
ì ì ì ì
# 0
5R 7 5R 7
}{ì7ì } {ìp̂7ì 0
p̂
}ì{ì } p̂ ìp̂{ì } ìì{ì }CìCìì{ } 7ìì7{ì } {ì{ì{ì 0

ì ì ì ì
}Cì{ì } p̂ Cìp̂{ì } Cìì{ì }CCìCì{ì } 7Cì7ì{ì } {Cì{ì{ì 0

ì ì ì ì
1 57 1 57
}{ì{ì } p̂ {ìp̂{ì } {ìì{ì }C{ìCìì{ } 7{ìì7{ì } {{ì{ì{ì
ì ì ì ì
# 0
5R 7 5R 7
1 57 1 57 1 57 1 57
•
¬# # 0 0
ª 5R 7 5R 7 5R 7 5R 7 ª̄
ª ª
}9: # 1 5 1 5 # 1 5 1 5
7 7 7 7
« 5R 7 5R 7 0 0®
5R 7 5R 7
ª
ª 0 0 0 0ª
ª
© 0 0 0 0
13.3 129Colliding gravity waves - coordinate transformation
56 7 Æ2I32G 7 # S 7 35I7 25I5A # 5G 7 # 5S 7

The metric of a plane gravitational wave
can be written in terms of the null coordinates I and ^ by using the following coordinate transformation130
(13.42)
I I
1 1
A ^ # Θ2I321 # I3; 7 Θ2I321 I3 7
2 2
G 1 # IΘ2I3;
129
(McMahon, 2006, p. 304)
130
http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/~majbg/jbg/book/chap3.pdf

S 1 IΘ2I3
5I 5I
WA WA WA WA
5A 5^ 5I 5; 5
W^ WI W; W
1 1
5^ # m Θ¼ 2I321 # I3 # Θ2I3; 7 # Θ¼ 2I321 I3 Θ2I3 7 n 5I # Θ2I321 # I3;5;
2 2
Θ2I321 I35
1 1
1315^ # m Æ2I3 # Θ2I3; 7 # Æ2I3 Θ2I3 7 n 5I # Θ2I321 # I3;5;
2 2
Θ2I321 I35
1
5^ # Æ2I32; 7 # 7 3 # Θ2I32; 7 7 35I # Θ2I321 # I3;5; Θ2I321 I35
2
5G #Θ2I3 # IΘ¼ 2I3;5I 1 # IΘ2I35;
#Θ2I3;5I 1 # IΘ2I35;
5S Θ2I3 IΘ¼ 2I35I 1 IΘ2I35
Θ2I35I 1 IΘ2I35
G7 # S7 1 # IΘ2I3 ; 7 # 1 IΘ2I3 7
7 7
1 I7 Θ7 2I32; 7 # 7 3 # 2IΘ2I32; 7 7 3
Æ2I32G 7 Æ2I31 I7 Θ7 2I32; 7 # 7 3 # Æ2I32IΘ2I32; 7 7 3
# S73
Æ2I32; 7 # 7 3
5G 7 #Θ2I3;5I 1 # IΘ2I35;
7
Θ7 2I3; 7 5I7 1 # IΘ2I3 5; 7 # 2Θ2I31 # IΘ2I3;5I5;

7
5S 7 Θ2I35I 1 IΘ2I35
7
Θ7 2I3 7 5I7 +1 IΘ2I3 5 7 2Θ2I31 IΘ2I35I5

7
Θ7 2I3; 7 5I7 1 # IΘ2I3 5; 7 # 2Θ2I31 # IΘ2I3;5I5; Θ7 2I3 7 5I7

7
5G 5S
7 7
1 IΘ2I3 5 7 2Θ2I31 IΘ2I35I5
7
Θ7 2I32; 7 7 35I7 1 # IΘ2I3 5; 7 # 2Θ2I31 # IΘ2I3;5I5;

7
1 IΘ2I3 5 7 2Θ2I31 IΘ2I35I5

7
7 35I 7
56 7 Æ2I32G # S
7
25I5A # 5G 7 # 5S 7
Æ2I32; 7 # 7 35I7
1
25I m5^ # Æ2I32; 7 # 7 3 # Θ2I32; 7 7 35I # Θ2I321 # I3;5;
2
Θ2I321 I35n
# JΘ7 2I32; 7 7 35I7 1 # IΘ2I3 5; 7 # 2Θ2I31 # IΘ2I3;5I5;
7
1 IΘ2I3 5 7 2Θ2I31 IΘ2I35I5

7
25I5^ 25I2#Θ2I321 # I3;5; Θ2I321 I353

# J1 # IΘ2I3 5; 7 # 2Θ2I31 # IΘ2I3;5I5; 1 IΘ2I3 5 7
7 7
2Θ2I31 IΘ2I35I5
13225I5^ # 1 # IΘ2I3 5; 7 # 1 IΘ2I3 5 7
7 7
(13.43)
IΘ¼ 2I3 IÆ2I3 0

Θ7 2I3 Θ2I3
131
132

13.4 133The delta – 123 and heavy-side – 423 functions: prove that 123
∞ Ù· I 0Û
U
Definitions
Æ2I3 6 Æ2I35I 1
0 Ù· I Ú 0 ÑU
0 Ù· I 0 5Θ2I3 134Θ¼ 2I3
;

Θ2I3 1 Ù· I F 0Û; Θ2I3 6 Æ2I35I
5I Æ2I3; ÑU
U U
We calculate
6 ·2I3Æ2I35I 6 ·2I3Θ¼ 2I35I
ÑU ÑU
U
·2I3Θ2I3U
ÑU # 6 · 2I3Θ2I35I
¼
ÑU
U
¼ 2I35I
·2∞3 # 6 ·

·2∞3 # ·2∞3 # ·203
·203
if ·2I3 I we find
U U
6 ·2I3Æ2I35I 6 IÆ2I35I 0
ÑU ÑU
Next we assume that IÆ2I3 0. Multiplying both sides with a test function ·2I3 and integrating we get
U U
6 ·2I3IÆ2I35I 6 ·2I3 S 05I
ÑU ÑU
¿ 0 S ·203 0
IÆ2I3 0
which is consistent with our initial assumption and we can therefore conclude that
U U
Next we calculate
6 ·2I3Æ ¼ 2I35I ·2I3Æ2I3U
ÑU # 6 · 2I3Æ2I35I
¼
ÑU ÑU
U
·2I3Æ2I3U
ÑU # 6 · 2I3Θ 2I35I
¼ ¼
ÑU
U
·2I3Æ2I3U
ÑU # · 2I3Θ2I3ÑU # 6 · 2I3Θ2I35I
¼ U ¼¼
ÑU
U
0 # ·è2∞3 # 6 · ¼¼ 2I35I

¼ 2∞3 ¼ 2∞3
# J· # · # · ¼ 203Q
135 # · ¼ 203
if ·2I3 I we find
U U
6 ·2I3Æ ¼ 2I35I 6 IÆè2I35I #1
ÑU ÑU
Next we assume that #Æ2I3 IÆè2I3. Multiplying both sides with a test function ·2I3 and integrating we
U U
get
6 #·2I3Æ2I35I 6 ·2I3IÆ ¼ 2I35I
ÑU ÑU
¿ #·203 #2·2I3I3¼ 2I 03
133
(McMahon, 2006, p. 304)
The general formula is ;ÑU ·2I3Æ 2É3 2I35I 2#13É · 2É3 203
134
U
(13.44)
135

#· ¼ 2I3 S I ·2I32I 03

#·203
#Æ2I3 IÆè2I3
which is consistent with our initial assumption and we can therefore conclude that
56 7 25I5^ # 1 # ^Θ2^37 5; 7 # 1 ^Θ2^37 5 7

13.5 136Impulsive gravitational wave Region III
5 Wã Wã
0 m 9n # 9
56 W;l W;
(10.36)
ã 2Il ^l # 1 # ^Θ2^37 ;l 7 # 1 ^Θ2^37 l 7

where
; I:
9
Wã
0
WI
Wã
2^l
WIl
5 Wã
m n 2^
56 WIl
0 ^
; 9 ^:
Wã
2Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3;l 7 # 2Θ2^31 ^Θ2^3l 7
W^
Wã
2Il
W^l
5 Wã
m n 2I
56 W^l
0 I # Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3;l 7 Θ2^31 ^Θ2^3l 7
; 9 ;:
Wã
0
W;
Wã
#21 # ^Θ2^37 ;l
W;l
5 Wã 5Θ2^3
m n #2 #^l Θ2^3 # ^^l 21 # ^Θ2^3;l # 21 # ^Θ2^37 ;
56 W;l 5^
1374Θ2^3 ^Æ2^31 # ^Θ2^3;l ^l # 21 # ^Θ2^37 ;
0 1381 # ^Θ2^37 ; # 2Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3;l ^l
2Θ2^3
¿ 0 ; # ;l ^l
1 # ^Θ2^3
; 9 :
136
Æ2^3
137 KV2[3
K[
^Æ2^3 0
138

Wã
0
W
Wã
#21 ^Θ2^37 l
Wl
5 Wã 5Θ2^3
m n #2 ^l Θ2^3 ^^l 21 ^Θ2^3l # 21 ^Θ2^37
56 Wl 5^
#4Θ2^3 ^Æ2^31 ^Θ2^3l ^l # 21 ^Θ2^37
0 1 ^Θ2^37 2Θ2^31 Θ2^3l ^l
2Θ2^3
¿ 0 l ^l
1 ^Θ2^3
0 ^
0 I # Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3;l 7 Θ2^31 ^Θ2^3l 7

2Θ2^3
0 ; # ;l ^l
1 # ^Θ2^3
2Θ2^3
0 l ^l
1 ^Θ2^3
Θ2^3 Θ2^3
• We can now find the Christoffel symbols:
Γ #Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3 Γ [ # Γ [

1 # ^Θ2^3 1 ^Θ2^3
Γ Θ2^31 ^Θ2^3
• The Petrov type
56 7 25I5^ # 1 # ^Θ2^37 5; 7 # 1 ^Θ2^37 5 7

1
1
89: ¦ §
#1 # ^Θ2^37
#1 ^Θ2^37
1
¬1
ª 1 ª̄
89: #
•
« 1 # ^Θ2^37 ®
1
and its inverse:
ª # ª
© 1 ^Θ2^37
56 7 25I5^ # 1 # ^Θ2^37 5; 7 # 1 ^Θ2^37 5 7

7 7 7 7
éð # é[ð # é # é

7 7
éð é[ð éð # é[ð # é # é
√25I éð é[ð
√25^ éð # é[ð
1 1
éð 25I 5^3 5I éð é[ð
√2 √2
1 1 1
é ð
[ 25I # 5^3 5^ éð # é[ð
√2 √2 ¦ #1 §
1 b ºÕ
#1
é 1 # ^Θ2^35; 5; é
1 # ^Θ2^3 #1
1
é 1 ^Θ2^35 5 é
1 ^Θ2^3
√25I
e 1 1 0 0 éð éð é[ð
V 1
1 #1 0 0 1 1 √25^ "
é é # é
ð
[ ð
ð
[
A B
@ √2 0 0 1 Ù é √2 é Ùé √2 1 # ^Θ2^35; Ù1 ^Θ2^35

@ 0 0 1 #Ù é é # Ùé 1 # ^Θ2^35; # Ù1 ^Θ2^35!

e9 21, 0, 0, 03 V9 20, 1, 0, 03
1 1
@9 0, 0, 1 # ^Θ2^3, Ù1 ^Θ2^3 #### @9 0, 0, 1 # ^Θ2^3, #Ù1 ^Θ2^3
√2 √2
e 89 e9 8[ e[ 1 S 0 0
e [ 89[ e9 8[ e 1 S 1 1
e e 0
V 89 V9 8[ V[ 1 S 1 1
V[ 89[ V9 8[ V 1 S 0 0
V V 0
@[ @ 0
1 1 1 1
@ 8 @ # 1 S S 1 # ^Θ2^3 #
# ^Θ2^3 √2
7
√2 1 # ^Θ2^3
1 1 1 1
@ 8 @ # 1 S Ù1 ^Θ2^3 #Ù
^Θ2^3 √2
7
√2 1 ^Θ2^3
e9 21, 0, 0, 03 e9 20, 1, 0, 03
V9 20, 1, 0, 03 V9 21, 0, 0, 03
1 1 1 1
@9 0, 0, 1 # ^Θ2^3, Ù1 ^Θ2^3 @9 0, 0, # , #Ù
√2 √2 1 # ^Θ2^3 1 ^Θ2^3
1 1 1 1
@9
#### 0, 0, 1 # ^Θ2^3, #Ù1 ^Θ2^3 @
9 0, 0, # , Ù
√2 √2 1 # ^Θ2^3 1 ^Θ2^3

• The spin coefficients calculated from the orthonormal tetrad
1
#F: V9 @
9 e: þ F: e9 @9 e: $ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @
9 e:
2
1
^ #F: V9 @
9 V: < F: e9 @9 V: % F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
2
1
#F: V9 @
9@
: F: e9 @9 @
: D F: e9 V9 @ : # F: @9 @
9@ :
(9.15)
2
1
] #F: V9 @
9 @: \ F: e9 @9 @: ³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
#F: V9 @ 9 e : #FW V9 @ 9 e [ #F[ V @ e [ # F[ V @ e[ 0

^ #F: V9 @ 9 V: #F V9 @ 9 V #F V @ V # F V @ V 0

#F: V9 @ 9@ : #F V9 @ 9@ # F V9 @ 9@
#F V @ @ # F V @

@ # F V @

@ # F V @

@
#2W V # Γ p Vp 3@ @ # W V # Γ p Vp @ @ # W V # Γ p Vp @ @

# W V # Γ p Vp @ @

Γ V @

@

Γ V @

@

0
] #F: V9 @ 9 @: Γ V @ @ Γ V @ @ 0
þ F: e9 @9 e: F[ e9 @9 e[ F[ e @ e [ F[ e @ e [ 0
< F: e9 @9 V: F e9 @9 V F e @ V F e @ V[ 0
F: e9 @9 @ :
F e9 @ @ F e9 @9 @
9

F e @ @ F e @ @

F e @ @

F e @ @
2W e # Γ p ep 3@ @ W e # Γ p ep @ @ W e # Γ p ep @ @
W e # Γ p ep @ @

#Γ e @ @ Γ e @ @
1 1 1
# Ü#Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3 # #
2 1 # ^Θ2^3 1 # ^Θ2^3
1 1 1
Θ2^31 ^Θ2^3 #Ù Ù ×
2 1 ^Θ2^3 1 ^Θ2^3
Θ2^3 1 1 ^Θ2^3
# 139
2 1 # ^Θ2^3 1 ^Θ2^3 1 ^Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3
\ F: e9 @ @
9 :
Θ2^3 1 1

2 1 # ^Θ2^3 1 ^Θ2^3
Θ2^3

1 ^Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3
Θ7 2^3 Θ2^3
139

1
$ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @ 9 e:
2
1
2F[ e9 V9 e [ # F[ @9 @
9 e[ 3
2
1
F[ e V e [ # F[ @ @
e[ # F[ @ @ e[
2
1
# J2W[ @ # Γ p[ @p 3@ W[ @ # Γ p[ @p @ Q
2
1
# mW[ 1 # ^Θ2^3 # Γ [ @ @ V[ JW[ JÙ1 ^Θ2^3Q # Γ [ @ Q @
V[ n

2
1 Θ2^3
# ÜÖ#Θ2^3 # ^Æ2^3 # # 1 # ^Θ2^3× @
V[
2 1 # ^Θ2^3
Θ2^3
ÖÙ2Θ2^3 ^Æ2^33 # V[ Ý
Ù1 ^Θ2^3× @
1 ^Θ2^3
0
1
% F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @
9 V:
2
1
2FX e9 V9 V # F @9 @ 9 V 3
2
1
FX e V V # F @ @ V # F @ @ V
2
0
1
D F: e9 V9 @
: # F: @9 @
9@ :
2
1 1
2F e9 V9 @
# F @9 @
9@ 3 F e9 V9 @ # F @9 @
9@
2 2
1
F e V @
# F @ @
@ # F @ @
@ F e V @
# F @ @
@
# F @ @
@

2
0
1
³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @: 0
2
0 þ 0 $ 0
^ 0 < 0 % 0
^Θ2^3
0 D 0
1 ^Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3
Θ2^3
] 0 \ ³ 0
1 ^Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3
Ψ ý\ # Æþ # \2 ( 3 # \23$ # $(3 þ2 # # D# 3³)

ΨC ý³ # Æ$ # \2D 3 # ³2( # $(3 þ2] %3 $2D# # #3
(13.22)
Ψ7 Æ(< # Δ # ]( # \ <³( # D # <( 2% %( 3 þ^ # 2Λ

(13.23)
Ψ{ Æ(% # Δα ^2 $3 # 2< ³3 D2%( # ]( 3 %³( # <(

(13.24)
(13.25)

ΨÏ Æ(^ # Δλ 2] ]( 3 # 23% # %( 3 ^3D ³( # <( (13.26)
ý e 9 F9 Δ V 9 F9 Æ @ 9 F9 Æ( @ 9 F9
Where
(9.13)
Ψ ý\ # Æþ # \2 ( 3 # \23$ # $(3 þ2 # # D# 3³) ý\ # 2\

Θ2^3 Θ2^3 ^Θ2^3
e 9 F9 # 2
1 ^Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3 1 ^Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3 1 ^Θ2^31 # ^Θ2^3
Θ2^3 ^Θ2^3
e [ ∂W #2
1 # ^Θ2^31 ^Θ2^3 1 # ^ 7 Θ2^3
7
Θ2^3 ^Θ2^3
∂W # 2
1 # ^ 7 Θ2^3 1 # ^ 7 Θ2^3
7
Æ2^31 # ^ 7 Θ2^3 # Θ2^3#2^Θ2^3 # ^ 7 Æ2^3 ^Θ2^3

#2
1 # ^ 7 Θ2^3 1 # ^ 7 Θ2^3
7 7
Æ2^3
ΨC 0
Ψ7 Æ(< # Δ # ]( # \ <³( # D # <( 2% %( 3 þ^ # 2Λ #Δ #V9 F9 #V F 0
Ψ{ 0
ΨÏ 0
140Ψ Ú 0: This is a Petrov type N, which means there is a single principal null direction of multiplicity 4.

This corresponds to transverse gravity waves in region III.
56 7 25I5^ # cos 7 ^ 5; 7 # cosh7 ^ 5 7

13.6 141Two interacting waves
5 Wã Wã
0 m 9n # 9
56 W;l W;
(10.36)
ã 2Il ^l # cos 7 ^ ;l 7 # cosh7 ^ l 7

where
; ^:
9
Wã
2 cos ^ sin ^ ;l 7 # 2 cosh ^ sinh ^ l 7
W^
Wã
2Il
W^l
5 Wã
m n 2I
56 W^l
0 I # cos ^ sin ^ ;l 7 cosh ^ sinh ^ l 7
; I:
9
Wã
0
WI
140
http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/~majbg/jbg/book/chap3.pdf
141

Wã
2^l
WIl
5 Wã
m n 2^
56 WIl
0 ^
; 9 ;:
Wã
0
W;
Wã
#2 cos 7 ^ ;l
W;l
5 Wã
m n 4 cos ^ sin ^ ^l ;l # 2 cos7 ^ ;
56 W;l
0 2 cos ^ sin ^ ^l ;l # cos7 ^ ;
¿ 0 ; # 2 tan ^ ^l ;l
; 9 :
Wã
0
W
Wã
#2 cosh7 ^ l
Wl
5 Wã
m n #4 cosh ^ sinh ^ ^l l # 2 cos7 ^
56 Wl
0 #2 cosh ^ sinh ^ ^l l # cosh7 ^
¿ 0 2 tanh ^ ^l l
0 ^
0 I # cos ^ sin ^ ;l 7 cosh ^ sinh ^ l 7

0 ; # 2 tan ^ ^l ;l
0 2 tanh ^ ^l l
Γ # cos ^ sin ^ Γ cosh ^ sinh ^

• We can now find the Christoffel symbols:
Γ [ # tan ^ Γ [ # tan ^

Γ [ tanh ^ Γ [ tanh ^

• The Petrov type
56 7 25I5^ # cos 7 ^ 5; 7 # cosh7 ^ 5 7

1
¦ 1
89: §
# cos7 ^
# cosh7 ^

1
¬1
ª 1 ª̄
89: #
« cos 7 ^ ®
•
1
and its inverse:
ª ª
© #
cosh ^
7
56 7 25I5^ # cos7 ^ 5; 7 # cosh7 ^ 5 7

7 7 7 7
éð # é[ð # é # é
7 7
√25I éð é[ð
√25^ éð # é[ð
é cos ^ 5;
é cosh ^ 5
1 1
√2 √2
1 1 1
é[ð 25I # 5^3 5^ éð # é[ð
√2 √2 ¦ #1 §
b ºÕ
1 #1
é cos ^ 5; 5; é
cos ^ #1
1
é cosh ^ 5 5 é
cosh ^
e 1 1 0 0 éð éð é[ð √25I

V 1 1 #1 0 0 é 1 é # é 1 √25^ "
ð
[ ð
ð
[

@ √2 0 0 1 Ù é √2 é Ùé
√2 cos ^ 5; Ù cosh ^ 5
@ 0 0 1 #Ù é é # Ùé cos ^ 5; # Ù cosh ^ 5!
e9 21, 0, 0, 03 V9 20, 1, 0, 03
1 1
@9 20, 0, cos ^ , Ù cosh ^3 @9
#### 20, 0, cos ^ , #Ù cosh ^3
√2 √2
e 89 e9 8[ e[ 1 S 0 0
e [ 89[ e9 8[ e 1 S 1 1
e e 0
V 89 V9 8[ V[ 1 S 1 1
V[ 89[ V9 8[ V 1 S 0 0
V V 0

@[ @ 0
1 1 1 1
@ 8 @ # S S cos ^ #
cos ^ √2
7
√2 cos ^
1 1 1 1
@ 8 @ # S Ù cosh ^ #Ù
cosh ^ √2
7
√2 cosh ^
e9 21, 0, 0, 03 e9 20, 1, 0, 03
V9 20, 1, 0, 03 V9 21, 0, 0, 03
1 1 1 1
@9 20, 0, cos ^ , Ù cosh ^3 @9 m0, 0, # , #Ù n
√2 √2 cos ^ cosh ^
1 1 1 1
@9
#### 20, 0, cos ^ , #Ù cosh ^3 @
9 m0, 0, # , Ù n
√2 √2 cos ^ cosh ^
1
#F: V9 @
9 e: þ F: e9 @9 e: $ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @
9 e:
2
1
^ #F: V9 @
9 V: < F: e9 @9 V: % F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
2
1
#F: V9 @
9@
: F: e9 @9 @
: D F: e9 V @
9 :
# F: @9 @ @
9 :
(9.15)
2
1
] #F: V9 @
9 @: \ F: e9 @9 @: ³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
#F: V9 @ 9 e : #F[ V9 @ 9 e [ #F[ V @

e [ # FW V @
e[ 0
^ #F: V9 @ 9 V: #F V9 @ 9 V #F V @ V # F V @ V 0

#F: V9 @ @
9
:
#F V9 @ @
9
# F V9 @ 9@
#F V @ @ # F V @

@ # F V @

@ # F V @ @
0
] #F: V9 @ 9 @: 0
þ F: e9 @9 e: FW e9 @9 eW FW e @ e W FW e @ e W 0
< F: e9 @9 V: F e9 @9 V F e @ V F e @ V 0
F: e9 @9 @ :
F e9 @ @ F e9 @9 @
9

F e @ @
F e @ @ F e @ @ F e @ @
2W e # Γ p ep 3@ @
W e # Γ p ep @ @ W e # Γ p ep @ @
W e # Γ p ep @ @

#Γ e @ @

Γ e @ @

1 7
1 1
# Ü# cos ^ sin ^ m# n cosh ^ sinh ^ m#Ù n mÙ nÝ
√2 cos ^ √2 cosh ^ √2 cosh ^

2tan ^ # tanh ^3
2


\ F: e9 @9 @: #Γ e @ @ Γ e @ @ 2tan ^ tanh ^3
2
1
$ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @ 9 e:
2
1
2FW e9 V9 e W # FW @9 @
9 eW 3
2
1
FW e V eW # FW @ @ e W # FW @ @ eW
2
1
# J2W[ @ # Γ p[ @p 3@ e W W[ @ # Γ p[ @p @ eW Q
2
1 1 1
# ÖmW[ cos ^ # Γ [ @ n @ e W mW[ Ù cosh ^ # Γ [ @ n @
eW ×

2 √2 √2
1 1 1 1 1
# Öm# sin ^ — tan ^n cos ^× @ mÙ sinh ^ # tanh ^ Ù cosh ^n @

2 √2 √2 √2 √2
0
1
% F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @
9 V:
2
1
2F e9 V9 V # F @9 @ 9 V 3
2
1
F e V V # F @ @ V # F @ @ V
2
0
1
D F: e9 V9 @
: # F: @9 @
9@ :
2
1 1
2F e9 V9 @
# F @9 @
9@ 3 F e9 V9 @ # F @9 @
9@

2 2
0
1
³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @: 0
2
0 þ 0 $ 0
^ 0 < 0 % 0

0 2tan ^ # tanh ^3 D 0
2

] 0 \ 2tan ^ tanh ^3 ³ 0
2
Ψ ý\ # Æþ # \2 ( 3 # \23$ # $(3 þ2 # # D# 3³)

ΨC ý³ # Æ$ # \2D 3 # ³2( # $(3 þ2] %3 $2D# # #3
(13.22)
Ψ7 Æ(< # Δ # ]( # \ <³( # D # <( 2% %( 3 þ^ # 2Λ

(13.23)
Ψ{ Æ(% # Δα ^2 $3 # 2< ³3 D2%( # ]( 3 %³( # <(

(13.24)
ΨÏ Æ(^ # Δλ 2] ]( 3 # 23% # %( 3 ^3D ³( # <(

(13.25)
(13.26)
ý e 9 F9 Δ V 9 F9 Æ @ 9 F9 Æ( @ 9 F9
Where
(9.13)

Ψ ý\ # \2 ( 3
ý\ # 2\
e 9 F9 \ # 2\
e [ W[ \ # 2\

e [ W[ 2tan ^ tanh ^3 # 2 2tan ^ tanh ^3 2tan ^ # tanh ^3
2 2 2
7
7
Ö 21 tan7 ^ 1 # tanh7 ^3× # Ö 2tan7 ^ # tanh7 ^3×
2 2
7
ΨC 0
Ψ7 #Δ #V9 F9 #V ∂ 0
Ψ{ 0
ΨÏ 0
Ψ Ú 0: This is a Petrov type N, which means there is a single principal null direction (V9 3 of multiplicity 4.
1
13.7 142The Nariai spacetime
56 7 #Λ^ 7 5I7 25I5¨ # 7 25; 7 5 7 3
Ω
•
Λ 7
The line element:
Ω 1 2; 3 7
2
#Λ^ 7 1
¬
ª 1 1 ª̄ 1
89: # 7 89: ¦ 1 Λν7 §
Ω #Ω7
•
« ®
The metric tensor and
ª 1ª #Ω7
its inverse:
© # 7
Ω
1
Γ9:p 2Wp 89: W: 89p # W9 8:p 3 24.153 Γ 9:p 89K ΓK:p
2
1
(4.16)
Γ[ W[ 28 3 #Λ^ Γ [[ 8[ Γ[ #Λ^

2
1
Γ[ # W[ 28 3 Λ^ Γ [ 8[[ Γ[ Λ7 ^ {
2
Γ 8[ Γ[ Λ^
1 Λ; Λ;
Γ W 28 3 { Γ 8 Γ #
2 Ω Ω
1 Λ Λ
Γ W 28 3 { Γ 8 Γ #
2 Ω Ω
1 Λ Λ
Γ # W 28 3 # { Γ

8 Γ
2 Ω Ω
1 Λ Λ
Γ W 8 { Γ 8 Γ #

2 Ω Ω
1 Λ; Λ;
Γ W 8 { Γ 8 Γ #

2 Ω Ω
142

1 Λ; Λ;
Γ # W 8 # { Γ 8 Γ
2 Ω Ω
Γ [[ #Γ #Λ^

Γ [ Λ7 ^ {
Λ;
Γ Γ #Γ #
Ω
Λ
Γ #Γ Γ #

Ω
1
56 7 #Λ^ 7 5I7 25I5¨ # 7 25; 7 5 7 3 éð # é° # é # é
7 7 7 7
Ω
1 1
5I#Λ^ 7 5I 25¨ # 7 5; 7 # 7 5 7 éð é° éð # é° # é # é
7 7
Ω Ω
éð é° 5I
éð # é° #Λ^ 7 5I 25¨
1
é 5;
Ω
1
é
5
Ω
1
éð 2#Λ^ 7 135I 5¨ 5I éð é°
2
1 1 1
é° 2Λ^ 7 135I # 5¨ 5¨ 21 Λ^ 7 3éð # 21 # Λ^ 7 3é°
2 2 2
1
é 5; 5; Ωé

Ω
1
é 5 5 Ωé
Ω
1
¦ #1 §
b ºÕ
#1
#1
5I
e 1 1 0 0 é ð
é é ð
° #Λ^ 5I 25¨ 7
1 1 #1 0 0 1 éð # é° 1 1 1 "
V é °
A 5; Ù 5 B (9.10)
@ √2 0 0 1 Ù é √2 é Ùé √2 A Ω Ω B

@ 0 0 1 #Ù é
é # Ùé
1 1
Ω 5; # Ù Ω 5 !

1 1
e9 21, 0, 0, 03 V9 2#Λ^ 7 , 2, 0, 03
√2 √2
1 1 1 1 1 1
@9 m0, , Ù n
0, @9
#### m0, 0, , #Ù n
√2 Ω Ω √2 Ω Ω
e 89 e9 8° e° 1 S 0 0
1 1
e° 89° e9 8° e 8°° e° 1 S m n Λ^ 7 S 0
√2 √2
e e 0
2
V 89 V9 8° V° 1 S m n √2
√2
1 2 1
V° 89° V9 8° V 8°° V° 1 S Ö 2#Λ^ 7 3× Λ^ 7 S m n Λ^ 7
√2 √2 √2
V V 0
@ @° 0
1 1 Ω
@ 89 @9 8 @ 2#Ω7 3 S #
√2 Ω √2
1 1 Ω
@ 8 @9 8 @ 2#Ω 3 S Ù
9 7
#Ù
√2 Ω √2
1 1
e9 21, 0, 0, 03 e9 20, 1, 0, 03
√2 √2
1 1
V9 2#Λ^ 7 , 2, 0, 03 V9 22, Λ^ 7 , 0, 03
√2 √2
1 1 1 1
@9 m0, 0, , Ù n @9 20, 0, #Ω, #ÙΩ3
√2 Ω Ω √2
1 1 1 1
9
@ m0, 0, , #Ù n @
9 20, 0, #Ω, ÙΩ3
√2 Ω Ω √2
1
#F: V9 @
9 e: þ F: e9 @9 e: $ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @
9 e:
2
1
^ #F: V9 @
9 V: < F: e9 @9 V: % F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
2
1
#F: V9 @
9@
: F: e9 @9 @
: D F: e9 V9 @ : # F: @9 @
9@ :
(9.15)
2
1
] #F: V9 @
9 @: \ F: e9 @9 @: ³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
#F: V9 @ 9 e:
#F[ V9 @ 9 e[
#F[ V @ e [ # FW V @
e[

#2W[ V # Γ î [ Vp 3@ e [ # W[ V # Γ î [ Vp @ e[

0
^ #F: V9 @ 9 V: #F V9 @ 9 V #F V @ V # F V @ V 0
#F: V9 @ @
9 :
#F V9 @ @ # F V9 @
9
9@
#F V @ @ # F V @

@ # F V @

@ # F V @ @
0
] #F: V9 @ 9 @: 0
þ F: e9 @ e FW e9 @9 eW FW e @ e W FW e @ e W 0
9 :
< F: e9 @9 V: F e9 @9 V F e @ V F e @ V 0
F: e9 @9 @:
F e9 @ @ F e9 @9 @
9

F e @ @
F e @ @ F e @ @ F e @ @
2W e # Γ ep 3@ @
p
W e # Γ ep @ @
p
W e # Γ p ep @ @

W e # Γ p ep @ @

0
\ F: e9 @9 @: 0
1
$ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @ 9 e:
2
1
2FW e9 V9 e W # FW @9 @ 9 eW 3
2
1
2
0
1
% F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
2
1
2F e9 V9 V # F @9 @ 9 V 3
2
1
F e V V # F @ @ V # F @ @ V
2
1
2W e # Γ p ep 3V V
2
1
# Γ e V V
2
1 1 2 7
# Λ^ m n
2 √2 √2
1
# Λ^
√2
1
D F: e9 V9 @ : # F: @9 @ 9@ :
2
1 1
2F e9 V9 @ # F @9 @ 9@ 3 F e9 V9 @ # F @9 @ 9@
2 2
1
# F @ @ @
F @ @ @ F @ @ @ F @ @ @

2
1
# W @ # Γ p @p @ @ ôW @ # Γ p @p õ@ @ ôW @ # Γ p @p õ@
@

2
ôW @ # Γ p @p õ@ @

1 1 1
# mW m n # Γ @ # Γ @ @ @ W m n # Γ @ # Γ @ @
@

2 √2Ω √2Ω
Ù
W m n # Γ @ # Γ @ @ @

√2Ω
Ù
W m n # Γ @ # Γ @ @ @
n

√2Ω
1 Λ; Λ; 1 Λ 1
# mm# n # m# n m n # m n mÙ n @
@
2 √2Ω 7 Ω √2Ω Ω √2Ω
Λ Λ 1 Λ; 1
m# n # m# n m n # m# n mÙ n @ @
√2Ω 7 Ω √2Ω Ω √2Ω
Λ; Λ 1 Λ; 1
m#Ù n # m# n m n # m# n mÙ n @ @
√2Ω7 Ω √2Ω Ω √2Ω
Λ Λ; 1 Λ 1
m#Ù n # m nm n # m# n mÙ n @
@ n
√2Ω 7 Ω √2Ω Ω √2Ω
1 Λ 1 Λ; 1 Λ 1
# m# m n mÙ n @ @ # m# n mÙ n @
@ # m# n m n @ @

2 Ω √2Ω Ω √2Ω Ω √2Ω
Λ; 1
# m n m n @
@
n
Ω √2Ω
1 Λ Ω 7 Λ; Ω Ω Λ Ω Ω
# Üm#Ù n m# n mÙ n m# n mÙ n m n mÙ n m# n
2 √2Ω7 √2 √2Ω7 √2 √2 √2Ω7 √2 √2
Λ; Ω 7
m# n mÙ n ×
√2Ω7 √2
1 Λ Λ; Λ Λ;
# Öm#Ù nm n # mÙ nm n×
2 2√2 2√2 2√2 2√2Ω7
Λ
2#; Ù3
2√2
1
³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
1 Λ Ù Λ; Ù Λ 1 Λ; 1
# Öm# n m n@ @ m n m n@ @ m n m n@
@ # m n m n@
@ ×
2 Ω √2Ω Ω √2Ω Ω √2Ω Ω √2Ω
1 Λ Ù Ω 7 Λ; Ù Ω ÙΩ Λ 1 ÙΩ Ω
# Üm# n m n m# n m n m n m# n m# n m n m n m n m# n
2 Ω √2Ω √2 Ω √2Ω √2 √2 Ω √2Ω √2 √2
Λ; 1 ÙΩ ÙΩ
# m nm n m n m# n×
Ω √2Ω √2 √2
1 ÙΛ Λ; ÙΛ Λ;
# m# # # # n
2 2√2 2√2 2√2 2√2
Λ
2; Ù3
2√2
0 þ 0 $ 0
1
^ 0 < 0 % # Λ^
√2

Λ
0 0 D # 2; # Ù3
2√2
Λ
] 0 \ 0 ³ 2; Ù3
2√2
• Newman-Penrose identities
ý% # Δ$ D2< #3 ³2<( 3 # %2$ $(3 < # ^þ Ψ7 # Λ [\ ΦCC

( (
ÆD # Æ ³ ] # \ DD# ³³ # 2D³ %2 # ( 3 $2] # ]( 3 # Ψ7 Λ [\ ΦCC
(13.58)
Δ # Æ(< #]( # \ <³( # D # <( 2% %( 3 þ^ # Ψ7 # 2Λ [\

(13.59)
(13.60)
ý e 9 F9 Δ V 9 F9 Æ @ 9 F9 Æ( @ 9 F9
Where
(9.13)
ý% Ψ7 # Λ [\ ΦCC
Reduces to
ÆD # Æ(³ DD# ³³( # 2D³ # Ψ7 Λ [\ ΦCC

0 #Ψ7 # 2Λ [\
1 1 1 1 1
These we can solve
Ψ7 # Λ [\ ΦCC ý% e 9 F9 m# Λ^n e [ W[ m# Λ^n m# Λn # Λ
√2 √2 √2 √2 2
Ψ7 # Λ [\ # ΦCC DD# ³³( # 2D³ # ÆD Æ(³
Λ Λ Λ Λ
Ö# 2; # Ù3× Ö# 2; Ù3× Ö 2; Ù3× Ö 2; # Ù3×
2√2 2√2 2√2 2√2
Λ Λ Λ
# 2 Ö# 2; # Ù3× Ö 2; Ù3× # @9 F9 Ö# 2; # Ù3×
2√2 2√2 2√2
Λ
@
9 F9 Ö 2; Ù3×
2√2
Λ7 7 Λ7 Λ7 Λ
2; 7 3 2; 7 7 3 2 2; 7 7 3 # @ W Ö# 2; # Ù3×
8 8 8 2√2
Λ Λ
# @ W Ö# 2; # Ù3× @ 2; Ù3×
W Ö
2√2 2√2
Λ
@ W Ö 2; Ù3×
2√2
Λ7 Ω Λ Ω Λ Ω Λ Ω Λ
2; 7 7 3 m# nÙ mÙ n m# n m n mÙ n mÙ n
2 √2 2√2 √2 2√2 √2 2√2 √2 2√2
Λ7 ΩΛ ΩΛ ΩΛ ΩΛ
2; 7 7 3 # # # #
2 4 4 4 4
Λ7 7
2; 7 3 # ΩΛ
2
Λ7 7 Λ
2; 7 3 # 1 2; 7 7 3 Λ
2 2
#Λ
1
# Λ Ψ7 # Λ [\ ΦCC
2

#Λ Ψ7 # Λ [\ # ΦCC
0 #Ψ7 # 2Λ [\
1
Ψ7 # Λ
2
1
(13.65)
Λ [\ Λ
4
1
(13.64)
ΦCC Λ
4
(13.65)
• Checking ΦCC and }9: #89: Λ
1
ΦCC # }9: e 9 V: @9 @ :
4
(9.22)
1
89: Λe 9 V: @9 @ : }9: #89: Λ
4
1
Λ89: e 9 V: 89: @9 @ :
4
1
8 @ @
Λ8 e V 8[ e V[ 8[ e [ V 8 @ @
4
1
Λ8[ e [ V 8 @ @ 8 @ @
4
1 1
Λ e [ V # 7 2@ @ @ @ 3
4 Ω
1 1 2 1 1 7
1 1
ΛÜ S # 7 m# Ωn m#Ù Ωn Ù ΩÝ
4 √2 √2 Ω √2 √2 √2
1
Λ21 # 13
4
0
And we can conclude that }9: Ú #89: Λ
Instead we will look at a generalized Nariai spacetime
Î
The line element: 56 7 #àΛ^ 7 5I7 ü5I5¨ # 25; 7 5 7 3
Ω7
Ω ý Λ2; 7 7 3
Î
56 7 #àΛ^ 7 5I7 ü5I5¨ # 7 25; 7 5 7 3 éð # é° # é # é
7 7 7 7
Ω
Î Î
5I#àΛ^ 5I ü5¨ # 7 5; 7 # 7 5 7 éð é° éð # é° # é # é
7 7 7
Ω Ω
éð é° 5I
éð # é° #àΛ^ 7 5I ü5¨
√Î
é 5;
Ω

√Î
é 5
Ω
1 1
The basis one-forms
éð 2#àΛ^ 7 135I ü5¨ 5I éð é°
2 2
1 1 1 1
é 2AΛ^ 135I # ü5¨
° 7 5¨ 21 àΛ^ 7 3éð # 21 # àΛ^ 7 3é°
2 2 ü ü
√Î Ω
é
5; 5; é
Ω √Î
√Î Ω
é 5 5 é
Ω √Î
1
#1
b ºÕ ¦ §
#1
#1
5é9 #Γ 9 : µ é:
(5.9)
1 1
5éð 5 m 2#àΛ^ 7 135I ü5¨n
2 2
#àΛ^5^ µ 5I
1 1
#àΛ^ m 21 àΛ^ 7 3éð # 21 # àΛ^ 7 3é° n µ éð é°
ü ü
2à
# Λ^é µ é
ð
°
ü
1 1
5é° 5 m 2AΛ^ 7 135I # ü5¨n
2 2
àΛ^5^ µ 5I
1 1
àΛ^ m 21 àΛ^ 7 3éð # 21 # àΛ^ 7 3é° n µ éð é°
ü ü
2à
# Λ^é µ é
ð
[ ð

ü
√Î √Î #2Λ√Î 2Λ
5é 5 5; 5 5; 5 µ 5; é µ é
Ω ý Λ2; 3
7 7 Ω7
√Î
√Î √Î #2;Λ√Î 2;Λ
5é 5 5 5 5 5; µ 5 é µ é
Ω ý Λ2; 3
7 7 Ω 7
√Î
• The curvature one-forms summarized in a matrix:

2à
¬ 0 Λ^éð é[ð 0 0
ª ü ª̄
ª2à ª
ª Λ^éð é[ð 0 0 0 ª
ü
Γ 9
2Λ
«:
0 0 0 # ;é # é ®
ª √Î ª
ª 2Λ ª
ª 0 0 ;é # é 0 ª
© √Î
1
Ω9 : 5Γ 9 : Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : } 9:p̂K ép̂ µ éK

2
(5.27), (5.28)
First we see that Γ 9 p̂ µ Γ p̂ : 0 for all combinations

Ωð[ð 5Γ ð[ð
2à
5 Λ^éð é[ð
ü
2à
5 m Λ^5In
ü
2à
^5^ µ 5I
ü
2à 1 1
^ m 21 àΛ^ 7 3éð # 21 # àΛ^ 7 3é° n µ éð é°
ü ü ü
4à
7 ^é µ é ð
°
ü
4à
Ω ð 5Γ [ð ð 5Γ ð[ð # 7 ^é[ð µ éð
ð
[
ü
Ω ð 5Γ
2Λ
5Ö ;é # é ×
√Î
2Λ
5 2;5 # 5;3
Ω
2Λ 4Λ7 7 7 2Λ 4Λ7 7 7
# ; 5; µ 5 # 5 µ 5;
Ω Ω7 Ω Ω7
2ΛΩ 4Λ7 7 7 2ΛΩ 4Λ7 7 7
# ; é µ é # é µ é
Î Î Î Î
4ΛΩ 4Λ7 7 7
Ö # 2; 7 3× é µ é
Î Î
4Λ
Ω # Λ2; 7 7 3é µ é
Î
4Λ
ý Λ2; 7 7 3 # Λ2; 7 7 3é µ é
Î

4Λý
é µ é
Î
4Λý
Ω 5Γ #5Γ é µ é

Î
4à
¬ 0 # 7 ^é[ð µ éð 0 0
ª4à ü ª̄
ª ^éð µ é° 0 0 0 ª
ü
7
Ω9 :
4Λý
« 0 0 0 é µ é ®
ª Î ª
ª 4Λý ª
© 0 0 é µ é 0
Î
• Now we can write down the independent elements of the Riemann tensor in the non-
4à 4Λý
coordinate basis:
R[ð ð[ðð # 7 Λ R
ü Î
4à 4Λý
R [ðð° 7 Λ R
ð

ü Î
}9: } p̂ 9p̂:
4à
(4.46)
}ðð } p̂ ðp̂ð } ðððð } °ð°ð } ðð }

ð }
°
# Λ
ð ð°
ð
ü7
}°ð } p̂ °p̂ð } ð°ðð } °°°ð } °ð } °ð 0

}ð 0
}ð 0
4à
}°° } p̂ °p̂° } ð°ð° } °°°° } °° }

} ð°ð° Λ
°° ü7
}° 0
}° 0
4Λý
} } p̂ p̂ } ðð } °° } }

}

Î
} } p̂ p̂ } ðð } °° } } 0

4Λý
} } p̂ p̂ } ðð } °° } }

}
Î

¬# ` Â Λ 0 0 0
Ï_
ª 0 #Λ 0 0 0
Λ 0 0 ª̄
Ï_
0 Λ 0 0
}9: `Â
¦ § #b9: Λ
« 0 0
Ïabc
0 ® 0 0 Λ 0
ª
d
Ïabc ª
0 0 0 Λ
© 0 0 0 d
Compared with143 }9: #b9: Λ we can see the that we can choose the coefficients are à 1; ü 2; Î
1, ý 1 and , which corresponds to a Nariai line element consistent with }9: #89: Λ
C
Ï
1
56 7
#Λ^ 5I 25I5¨ # 7 25; 7 5 7 3
7 7
Ω
Λ 7
Ω 1 2; 3 7
4
Ω 1 Ï 2; 7 7 3. The null tetrad is unchanged.

a
So let’s copy the Christoffel, spin coefficient and Newman-Penrose identity calculations with this new
1
Γ9:p 2Wp 89: W: 89p # W9 8:p 3 24.15) Γ 9:p 89K ΓK:p
2
1
(4.16)
Γ[ W[ 28 3 #Λ^ Γ [[ 8[ Γ[ #Λ^

2
1
Γ[ # W[ 28 3 Λ^ Γ [ 8[[ Γ[ Λ7 ^ {
2
Γ 8[ Γ[ Λ^
1 Λ; Λ;
Γ W 28 3 Γ 8 Γ #
2 2Ω { 2Ω
1 Λ Λ
Γ W 28 3 Γ 8 Γ #

2 2Ω{ 2Ω
1 Λ Λ
Γ # W 28 3 # Γ 8 Γ

2 2Ω{ 2Ω
1 Λ Λ
Γ W 8 Γ 8 Γ #

2 2Ω { 2Ω
1 Λ; Λ;
Γ W 8 Γ 8 Γ #

2 2Ω{ 2Ω
1 Λ; Λ;
Γ # W 8 # Γ 8 Γ

2 2Ω{ 2Ω
Γ [[ #Γ #Λ^

Γ [ Λ7 ^ {
Λ;
Γ Γ #Γ #
2Ω
Λ
Γ #Γ Γ #

2Ω
143
Page 138

1
#F: V9 @
9 e: þ F: e9 @9 e: $ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @
9 e:
2
1
^ #F: V9 @
9 V: < F: e9 @9 V: % F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
2
1
#F: V9 @
9@
: F: e9 @9 @
: D F: e9 V @
9 :
# F: @9 @ @
9 :
(9.15)
2
1
] #F: V9 @
9 @: \ F: e9 @9 @: ³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
#F: V9 @ 9 e:
#F[ V9 @ 9 e[
#F[ V @ e [ # FW V @
e[
#2W[ V # Γ î [ Vp 3@ e [ # W[ V # Γ î [ Vp @
e[
0
^ #F: V9 @ 9 V: #F V9 @ 9 V #F V @ V # F V @ V 0
#F: V9 @ @
9
:
#F V9 @ @
9
# F V9 @ 9@
#F V @ @

# F V @ @ # F V @

@ # F V @ @
0
] #F: V9 @ 9 @: 0
þ F: e9 @9 e: FW e9 @9 eW FW e @ e W FW e @ e W 0
< F: e9 @9 V: F e9 @9 V F e @ V F e @ V 0
F: e9 @9 @ :
F e9 @ @ F e9 @9 @
9

F e @ @
F e @ @ F e @ @
F e @ @
2W e # Γ p ep 3@ @
W e # Γ p ep @ @ W e # Γ p ep @ @
W e # Γ p ep @ @

0
\ F: e9 @9 @: 0
1
$ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @ 9 e:
2
1
2FW e9 V9 e W # FW @9 @ 9 eW 3
2
1
FW e V eW # FW @ @ e W # FW @ @
eW
2
0
1
% F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
2
1
2F e9 V9 V # F @9 @ 9 V 3
2
1
F e V V # F @ @ V # F @ @ V
2
1
2W e # Γ p ep 3V V
2
1
# Γ e V V
2
1 1 2 7
# Λ^ m n
2 √2 √2

1
# Λ^
√2
1
D F: e9 V9 @
: # F: @9 @
9@
:
2
1 1
2F e9 V9 @
# F @9 @ 3 F e9 V9 @
9@ # F @9 @ 9@
2 2
1
# F @ @ @
F @ @
@ F @ @
@ F @ @ @

2
1
# J2W @ # Γ p @p 3@
@ W @ # Γ p @p @ @
W @ # Γ p @p @
@

2
W @ # Γ p @p @ @
Q
1 1 1
# ÖmW m n # Γ @ # Γ @ n @ @ mW m n # Γ @ # Γ @ n @
@

2 √2Ω √2Ω
Ù
mW m n # Γ @ # Γ @ n @ @

√2Ω
Ù
mW m n # Γ @ # Γ @ n @ @ ×

√2Ω
1 Λ; Λ; 1 Λ 1
# mm# n m nm n # m n mÙ n @
@
2 2√2Ω 7 2Ω √2Ω 2Ω √2Ω
Λ Λ 1 Λ; 1
m# n m nm n # m n mÙ n @
@
2√2Ω7 2Ω √2Ω 2Ω √2Ω
Λ; Λ 1 Λ; 1
m#Ù n m nm n m n mÙ n @
@
2√2Ω 7 2Ω √2Ω 2Ω √2Ω
Λ Λ; 1 Λ 1
m#Ù n # m nm n m n mÙ n @
@ n
2√2Ω 7 2Ω √2Ω 2Ω √2Ω
1 Λ 1 Λ; 1 Λ 1
# mm# n mÙ n @ @ m n mÙ n @
@ m n m n @
@

2 2Ω √2Ω 2Ω √2Ω 2Ω √2Ω
Λ; 1
# m n m n @
@
n
2Ω √2Ω
1 Λ Ω 7 Λ; Ω Ω Λ Ω Ω
# Üm#Ù n m# n mÙ n m# n mÙ n m n mÙ n m# n
2 2√2Ω7 √2 2√2Ω7 √2 √2 2√2Ω7 √2 √2
Λ; Ω 7
#m n mÙ n ×
2√2Ω7 √2
1 Λ Λ; Λ Λ;
# Ö# mÙ nm n # mÙ nm n×
2 4√2 4√2 4√2 4√2Ω7
Λ
# 2; # Ù3
4√2
1
³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @
9 @:
2
1 Λ 1 Λ; 1 Λ 1
# mm# n mÙ n @
@ m n mÙ n @ @ m n m n @
@
2 2Ω √2Ω 2Ω √2Ω 2Ω √2Ω
Λ; 1
# m n m n @
@ n
2Ω √2Ω

1 Λ Ù Ω 7 Λ; Ù Ω ÙΩ Λ 1 ÙΩ Ω
# Üm# n m n m# n m n m n m# n m# n m n m n m n m# n
2 2Ω √2Ω √2 2Ω √2Ω √2 √2 2Ω √2Ω √2 √2
Λ; 1 ÙΩ ÙΩ
# m nm n m n m# n×
2Ω √2Ω √2 √2
1 ÙΛ Λ; ÙΛ Λ;
# m# # # # n
2 4√2 4√2 4√2 4√2
Λ
2; Ù3
4√2
0 þ 0 $ 0
1
^ 0 < 0 % # Λ^
√2
Λ
0 0 D # 2; # Ù3
4√2
Λ
] 0 \ 0 ³ 2; Ù3
4√2
• Newman-Penrose identities
ý% # Δ$ D2< #3 ³2<( 3 # %2$ $(3 < # ^þ Ψ7 # Λ [\ ΦCC

( (
ÆD # Æ ³ ] # \ DD# ³³ # 2D³ %2 # ( 3 $2] # ]( 3 # Ψ7 Λ [\ ΦCC
(13.58)
Δ # Æ(< #]( # \ <³( # D # <( 2% %( 3 þ^ # Ψ7 # 2Λ [\

(13.59)
(13.60)
ý e 9 F9 Δ V 9 F9 Æ @ 9 F9 Æ( @ 9 F9
Where
(9.13)
ý% Ψ7 # Λ [\ ΦCC
Reduces to
ÆD # Æ(³ DD# ³³( # 2D³ # Ψ7 Λ [\ ΦCC

0 #Ψ7 # 2Λ [\
1 1 1 1 1
These we can solve
Ψ7 # Λ [\ ΦCC ý% e 9 F9 m# Λ^n e [ W[ m# Λ^n m# Λn # Λ
√2 √2 √2 √2 2
Ψ7 # Λ [\ # ΦCC DD# ³³( # 2D³ # ÆD Æ(³
Λ Λ Λ Λ
Ö# 2; # Ù3× Ö# 2; Ù3× Ö 2; Ù3× Ö 2; # Ù3×
4√2 4√2 4√2 4√2
Λ Λ Λ Λ
#2 Ö# 2; # Ù3× Ö 2; Ù3× # @9 F9 Ö# 2; # Ù3× @ 9 F9 Ö 2; Ù3×
4√2 4√2 4√2 4√2
Λ7 7 Λ7 Λ7 Λ
(; 7 3 (; 7 7 3 2 (; 7 7 3 # @ W Ö# 2; # Ù3×
32 32 32 4√2
Λ Λ Λ
#@ W Ö# 2; # Ù3× @
W Ö 2; Ù3× @
W Ö 2; Ù3×
4√2 4√2 4√2

Λ7 7 Ω Λ Ω Λ Ω Λ Ω Λ
2; 7 3 m# nÙ mÙ n m# n m n mÙ n mÙ n
8 √2 4√2 √2 4√2 √2 4√2 √2 4√2
Λ7 ΩΛ ΩΛ ΩΛ ΩΛ
2; 7 7 3 # # # #
8 8 8 8 8
Λ7
ΩΛ
2; 3 #
7 7
8 2
Λ7 7 Λ Λ
2; 7 3 # 1 2; 7 7 3
8 4 2
1
# Λ
2
1
# Λ Ψ7 # Λ [\ ΦCC
2
1
# Λ Ψ7 # Λ [\ # ΦCC
2
0 #Ψ7 # 2Λ [\
1
Ψ7 # Λ
3
1
(13.65)
Λ [\ Λ
6
(13.64)
ΦCC 0
Which is consistent with the former calculation of ΦCC 0, nd we can conclude that if }9: #89: Λ so Ω
(13.65)
should rightfully be Ω 1 2; 7 7 3
a
Ï
13.8 144Collision of a gravitational wave with an electromagnetic wave – The non-
The line element in region ^ e 0: 56 7 25I5^ # cos7 ^ 25; 7 5 7 3

zero spin coefficients
1
¦ 1
89: §
# cos7 ^
The metric tensor:
# cos7 ^
1
¬
1
ª 1 ª̄
and its inverse: 89: #
« cos 7 ^ ®
ª 1 ª
© #
cos7 ^
The Christoffel symbols: To find the Christoffel symbols we calculate the geodesic from the Euler-Lagrange
5 Wã Wã
equation
0 m 9n # 9
56 W;l W;
(10.36)
ã 2Il ^l # cos 7 ^ 2;l 7 l 7 3

where
; 9 I:
Wã
0
WI
144
(McMahon, 2006, p. 322), quiz 13-1. The answer to quiz 13-1 is (a)

Wã
2^l
WIl
5 Wã
m n 2^
56 WIl
0 2^
; 9 ^:
Wã
2 cos ^ sin ^ 2;l 7 l 7 3
W^
Wã
2Il
W^l
5 Wã
m n 2I
56 W^l
0 I # cos ^ sin ^ 2;l 7 l 7 3
; ;:
9
Wã
0
W;
Wã
#2 cos 7 ^ ;l
W;l
5 Wã
m n 4 cos ^ sin ^ ^l ;l # 2 cos7 ^ ;
56 W;l
0 2 cos ^ sin ^ ^l ;l # cos7 ^ ;
¿ 0 ; # 2 tan ^ ^l ;l
; 9 :
Wã
0
W
Wã
#2 cos 7 ^ l
Wl
5 Wã
m n 4 cos ^ sin ^ ^l l # 2 cos7 ^
56 Wl
0 2 cos ^ sin ^ ^l l # cos7 ^
¿ 0 # 2 tan ^ ^l l
0 ^
0 I # cos ^ sin ^ 2;l 7 l 7 3

0 ; # 2 tan ^ ^l ;l
0 # 2 tan ^ ^l l
Γ # cos ^ sin ^ Γ # cos ^ sin ^

We can now find the Christoffel symbols:
Γ [ # tan ^ Γ [ # tan ^

Γ [ # tan ^ Γ [ # tan ^

56 7 25I5^ # cos7 ^ 25; 7 5 7 3

The basis one forms:
7 7 7 7
éð # é[ð # é # é
7 7

√25I éð é[ð

√25^ éð # é[ð
é cos ^ 5;
é cos ^ 5
1 1
√2 √2
1 1 1
é[ð 25I # 5^3 5^ éð # é[ð
√2 √2 ¦ #1 §
b ºÕ
1 #1
é cos ^ 5; 5; é
cos ^ #1
1
é cos ^ 5 5 é
cos ^
The orthonormal null tetrad:
e 1 1 0 0 éð éð é[ð √25I

V 1 1 #1 0 0 é 1 éð # é[ð 1 √25^ " (9.10)

ð
[

@ √2 0 0 1 Ù é √2 é Ùé
√2 cos ^ 5; Ù cos ^ 5
@ 0 0 1 #Ù é é # Ùé cos ^ 5; # Ù cos ^ 5!
e9 21, 0, 0, 03 V9 20, 1, 0, 03
1 1
@9 20, 0, cos ^ , Ù cos ^3 @9
#### 20, 0, cos ^ , #Ù cos ^3
√2 √2
e 89 e9 8[ e[ 1 S 0 0
e [ 89[ e9 8[ e 1 S 1 1
e e 0
V 89 V9 8[ V[ 1 S 1 1
V[ 89[ V9 8[ V 1 S 0 0
V V 0
@[ @ 0
1 1 1 1
@ 8 @ # S S cos ^ #
cos ^ √2
7
√2 cos ^
1 1 1 1
@ 8 @ # S Ù cos ^ #Ù
cos ^ √2
7
√2 cos ^
e9 21, 0, 0, 03 e9 20, 1, 0, 03
Collecting the results:
V9 20, 1, 0, 03 V9 21, 0, 0, 03
1 1 1 1
@9 20, 0, cos ^ , Ù cos ^3 @9 m0, 0, # , #Ù n
√2 √2 cos ^ cos ^
1 1 1 1
@9
#### 20, 0, cos ^ , #Ù cos ^3 @
9 m0, 0, # , Ù n
√2 √2 cos ^ cos ^
The spin coefficients calculated from the orthonormal tetrad:

1
#F: V9 @
9 e: þ F: e9 @9 e: $ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @
9 e:
2
1
^ #F: V9 @
9 V: < F: e9 @9 V: % F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @ 9 V:
2
1
#F: V9 @
9@
: F: e9 @9 @
: D F: e9 V9 @ : # F: @9 @
9@ :
(9.15)
2
1
] #F: V9 @
9 @: \ F: e9 @9 @: ³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @:
2
#F: V9 @ 9 e : #F[ V9 @ 9 e [ #F[ V @

e [ # FW V @
e[ 0
^ #F: V9 @ 9 V: #F V9 @ 9 V #F V @ V # F V @ V 0

#F: V9 @ @
9
:
#F V9 @ @
9
# F V9 @ 9@
#F V @ @ # F V @ @ # F V @
@ # F V @ @
0
] #F: V9 @ 9 @: 0
þ F: e9 @ e: FW e9 @9 eW FW e @ e W FW e @ e W 0
9
< F: e9 @9 V: F e9 @9 V F e @ V F e @ V 0
F: e9 @9 @ :
F e9 @ @ F e9 @9 @
9

F e @ @
F e @ @
F e @ @ F e @ @
2W e # Γ p ep 3@ @
W e # Γ p ep @ @
W e # Γ p ep @ @
W e # Γ p ep @ @

#Γ e @ @ Γ e @ @

1 7
1 1
# Ü# cos ^ sin ^ m# n # cos ^ sin ^ m#Ù n mÙ nÝ
√2 cos ^ √2 cos ^ √2 cos ^
tan ^
\ F: e9 @9 @:
#Γ e @ @ Γ e @ @
1 7
1 7
# # cos ^ sin ^ m# n # cos ^ sin ^ m#Ù n
√2 cos ^ √2 cos ^
0
1
$ F: e9 V9 e: # F: @9 @ 9 e:
2
1
2FW e9 V9 e W # FW @9 @ 9 eW 3
2
1
2
1
# J2W[ @ # Γ p[ @p 3@ e W W[ @ # Γ p[ @p @ eW Q
2
1 1 1
# ÖmW[ cos ^ # Γ [ @ n @ e W mW[ Ù cosh ^ # Γ [ @ n @
eW ×

2 √2 √2
1 1 1 1 1
# Öm# sin ^ # 2# tan ^3 cos ^n @
m#Ù sin ^ tan ^ Ù cos ^n @
×
2 √2 √2 √2 √2
0

1
% F: e9 V9 V: # F: @9 @
9 V:
2
1
2F e9 V9 V # F @9 @ 9 V 3
2
1
F e V V # F @ @ V # F @ @
V
2
0
1
D F: e9 V9 @
: # F: @9 @
9@ :
2
1 1
2F e9 V9 @
# F @9 @
9@ 3 F e9 V9 @
# F @9 @
9@

2 2
0
1
³ F: e9 V9 @: # F: @9 @ 9 @: 0
2
0 þ 0 $ 0
^ 0 < 0 % 0
0 tan ^ D 0
] 0 \ 0 ³ 0
This means that – }c() Ú 0 and there is expansion (or pure focusing=divergence).
56 7 4] log2; 7 7 3 5I7 25I5A # dx 7 # 5 7

13.9 145The Aichelburg-Sexl Solution – The passing of a black hole
56 7 2I, ;, 35I7 25I5¨ # 5; 7 # 5 7

The line element
We see that we can copy the results from the Brinkmann calculations p.195 if 2I, ;, 3 4] log2; 7 7 3
Comparing with the Brinkmann metric
1 W W
The only non-zero spin-coefficient is:
^ # m Ù n
2√2 W; W
(9.30)
1W24] log2; 7 7 33
#
W24] log2;2 2 33
2√2
Ù
W; W
#
4] 2; 2
m 7 Ù 7 n
2√2 ; ; 7
;
7
#2√2] m 7 Ù 7 n
; 7 ; 7
Bibliografi
d'Inverno, R. (1992). Introducing Einstein's Relativity. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Greene, B. (2004). The Fabric of the Cosmos. Penguin books.
145
(McMahon, 2006, p. 322), quiz 13-2. The answer to quiz 13-2 is (b)

Hartle, J. B. (2003). Gravity - An introduction to Einstein's General Relativity. Addison Wesley.
McMahon, D. (2006). Relativity Demystified. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Spiegel, M. R. (1990). SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES: Mathematical Handbook of FORMULAS and TABLES.
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.

Lots of Calculations in GR

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Lots of Calculations in General Relativity

Susan Larsen Thursday, August 15, 2013

4.10.1 The Christoffel symbols of a metric example .......................................................................... 24

5.5 Ricci rotation coefficients of the Rindler metric.............................................................................. 33

6 The Einstein Field Equations .................................................................................................................... 39

  #$  %$, ''  ($, '  )$, '* ........................................................................... 47

7 The Energy-Momentum Tensor .............................................................................................................. 52

8.2 Prove that

G S I  89: G 9 I:  TUV6B and G S R  89: G 9 R:  TUV6B along a geodesic2.

2Δ637  2ΔB37 # 2Δ;37 # 2Δ37 # 2Δ37

2.2 10The four velocity and the four force:    

3 Metric and Vector Transformations.

cos 7 i 27 cos7 a   7 sin7 a3  T 7 sin7 i 2 7 # 7 32cos a cos i sin a sin i3

idealized egg we can choose     7 T

56 7  7 2cos7 i  4 sin7 i35i 7  sin7 i 5a 7 

3.2 13The signature of a metric.

16Find the Christoffel symbols of the 2-sphere with radius 

56 7  25I5¨ # 21 # I37 5; 7 # 21  I37 5 7

Γ  # W 2#21 # I37 3  #21 # I3 Γ °  8° Γ  #21 # I3

18Alternative solution: Show that 

If 8K:  8:K :  Wp 89: # 8:K Γ K 9p # 89K Γ Kp:

4.3.1 19One-forms: why   

This also holds for 5·  5; 9

The exterior derivative of a one-form ·9 5; 9 :

52·9 5; 9 3  5·9 µ 5; 9 (4.26)

5\  5c ¹2N3 5B

4.4 The geodesic equation.

• The Christoffel symbols from the geodesic equations

0  2``l <l  ` 7 <

Prove: }9:pK  Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K  Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

Fp 89:  Wp 89: # Γ K9p 8K: # Γ Kp: 89K  Wp 89: # Γ:9p # Γ9:p  0

}9:pK  89¡ } ¡:pK

Prove: }9:pK  7 J¸ Ä ¸ Å  ¸ Ã ¸  # ¸ Ã ¸ Å # ¸ Ä ¸  Q # Γ¡9p Γ :K  Γ¡9K Γ :p

}9:pK  Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K  Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

1 W89: W89K W8:K 1 W89: W89p W8:p

89: 8:p  Æ9p if the metric is diagonal

1 W 7 8p: W 7 8K9 W 7 8p9 W 7 8K:

}:999  W9 Γ:99 # W9 Γ:99 # Γ¡:9 Γ ¡99  Γ¡:9 Γ ¡99  0

1 W 7 89: W 7 89: W 7 89: W 7 89:

}C7C7 }CC ÎC77{

The number of independent elements in the Riemann tensor in a metric of dimension V  2 is

Because: }9:pK  }9pK:  }9K:p  0

Because: Î9:pK  Î9pK:  Î9K:p  0

} 9:pK  Wp Γ 9:K # WK Γ 9:p  Γ ¡:K Γ 9¡p # Γ ¡:p Γ9¡K

} OPOP  WO Γ OPP # WP Γ OPO  Γ ¡PP Γ O¡O # Γ ¡PO Γ O¡P

 WO 2# sin i cos i3 # cot i 2# sin i cos i3

that the Ricci scalar   for the unit 2-sphere

• The Ricci scalar: }  89: }9: (4.47)

Sum over a: }  8O: }O:  8P: }P:

 8OO } pOpO  8PP } pPpP }9:  } p 9p:

 8OO } OPO  8PP } OPOP

 8OO 8PP }POPO  8PP 8OO }OPOP }POPO  }OPOP

 28PP } OPOP } OPOP  sin7 i

4.7 32Proof:if a space is conformally flat, i.e. 

 #Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K  Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

4.8 The spherical metric.

The number of independent elements in the Riemann tensor in a metric of dimension V  3 is

quiz 4-4 is (d)

, T  A, , 5  i: } NONO  WN Γ N OO # WO Γ NON  Γ ¡OO Γ N¡N # Γ ¡ON Γ N¡O

Þ 9  2A, sin i , sin i cos a3 ¨ 9  2A, A 7 cos i , sin a3

 A 7 cos7 i cos a # sin i

Sum over   I, ¨, ;, : }  8: }:  8°: }°:  8 : }:  8 : }:

8  }   8  }  8  }° °  8  } 

} °  W Γ ° # W° Γ   Γ ¡° Γ ¡ # Γ ¡ Γ ¡°  0

#$ %$, '' ($, ' )$, '* ........................................................................... 47

G S I 89: G 9 I: TUV6B and G S R 89: G 9 R: TUV6B along a geodesic2.

2Δ637 2ΔB37 # 2Δ;37 # 2Δ37 # 2Δ37

2.2 10The four velocity and the four force:

cos 7 i 27 cos7 a 7 sin7 a3 T 7 sin7 i 2 7 # 7 32cos a cos i sin a sin i3

idealized egg we can choose 7 T

56 7 7 2cos7 i 4 sin7 i35i 7 sin7 i 5a 7

16Find the Christoffel symbols of the 2-sphere with radius

56 7 25I5¨ # 21 # I37 5; 7 # 21 I37 5 7

Γ # W 2#21 # I37 3 #21 # I3 Γ ° 8° Γ #21 # I3

18Alternative solution: Show that

If 8K: 8:K : Wp 89: # 8:K Γ K 9p # 89K Γ Kp:

4.3.1 19One-forms: why

This also holds for 5· 5; 9

52·9 5; 9 3 5·9 µ 5; 9 (4.26)

5\ 5c ¹2N3 5B

0 2``l <l ` 7 <

Prove: }9:pK Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

Fp 89: Wp 89: # Γ K9p 8K: # Γ Kp: 89K Wp 89: # Γ:9p # Γ9:p 0

}9:pK 89¡ } ¡:pK

Prove: }9:pK 7 J¸ Ä ¸ Å ¸ Ã ¸ # ¸ Ã ¸ Å # ¸ Ä ¸ Q # Γ¡9p Γ :K Γ¡9K Γ :p

}9:pK Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

89: 8:p Æ9p if the metric is diagonal

}:999 W9 Γ:99 # W9 Γ:99 # Γ¡:9 Γ ¡99 Γ¡:9 Γ ¡99 0

The number of independent elements in the Riemann tensor in a metric of dimension V 2 is

Because: }9:pK }9pK: }9K:p 0

Because: Î9:pK Î9pK: Î9K:p 0

} 9:pK Wp Γ 9:K # WK Γ 9:p Γ ¡:K Γ 9¡p # Γ ¡:p Γ9¡K

} OPOP WO Γ OPP # WP Γ OPO Γ ¡PP Γ O¡O # Γ ¡PO Γ O¡P

WO 2# sin i cos i3 # cot i 2# sin i cos i3

that the Ricci scalar for the unit 2-sphere

• The Ricci scalar: } 89: }9: (4.47)

Sum over a: } 8O: }O: 8P: }P:

8OO } pOpO 8PP } pPpP }9: } p 9p:

8OO } OPO 8PP } OPOP

8OO 8PP }POPO 8PP 8OO }OPOP }POPO }OPOP

28PP } OPOP } OPOP sin7 i

4.7 32Proof:if a space is conformally flat, i.e.

#Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

The number of independent elements in the Riemann tensor in a metric of dimension V 3 is

, T A, , 5 i: } NONO WN Γ N OO # WO Γ NON Γ ¡OO Γ N¡N # Γ ¡ON Γ N¡O

Þ 9 2A, sin i , sin i cos a3 ¨ 9 2A, A 7 cos i , sin a3

A 7 cos7 i cos a # sin i

Sum over I, ¨, ;, : } 8: }: 8°: }°: 8 : }: 8 : }:

8 } 8 } 8 }° ° 8 }

} ° W Γ ° # W° Γ Γ ¡° Γ ¡ # Γ ¡ Γ ¡° 0

} ° W Γ ° # W° Γ Γ ¡° Γ ¡ # Γ ¡ Γ ¡° 0

} W Γ # W Γ Γ ¡ Γ ¡ # Γ ¡ Γ ¡ 0

• So we can conclude }0

4.10 39A metric example:

Γ #W 8 # sin ; Γ

means we only have to calculate }

} W Γ # W Γ Γ ¡ Γ ¡ # Γ ¡ Γ ¡

; tan 1 ; tan 1 1 7 1 tan7 1 1 ; tan

the Christoffel symbols for a metric example:

The line element: 56 7 5á 7 sinh7 á 5i 7 sinh7 á sin7 i 5a 7

ã á 7l sinh7 á il 7 sinh7 á sin7 i al 7

0 á # cosh á sinh á il 7 # cosh á sinh á sin7 i al 7

0 i 2 cosh á sinh á álil cos i sin i al 7

The line element: 56 7 2I7 ^ 7 35I7 2I7 ^ 7 35^ 7 I7 ^ 7 5i 7

Γ W 28 3 I Γ 8 Γ 7

}9:pK Wp Γ9:K # WK Γ9:p # Γ¡9p Γ ¡:K Γ¡9K Γ ¡:p

}[[ W Γ[[ # W[ Γ[ # Γ¡ Γ ¡[[ Γ¡[ Γ ¡[

5I¼ 2I5¨ ¨5I3 cos i # I¨ sin i 5i

5¨ ¼ 2I5¨ ¨5I3 sin i I¨ cos i 5i

5I¼7 5¨ ¼7 5i ¼7 2I5¨ ¨5I37 2I¨37 5i 7 2I5I # ¨5¨37

56 7 5B 7 # c Ñ7ä2L,N3 5A 7 # } 7 2B, A35i 7 # } 7 2B, A3 sin7 i 5a 7

We have the transformation Γ 9 íî 2ΛÑC 39K Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂ : Λ

Γ N LN 2ΛÑC3NK Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂L Λ Γ N̂LêN̂ ΛLê L #ál S 1 #ál

Γ L NN 2Λ 3 K Γ ¡̂ ¹ê Λ N Λ N 2ΛÑC 3LLê Γ LN̂ N̂ ΛN̂ N 1#álc #álc Ñ7ä2L,N3

However by this method we do not obtain Γ NNN #áè

56 7 5B 7 # c Ñ7ä2L,N3 5A 7 # } 7 2B, A35i 7 # } 7 2B, A3 sin7 i 5a 7

of the Ricci rotation coefficients ð

Γ 9 íî 2ΛÑC 39K Γ K¡̂ ¹ê Λ¡̂ : Λ

Γ 9 : Γ 9:p̂ ép̂ (5.10)

#á ál éLê µ éN̂

5(È é P 3 5}l 2B, A3 sin i 5a

ô}¼¼ c ä2L,N3 sin i } ¼ á¼ c ä2L,N3 sin iõ5A µ 5a } ¼ c ä2L,N3 cos i 5i µ 5a

Where refers to column and to row

} b }LêLê b }N̂ N̂ b }OìOì b }PìPì }LêLê # }N̂ N̂ # }OìOì # }PìPì