AJAY KUMAR GARG ENGINEERING COLLEGE

27 km. STONE DELHI - HAPUR BYPASS ROAD

GHAZIABAD – 201009

PROJECT REPORT
On
OFC Characteristics, Modes & Splicing
And
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy(SDH).

Submitted by: Submitted to:

Name- Rishi Srivastava Mr. Amit Saxena

B-Tech- 4th year . (D.G.M.)

0702731087
Electronics &Communication .
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“An engineer with theoretical knowledge is not complete engineer. Practical

knowledge is very important for an engineer to develop and apply engineering and

technical skills”. It gives me a great pleasure to have an opportunity to

acknowledge and to express gratitude to those who are associated with my training.

First of all I am thankful to Amit Saxena sir (DGM of TXP&P at MTNL) for

providing me with an opportunity to complete my training in MTNL CGO

COMPLEX, NEW DELHI.

I express my sincere thanks to Amit Sir who has guided me at every steps of

learning and my discussion with him was truly enlightening. His dedication and

sincerity towards the training helped me a lot in the completion of project & mould

it into the contemporary outlook.

Table of Content:
• INTRODUCTION OF BASIC COMM. SYSTEM.

• FIBER CONSTRUCTION & TRANSMISSION.

• BASIC ELEMENTS OF TRANSMITTER & RECEIVER.

• MODES .

• LOSSES IN OFC.
• ADVANTAGES OF OFC.

• SPLICING METHODS & FUSION SPLICING.

• TYPES OF SIGNALS.

• BUFFER MEMORY

• SLIP.

• JUSTIFICATION.

• OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER.

• PDH & ITS LIMITATIONS.

• ADVANTAGES OF SDH.
OFC CHARACTERISTICS,MODE,SPLICING

And

Synchronous Digital Heirarchy(SDH).

ABSTRACT:

In recent years it has become apparent

that fiber-optics are steadily replacing
copper wire as an appropriate means of
communication signal transmission. In
this paper we purely discussed about
the main characterstics , structure and
splicing of optical fiber cable.All these
things are fragmented by certain block
diagrams and pictorial representations
so that user may understand optical
fibre cable characterstics efficiently.
Secondly,this report reflects light on the
advantages of SDH over PDH.
OFC Characteristics, Modes & Splicing

INTRODUCTION:

In optical communication transmission in an optical format is carried out by

varying the intensity of the optical power. (Intensity modulation).

Optical fiber is a new medium, in which information (voice, data or video) is

transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light.

They span the long distances between local phone systems as well as providing
the backbone for many network systems. Other system users include cable
television services, university campuses, office buildings, industrial plants, and
electric utility companies.
A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiber-optics is
replacing. The difference is that fiber-optics use light pulses to transmit
information down fiber lines instead of using electronic pulses to transmit
information down copper lines. Looking at the components in a fiber-optic
chain will give a better understanding of how the system works in conjunction
with wire based systems.

Fiber Construction and Transmission:

1) Consists of Core and Cladding.
2) Core and Cladding are made up of same material.
3) The material used is optically transparent.

4) Silica or borosilicate glass will be the usual material.

5) The R.I of the core will be slightly higher than the R.I of the cladding.

Light pulses move easily down the fiber-optic line because of a principle known
as total internal reflection. "This principle of total internal reflection states that
when the angle of incidence exceeds a critical value, light cannot get out of the
glass; instead, the light bounces back in. When this principle is applied to the
construction of the fiber-optic strand, it is possible to transmit information down
fiber lines in the form of light pulses. The core must a very clear and pure
material for the light or in most cases near infrared light (850nm, 1300nm and
1500nm). The core can be Plastic (used for very short distances) but most are
made from glass. Glass optical fibers are almost always made from pure silica,
but some other materials, such as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate,
and chalcogenide glasses, are used for longer-wavelength infrared applications.

The core and cladding dia in mm

TRANSMISSION OF PULSES:
Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light introduced at one
end of the cable through to the other end. The light source can either be a light-
emitting diode (LED)) or a laser.

The light source is pulsed on and off, and a light-sensitive receiver on the other
end of the cable converts the pulses back into the digital ones and zeros of the
original signal.

Even laser light shining through a fiber optic cable is subject to loss of strength,
primarily through dispersion and scattering of the light, within the cable itself.
The faster the laser fluctuates, the greater the risk of dispersion. Light
strengtheners, called repeaters, may be necessary to refresh the signal in certain
applications.

Information Transmission Sequence:

At one end of the system is a transmitter. This is the place of origin for
information coming on to fiber-optic lines. The transmitter accepts coded
electronic pulse information coming from copper wire. It then processes and
translates that information into equivalently coded light pulses. A light-emitting
diode (LED) or an injection-laser diode (ILD) can be used for generating the
light pulses. Using a lens, the light pulses are funneled into the fiber-optic
medium where they travel down the cable. The light (near infrared) is most

often 850nm for shorter distances and 1,300nm for longer distances on Multi-
mode fiber and 1300nm for single-mode fiber and 1,500nm is used for for
longer distances.
Light pulses move easily down the fiber-optic line because of a principle known
as total internal reflection. "This principle of total internal reflection states that
when the angle of incidence exceeds a critical value, light cannot get out of the
glass; instead, the light bounces back in. When this principle is applied to the
construction of the fiber-optic strand, it is possible to transmit information down
fiber lines in the form of light pulses. The core must a very clear and pure
material for the light or in most cases near infrared light (850nm, 1300nm and
1500nm). The core can be Plastic (used for very short distances) but most are
made from glass. Glass optical fibers are almost always made from pure silica,
but some other materials, such as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate,
and chalcogenide glasses, are used for longer-wavelength infrared applications.

Driver Source Fibered Regen. detector

Transmitter
Receiver
a) Basic Elements of Transmitters:

Transmitter convert electrical signal to optical signals which is

transmitted through fibre.

1) Electronic interfaces

2) Electronic processing circuits

3) Drive circuitry

4) Light source – LED/Laser

5) Optical interface

6) Output sensing and stabilization

7) Temperature sensing and control.

b) Basic elements of an Optical Receiver:

1) Receiver- receives the optical signals from the fibre and convert the
same to its electrical equivalent.

2) Detector [PIN photodiode/APD (Avalanche photodiode)].

3) Detector used in fibre optical communications are semiconductor

photodiodes or photo-detectors which converts the received optical
signal into electrical.

4) Amplifier.

5) Decision circuits.
MODES OF CABLES:

Single Mode cable is a single stand (most applications use 2 fibers) of glass
fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of transmission.
Single Mode Fiber with a relatively narrow diameter, through which only one
mode will propagate typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than
multimode fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow spectral width.
Synonyms mono-mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical
waveguide, uni-mode fiber.

Single Modem fiber is used in many applications where data is sent at multi-
frequency (WDM Wave-Division-Multiplexing) so only one cable is needed -
(single-mode on one single fiber)

Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more
distance than multimode, but it also costs more. Single-mode fiber has a much
smaller core than multimode. The small core and single light-wave virtually
eliminate any distortion that could result from overlapping light pulses,
providing the least signal attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any
fiber cable type.

Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the lowest order
bound mode can propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to
1320nm.

Multi-Mode cable has a little bit bigger diameter, with a common diameters
in the 50-to-100 micron range for the light carry component (in the US the most
common size is 62.5um). Most applications in which Multi-mode fiber is used,
2 fibers are used (WDM is not normally used on multi-mode fiber). POF is a
newer plastic-based cable which promises performance similar to glass cable on
very short runs, but at a lower cost.

Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds (10 to 100MBS -
Gigabit to 275m to 2km) over medium distances. Light waves are dispersed into
numerous paths, or modes, as they travel through the cable's core typically 850
or 1300nm. Typical multimode fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100
micrometers. However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet [914.4
meters), multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at the receiving end,
resulting in an unclear and incomplete data transmission so designers now call
for single mode fiber in new applications using Gigabit and beyond.

GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER

It contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually from the
center axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the center
makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near
the cladding. Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core
curves helically because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The
shortened path and the higher speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at a
receiver at about the same time

as the slow but straight rays in the core axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers
less dispersion.

Tight-Buffered Cable

With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contact

with the fiber. This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside
plant cables to terminal equipment, and also for linking various devices in a
premises network.
Multi-fiber, tight-buffered cables often are used for intra-building, risers,
general building and plenum applications.

The tight-buffered design provides a rugged cable structure to protect individual

fibers during handling, routing and connectorization. Yarn strength members
keep the tensile load away from the fiber.

As with loose-tube cables, optical specifications for tight-buffered cables also

should include the maximum performance of all fibers over the operating
temperature range and life of the cable. Averages should not be acceptable.

Sources of Loss in Fibers :

The losses occurring in fibers can be attributed to three main causes :

1. Absorption
2. Scattering
3. Geometric effects.

Material Absorption is a loss mechanism related to the material

composition and the fabrication process for the fibre,which result in the
dissipation of some of the transmitted optical power as heat in the waveguide.

Scattering mechanism causes the transfer of some or all of the optical power
contained within one propagating mode to be transferred linearly into a different
mode. This process tends to result in attenuation of the transmitted light as the
transfer may be to a leaky or radiation mode which doesn’t continue to
propagate within the fibre core, but is radiated from the fibre.

Geometric effects such as Dispersion of the optical signal causes

distortion for both digital and analog transmission along optical cable.

Advantages of Fiber Optics:

1) Optical Fibres are non conductive (Dielectric)
Grounding and surge suppression not required
Cables can be all dielectric.

2) Electromagnetic immunity
Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
No radiated energy.
Unauthorized tapping difficult.

3) Large Bandwidth (> 50 GHz for 1 km length)

Future upgradability.

Maximum utilization of cable right of way.

One time cable installation costs.

4) Low Loss (5 dB/km to < 0.25 dB/km typical)

Loss is low and same at all operating speeds within the fiber's specified
bandwidth.
Long, unrepeated links (> 70 km is operation).
Inexpensive light sources available.
Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss
fibers are used at high data rates.

5) Small, light weight cables.

Easy installation and handling.

Efficient use of space.

 6) Available in Long lengths (> 12 kms)
Less splice points.

7) Security

Extremely difficult to tap a fiber as it does not radiate energy that can be
received by a nearby antenna.

Highly secure transmission medium.

Security – Being a dielectric

– It cannot cause fire.

– Does not attract lightning.
– It does not carry electricity.
– Can be run through hazardous areas.

8) Universal medium
– Serve all communication needs.
– Non–obsolescence.

Splicing: The process by which permanent connection between two fibres

get established. It involves cutting of the edges of the two fibres to be
spliced.Alignment of the cores of the fibres to be connected is important to
reduce splice loss.

Splicing Methods:

1) Single Fiber Mechanical splicing .

2) Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.
3) Temp. Mechanical splicing .
4) Fusion Splicing .
 Fusion Splicing: Most popular splicing technique

1) Achieved either through electrical arc or through gas flame.

2) Splicing loss can be minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint.
3) Splice joint needs mechanical protection and protection from moisture.
For this epoxy resin coating and heat shrinkable tube are used.
4) Suitable for SMF for use in long haul network.
5) The splice loss indicated by the splicing machine is only an estimated
loss.
6) After every splicing is over, the splice loss measurement is to be taken by
an OTDR.

Signals type:
1) Synchronous Signals
2) Asynchronous Signals
3) Plesiochronous Signals
Synchronous signals
 Synchronous signals are those signals that occur at the same clock rate when
all clocks are based on a single ref clock.

Asynchronous signal

Asynchronous signal is one that is transmitted at a different clock rate

another signal Asynchronous signals are those that run from different clocks or
at a different transition rate.

Pleasiochronous signals

Plesiochronous signals are almost but not quite in synchronisation

A Pleasiochronous system could arise as a result of two systems having

slightly different clock readings over the time . In such a system one of
the systems or a third system would need to notice the mismatch and
make some compensating adjustment such as repeating or deleting a data
packet or a frame.

Buffer Memory:

• The digital multiplexing is achieved using buffer memories.

• Buffer Memories are memories with different input and output bit
rates.
• The input and output clocks of a buffer memory are also known as
Write and Read Clocks.

SLIP:

• The difference in the Write and Read clock rates of a buffer

memory lead to either missing or repetition of data.
 • When the Write clock is faster than the Read clock, missing of data
occurs.
• When the Read clock is faster than the Write clock, repetition of
data occurs.
• The missing or repetition of data due to the difference between the
Write and Read clocks is known as ‘Slip’.

JUSTIFICATION:

• Justification is a process used to avoid ‘Slip’.

• It is a process of changing the rate of digital signals in a controlled
manner .
• There are three types of justification.
• Positive justification is used when the common synchronization bit
rate offered at each tributary is higher than the bit rate of individual
tributary i.e., the Read clock is faster than the Write clock.
• Positive-negative justification is used when the common
synchronization bit rate offered is equal to the individual tributary
bit rate i.e., Read clock is equal to the Write clock .
• Negative justification is used when the common synchronization
bit rate offered is less than the individual tributary bit rate i.e.,
Write clock is faster than the Read clock .

USES OF OTDR:

• Loss per unit length

• Splice and connector evaluation
• Fault location
 TO DETERMINE:

• Length of O.F.C section

• Distance up to the O.F.C. break point
• Loss in db/Km. & Total loss of O.F.C. section
• No. of splices in OFC section
• Individual splice loss
• Connector loss

OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER:

• OTDR is based on the principle of back scattering of light .

• Scattering is caused by refractive displacement due to density and
compositional variations in the fibre .
• This is basically a light source which emits light pulses
• The emitted light signal is sent directly into the fiber and the
incoming reflection directed to the receiver by a beam splitter.
• The light source is synchronized with the receiver so that time
delay between outgoing and incoming signals can be measured .

CONCEPT OF DEAD ZONE:

• The deadzone is the distance corresponding to the initial length

of fiber under test whose trace is missed in OTDR .
 • This is due to the saturation of the receiver circuit of OTDR by
strong signal like fresnel reflection and due to imperative property
of this circuit that a certain time is lost in transforming the time
into distance.
• The smaller the pulse- width the smaller the deadzone .

TDM Hierarchies

A) PDH - Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy.

EXCH A N GE EXCH A N GE

DA TA (PCM ) IN REP REP

DA TA OU T

M UX OL T OLT

DEM U X
DDF FDF FDF DDF
M UX - M ULTIPLEXER ; FDF- FIBER DISTRIBUTION FRA M E
OLT - OPTICA L L IN E TERM IN A TIN G UN IT ; REP
- REPEA TER ;
DDF - DIGITA L DISTRIBUTION FRA M E
Pleasiochronous signals are almost but not quite in synchronisation
Pleasiochronous system could arise as a result of two systems having slightly
different clock readings over the time .In such a system one of the systems or a
third system would need to notice the mismatch and make some compensating
adjustment such as repeating or deleting a data packet or a frame.

Limitations on PDH
1) The different hierarchies with different signal format and line encoding
system

2) Basis of today’s high capacity network

3) It has not a high capacity to store the information.

4) Network requirement

B) SDH - Synchronous Digital Hierarchy :

SYNCHRONOUS: One master clock and all elements synchronized

with it.

DIGITAL: Binary Information.

 HIERARCHY: Set of bit rates in hierarchical order. SDH is an ITU-T
standard for high capacity telecom network.

SDH is a synchronous digital transport system. Its aim is to provide a

simple, economical, and flexible telecom structure.

Advantages of SDH

1) Simplication.

2) Can accommodate both existing and future signals.

3) Advance network management.

4) Network Survivibility.

5) Dynamic network capacity management.

SDM FRAME
Reference :
1) www.wikipedia.org.
2) John.M.Senior, Pearson Publication.
3) Ben.G.Streetman, Pearson Publication.
4) Millman Halkias, Pearson Publiation.
5) Britanica Encyclopedia.