HAWKING WEEK

M. N. G. EINSTEIN

Abstract. This is a paper that deals with several questions. We start by

analyzing vaccum space and its curvature and show very easily, that a vaccum
space is not curvature free as the equation of the theory of general relativity
state. Afterwards, we discuss the consequences for our own universe. We
continue by deriving an upper limit for the size of the universe, before we
expand the Drake equation and conclude what the results imply. Next we give
an overview of the timeline of the Big Bang, which we will use to determine if
dark energy can be the vaccum energy. At last we will show that singularities
are not part of our universe.

Contents
1. Why is the vaccum space not curvature free? 1
1.1. Consequences Rik > 0? 2
2. Universum’s Size? 3
3. Expanded Drake Equation 3
4. Chronology of the Big Bang 4
5. Overview of the Big Bang 5
6. Dark Energy = Vacuum Energy? 5
6.1. Clarification 6
7. Singularities? 7
References 8

1. Why is the vaccum space not curvature free?

By convention in the theory of general relativity we have for a vaccum space:
Tik = 0, Rik = 0

This is of course a simplification as we want to show. Using the Friedmann−equations:

Ṙ(t)2 8πG Λc2 κc2
= ρ+ − 2
R(t)2 3 3 R

R̈(t)2 3p Λc2
 
4πG
=− ρ+ 2
R(t)2 3 c 3

Date: April 07, 2018.

1
2 M. N. G. EINSTEIN

q
dE
we see that for the Planck time tP = ~G
c5 the energy density W (t) = dV was
maximal, simply due to that the volume V (tP ) = min and (if we assume) E =
const. The Friedmann−equations yield:

W (tp ) > W (t) > W (t∞ ) = 0

since an energy flux exsits for t > tP , which is given by:
dxµ
0 < ~j µ = W = W ~v
dt
Hence, the vacuum space is not curvature free. Another way of realizing this is by
using thermodynamics. After Planck’s law, which inforces the law of Stefan−Boltzmann,
we have for the temperature:
r
4 P
T =
σA
Due to Tspace 6= 0 this yields:
8πG
Tik > 0 =⇒ Rik > 0
c4
We point out, that the curvature is so small that for the calculations in the the-
ory of general relativity it makes no difference. The data of course supports this
statement since: Ωtot = 1, 00 ± 0, 02 or Ωtot = 1.0005 ± 0, 00065. This still means
that space is flat.

1.1. Consequences Rik > 0?

• First of all it is important to realize, that the result for Rik > 0 is derived
completely by the theory of general relativity.
• Rik > 0 ⇐⇒ Tik > 0 means, that there is not one volume in the universe
(cosmos) that is completely curvature free! Equivalent to it, we can say,
that there is not one volume in the universe, where there is no energy, which
is obvious due to equation (of the energy diffusion flux):
dE dxµ
= W ~v
dV dt
This fact includes even voids, because the energy density is distributed
equally.
• This is of course nothing new to quantum mechanics, where, with the elabo-
ration of quantum electrodynamics, it was established that the vacuum was
not empty. This is expressed best by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:
h
∆E∆t ≥
4π
 HAWKING WEEK 3

2. Universum’s Size?
We already have found:
W (tp ) > W (t) > W (t∞ ) = 0
dE
whereby W (t) = dV is the energy density. It shows two things: that only a finite
amount of time has passed since the beginning of the universe or equivalently that
the universe is not infinite years old and that the energy in the universe is limited.
This is very helpful, if we want to determine whether the universe is infinite or
finite in extent. If we use the Friedmann−equations, we see, that W (t) > 0 stands
contrary to an infinite size, because after the Friedmann−equations follows, that
the universe should have expanded to that size in a finite time; but after Hubble’s
law:
v = H0 D
everything would be infinite far away from everything else, which would make the
universe completely dark. Since that is not the case, we can assume that the
universe is finite in extent.
Remark 2.1. Please note, that the shape of the universe gets often confused with
its actual size; the size gets also mixed up with the size of the observable universe.
Those are all different things.

3. Expanded Drake Equation

The Drake equation:
N = R∗ · fp · ne · fl · fi · fc · L
estimates with the parameters:
• R∗ , the average rate of star formations, in a galaxy,
• fp , the fraction of formed stars that have planets,
• ne , for stars that have planets, the average number of planets that can
potentially support life,
• fl , the fraction of those planets that actually develop life,
• fi , the fraction of planets bearing life on which intelligent, civilized life, has
developed,
• fc , the fraction of these civilizations that have developed communications,
• L, the length of time over which such civilizations release detectable signals
as a probabilistic argument, the number of active, communicative extraterrestrial
civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy. If we now consider these variables to hold for
any galaxy, we get for an estimation for intelligent life in the universe the following:
12
2·10
X
NU = R∗j · fpj · nej · flj · fij · fcj · Lj
j=1

Hence, even if some values might be low or even zero, all combined give us a good
valuation of the amount of active, communicative extraterrestrial civilizations in
the entire observable universe. Thus, we can conclude that life in the observable
universe exists.
 4 M. N. G. EINSTEIN

4. Chronology of the Big Bang

Planck epoch: BB ≤ Ph E ≤ 10−43 s, ≥ 1032 K

G(ravitation) separates from G × SU (5) ⊃ SU (3) × SU (2) × U (1) ⇒ G ∧ SU (5)

| {z } | {z } | {z } |{z} | {z }
TOE strong force electroweak force grav. force GUT

Grand Unification epoch: 10−43 s ≤ GUE ≤ 10−30 s, > 1027 K

SU (3) separates from G ∧ SU (5) ⊃ SU (3) × SU (2) × U (1) ⇒ G ∧ SU (3) ∧ SU (2) × U (1)

Inflation epoch: 10−35 s ≤ IE ≤ 10−32 s, ≥ 1025 K

Exponential expansion of space during the Grand Unification epoch

Quark epoch: 10−30 s ≤ QE ≤ 10−6 s, 1025 K ≤ QE ≤ 1013 K

Quark/Antiquark production ⇒ Quark−Gluon plasma ⇒ Temperature did not allow free

Quarks anymore

Hadron epoch I: 10−6 s ≤ HE I ≤ 10−4 s, 1013 K ≤ HE I ≤ 1012 K

Quarks bounded together and were confined to Hadrons ⇒ most Hadrons and Antihadrons
annihilated each other

Hadron epoch II: 10−4 s ≤ HE II ≤ 1 s, 1012 K ≤ HE II ≤ 1010 K

Proton/Antiproton and Neutron/Antineutron pairs were not produced any longer ⇒

most Proton/Antiprotons and Neutron/Antineutrons annihilated each other ⇒ Neutrinos
were produced ⇒ Neutrinos decoupled

Lepton epoch: 1 s ≤ LE ≤ 10 s, 1010 K ≤ LE ≤ 109 K

Lepton/Antilepton pairs were created ⇒ most Lepton/Antilepton pairs annihilated

each other ⇒ Photons were produced

It followed the Photon epoch, which lasted between 10 s ≤ Pγ E ≤ 380.000 a,

whereby the temperature dropt slowly from 109 K to about 4000 K. The first atoms
were formed, but the universe was filled now mostly with Plasma made of Electrons,
Photons, Protons, Dark Matter and Vacuum Energy.
 HAWKING WEEK 5

5. Overview of the Big Bang

Planck epoch: BB ≤ Ph E ≤ 10−43 s, ≥ 1032 K

G(ravitation) separates from G × SU (5) ⊃ SU (3) × SU (2) × U (1) ⇒ G ∧ SU (5)

| {z } | {z } | {z } |{z} | {z }
TOE strong force electroweak force grav. force GUT

Grand Unification epoch: 10−43 s ≤ GUE ≤ 10−36 s, > 1027 K

SU (3) separates from G ∧ SU (5) ⊃ SU (3) × SU (2) × U (1) ⇒ G ∧ SU (3) ∧ SU (2) × U (1)

Inflation epoch: 10−36 s ≤ IE ≤ 10−30 s, ≥ 1025 K

Quark epoch: 10−30 s ≤ QE ≤ 10−6 s, 1025 K ≤ QE ≤ 1013 K

Hadron epoch I: 10−6 s ≤ HE I ≤ 10−4 s, 1013 K ≤ HE I ≤ 1012 K

Hadron epoch II: 10−4 s ≤ HE II ≤ 1 s, 1012 K ≤ HE II ≤ 1010 K

Lepton epoch: 1 s ≤ LE ≤ 10 s, 1010 K ≤ LE ≤ 109 K

Photon epoch: 10 s ≤ Pγ E ≤ 380.000 a, 109 K ≤ PE ≤ 4000 K

6. Dark Energy = Vacuum Energy?

We have established:
dE
W (t) = , t→∞
dV
which yields:
dE
dt
This is nothing more than a power, since by definition we have:
F ·r FE · r E ·a·r d
P (t) := =⇒ PE (t) := = 2 = (FE · r)
t t c ·t dt
The power PE (t) must have included (as the equation above shows) a force:
dpµ 1 dpµ
FEµ = =r
dτ v 2 dt
1− 2
c
which caused even before:
G × SU (5) ⊃ SU (3) × SU (2) × U (1) → G ∧ SU (5)
| {z } | {z } | {z } |{z} | {z }
FT OE FS FEW FG FGU T

G ∧ SU (5) ⊃ SU (3) × SU (2) × U (1) → G ∧ SU (3) ∧ SU (2) × U (1)

6 M. N. G. EINSTEIN

the separation of the gravitational force to the others, and the symmetry breaking
of the strong − to the electroweak force, an expansion. In that time, probably due
to the decoupling of the forces from each other, an inflationary state of growth took
place, because an overwhelmingly amount of energy stood to disposition that was
not yet used for the production of particles, in example quarks or leptons. This
statement is supported by the momentum, that also appears in FEµ , as it was moving
along space and the Einstein field equations; since 8πGc4 Tµν was maximal, Rµν must
have also been maximal. Thus, after ∂t gµν (t) = −2Rµν (t) follows a maximal energy
flow and with it a maximal power.
Remark 6.1. Please note, that the expansion of the univsere took place before any
symmetry breaking. Thus, we can conclude FE > FT OE , FE > FGU T ∧G , FE > FG ,
which yields, that the gravitational force can never pull the space back.
Remark 6.2. Please note, that:

W (t)
is the energy density as is:
ρvac

6.1. Clarification. Please note, that:

dE
W (t) =
dV
is the energy density and E is not the vacuum energy, but is the entire energy from
the beginning of the universe, while V is the entire volume of the space. For t → ∞
we have:
dE
→ Evacuum
dV
since, with t → ∞, it is:
E = Eradiation + Ematter + Evacuum + EX
| {z }
dark + baryonic

If there is no different hidden form of energy, then the term EX is zero, assuming
of course that the vacuum energy falls together with the dark energy.
It is important to see, that the vacuum energy (locally) is so small, due to the size
of the volume of the universe (, which makes it globaly enormous). Hence, it seems
very possible, that dark energy falls together with the vacuum −.
dE
Remark 6.3. Please note, that dV is reflected in the continues drop of the temper-
ature, which can be seen in the different epochs after the Big Bang.
Remark 6.4. Please be aware, that:
dE
→ Evacuum
dV
means the dominant form of energy becomes over time the vacuum energy.
 HAWKING WEEK 7

7. Singularities?
Physical singularities, such as ±∞, do not exist in the real world. Usually
they are a sign, that current knowledge is insufficient to describe what happens at
extreme densities, temperatures, forces, . . . .
The best example for discussion is the Schwarzschild metric/solution, which appears
to have singularities at r = 0 and r = 2GM
c2 = rs .

The singularity at r = rs is an illusion; it is a coordinate singularity, which arises

from a bad choice of coordinates or coordinate conditions. As soon as the coordinate
system is changed (for example to Kruskal−Szekeres coordinates), then the metric
becomes regular at r = rs and can extend the exterior to values of r < rs . Thus,
one can expand the external metric to the inner −. This is a direct effect of the
solution process. To get the Schwarzschild metric the Einstein field equation have
to be solved, but they are solved outside of the Schwarzschild radius and in the
vaccum. Hence, for r = rs we have a bad choice of coordinates.
The case r = 0 seems different, since the curvature becomes infinite; thus, indicating
the presence of a physical singularity. To see, that for r = 0 (and other cases) a
singularity appears that might be a generic feature of the theory of general relativity,
but which does not hold physically, we use the line element for the Schwarzschild
metric that has the form:
2c2 c2
 
rs
(ds)2 = c2 (dτ )2 + r dτ dT + rs 1 − (dT )2 −
rs 1− r(τ )
1− R
R

− r(τ )2 ((dθ)2 + sin2 (θ)(dφ)2 )

2GM
whereby the Schwarzschild radius is rs = and the coordinates are given by:
c2
 
τ

T T 
τ T θ φ = 

θ
φ

where τ is the proper time of a falling particle, T is the proper time of an observer
on the surface of the sphere, θ is the colatitude (angle from north) and φ is the
longitude. For the orbit of a test particle we get:
!2
dT c2 rs
2
0 ≤ (ds) = 2
c dτ + r − rs
(dT )2 −
rs 1− r(τ )
1− R
R

− r(τ )2 ((dθ)2 + sin2 (θ)(dφ)2 )

With lim R → 0 the sphere disappears (not only for an observer on the sphere
v
but for all!) after U = 2πR, but after E = hf ⇒ λ = fp > 0 the wavelength of the
8 M. N. G. EINSTEIN

particle is greater than zero. Thus, the particle seems to fly out of space. This
is of course not true and show a broader problem, namely that the singularity is
not physically. The metric holds though for all: r(τ ) > 0.

References
[1] Landau/Lifschitz. Part II. Classical field theory.
[2] Landau/Lifschitz. Part III. Quantum Mechanic.
[3] Greiner. Part VI. Quantum Electrodynamic.
[4] Greiner. Part IX. Thermodynamic and Statistical Mechanic.