Asian Journal of Science and Applied Technology

Volume 3 Number 2 July - December 2014

Contents
Sl. No. Title Page No.

1 Fault Diagnosis of Monoblock Centrifugal Pump Using Stationary 1

Wavelet Features and Bayes Algorithm
V. Muralidharan, V.Sugumaran and N.R. Sakthivel

2 Experimental Investigations on Finding Ball Bearing Defects Using 5

Signature Analysis
K.Gunasekar and A.Pugazhenthi

3 Flow Measurement Using RTDs 8

Nagaraju B.P and Rathanraj K.J

4 An Investigation on Instantaneous Workability Behavior of Aluminium 12

SiC Air Quenched Powder Composites During Cold Upsetting
M. Prabhakar, T. Ramesh, R. Narayanasamy and V. Anandakrishnan

5 Solar Radiation Catalyzed Aerobic Photooxidation of 1-Naphthol on 25

Some Semiconductors
S. Karuthapandian and K. Arunsunaikumar

6 New Visualizing Agents for Developing Latent Fingerprints on Various 33

Porous and Non-Porous Surfaces Using Different Household Food Items
Richa Rohatgi and A. K. Kapoor

7 Experimental Investigation for Tool Life by Optimizing Machining and 39

Geometric Parameters of CNC End Mill Tool
Nilesh S. Pohokar, Lalit B. Bhuyar
 Fault Diagnosis of Monoblock Centrifugal Pump Using Stationary
Wavelet Features and Bayes Algorithm
V. Muralidharan1, V.Sugumaran2 and N.R. Sakthivel3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, B.S.Abdur Rahman University, Chennai - 600048. Tamil Nadu, India
2
V.Sugumaran, School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
3
N.R. Sakthivel, 3Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
E-mail: v.muralidharan2@gmail.com, v_sugu@yahoo.com, nr_sakthivel@cb.amrita.edu
Abstract - Fault diagnosis of monoblock centrifugal pump is
conceived as a pattern recognition problem. There are three
important steps to be performed in pattern recognition namely
feature extraction, feature selection and classification. In this
study, Stationary wavelet transform (SWT) is used for feature
extraction from the input signals and Bayes net classifier is
used for classification. A WEKA implementation of Bayes net
algorithm is used. The different fault conditions considered for
the present study are Cavitation (CAV), Impeller fault (FI),
Bearing Fault (BF) and both Impeller and Bearing Fault (FBI).
The representative signal is acquired for all faulty conditions,
Features are extracted, classified and the results are presented.
The experimental setup and the procedure for conducting the
experiments are discussed in detail.
Keywords: Stationary wavelets transform, fault diagnosis,
wavelet feature, Bayesnet.
I. INTRODUCTION
In a monoblock centrifugal pump, defective bearing, defect
on the impeller and cavitation cause a very serious
problems. Cavitation results in undesirable effects, such as
deterioration of hydraulic performance (drop in head
capacity and efficiency). Fault detection is achieved by
comparing the signals of monoblock centrifugal pump
running under normal and faulty conditions. Vibration
signals are widely used in condition monitoring of
centrifugal pumps. For the measurement of the vibration
levels for each condition, seismic or piezoelectric
transducers along with data acquisition system is used.
From the vibration signal relevant features are extracted
using Stationary Wavelet Transformations (SWT) and
classification is done using bayesnet classifier and the
results are presented.
V. Muralidharan and V. Sugumaran (2012) have reported
the comparative study of bayes classifier and bayes net
classifier for pump data using discrete wavelet transform
features (DWT features). Finally, concluded that bayes net
classifier seem to be good for DWT features. The same
authors (2013) also investigated in detail with J48 algorithm
and support vector machines for continuous wavelet and
DWT features. Jiangping Wang, Hong Tao Hu (2006)
focuses on a problem of vibration-based condition
monitoring and fault diagnosis of pumps. The vibration-
based machine condition monitoring and fault diagnosis
incorporate a number of machinery fault detections and
diagnostic techniques. They used fuzzy logic principle as a
fault diagnostic technique to describe the uncertain and
ambiguous relationship between different fault symptoms
1 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
and classify frequency spectra representing various pump
faults. Fansen Kong, Ruheng Chen (2004) proposed a new
combined method based on wavelet transformation, fuzzy
logic and neuro-networks for fault diagnosis of a triplex
pump. The failure characteristics of the fluid and dynamic-
end can be divided into wavelet transform in different
scales. Therefore, the characteristic variables can be
constructed making use of the coefficients of Edge worth
asymptotic spectrum expansion formula and fuzzified to
train the neuro-network to identify the faults of fluid- and
dynamic-end of triplex pump in fuzzy domain. Tests
indicate that the information of wavelet transformation in
scale 2 is related to the meshing state of the gear and the
information in scales 4 and 5 is related to the running state
of fluid-end. Good agreement between analytical and
experimental results has been obtained. V. Muralidharan et
al., discussed that classification capability of J48 algorithm
and SVM algorithm with DWT features. The similar types
of faulty conditions were considered and the experiments
were performed. Also, they have performed an experiment
with rough set theory and support vector machine
algorithms. However, there is a scope for conditional
probability based algorithms in the field of fault diagnosis.
Hence, this work has been taken up with stationary wavelet
transforms and bayesnet algorithm for fault diagnosis of
monoblock centrifugal pump in order to fill the gap.
II. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
The main idea of this study is to find whether the
monoblock centrifugal pump is in good condition or in
faulty condition by a systematic procedure following certain
steps. If the pump is found to be in faulty condition then the
next step is to segregate the faults into Cavitation (CAV),
Impeller fault (FI), Bearing Fault (BF) and both Impeller
and Bearing Fault (FBI)defect together.
A.Experimental Setup Description
The monoblock centrifugal pump is taken for this study.
The motor (2HP) is used to drive the pump. Piezoelectric
type accelerometer is used to measure the vibration signals.
The accelerometer is mounted on the pump inlet using
adhesive and connected to the signal conditioning unit
where signal goes through the charge amplifier and an
analog to digital converter (ADC) and the signal is stored in
the memory. Then the signal is processed from the memory
and it is used to extract the features.
V. Muralidharan, V.Sugumaran and N.R. Sakthivel

B.Procedure A feature vector is given by

v swt  v1swt , v2swt ,...v8swt 

The pump was allowed to rotate at a speed of 2880 rpm at T
normal working condition and the vibration signals are (1)
measured. The sampling frequency of 24 KHz and sample
A component in the feature vector is related to the
length of 1024 were considered for all conditions of pump.
individual resolutions by the following equation
The sample length was chosen arbitrarily to an extent;
ni
however, the following points were considered. After 1
calculating the wavelet transforms it would be more viswt 
ni
w
j 1
2
i, j , i  1, 2,...8 (2)
meaningful when the number of sample is more. On the
other hand, as the number of sample increases, the
computation time increases. To strike a balance, sample Where, vi swt is the ith feature element in a SWT feature
length of around 1,000 was chosen. The specification of the vector. ni is the number of samples in an w2i,j individual sub-
monoblock centrifugal pump is given as below. band.

TABLE I SPECIFICATION OF THE PUMP UNDER STUDY V.CLASSIFICATION

Rotational Speed 2880 rpm Bayesian decision making refers to choosing the most likely
class given the value of feature or features. Consider the
Pump Size 50 mm x 50mm
classification problem with two classes C1 and C2 based on
Current 11.5 A a single feature x. From the training sets of the two classes,
392 lps histograms can be prepared and the respective a priori
Discharge
probabilities determined. Information extracted there from
Head 20m can be used to carry out classification based on the feature
Power 2 hp x. The parameters of classification and confusion matrix
pertaining to the best one is presented in Table 2.
In the present study the following faults were simulated as
TABLE II BAYES NET PARAMETERS FOR SWT FEATURES
described below.
Cavitation - by intentionally closing the suction gate valve Test Parameter Values
partially. Test mode 10-fold cross-
Impeller fault - chipping to dislodge one material to validation
simulate pitting. Time taken to build model 0.06 seconds
Bearing fault – a thin cut through wire cut EDM. Total Number of Instances 1250
Bearing and Impeller fault together. Correctly Classified Instances 1025 (82 %)
The faults were introduced one at a time and vibration Incorrectly Classified Instances 125 (18 %)
signals were taken. Mean absolute error 0.0932
Root mean squared error 0.2365
III. FEATURE EXTRACTION
VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Stationary Wavelet Transform (SWT) has been widely used
and provides the physical characteristics of time-frequency All the wavelet families and its sub-groups were used to
domain data. The advantage of using SWT is that it avoids find the stationary wavelet transform which form the feature
the down sampling process and hence one can preserve the vectors. The extracted features were then given as an input
length of the signal for analysis. SWT of different versions to the classifier (Bayes NET algorithm) and the
of different wavelet families have been considered. The classification accuracies were found. Fig.1. will describe the
following wavelet families and their sub families have been classification accuracies among the different families of
tried for the present study. Daubechies wavelet, Coiflet, bi- wavelet. One can easily understand that the classification
orthogonal wavelet, reversed bi- orthogonal wavelet, accuracy of reverse bi-orthogonal family is high. The
symlets and Meyer wavelet. Basian algorithms are used for performance among the reverse bi-orthogonal wavelet and
validation of the output. its versions is presented in Fig.2. Form Fig. 2, one can
easily understand the maximum classification accuracy is
IV. FEATURE DEFINITION 82% which is against rbio3.1. This means that the 3.1
version of reverse bi-orthogonal wavelet performs relatively
Feature extraction constitutes computation of specific better than any other versions of the wavelet families. The
measures, which characterize the signal. The stationary detailed classification detail for rbio 3.1 is given below in
wavelet transform (SWT) provides an effective method for the form of confusion matrix in Table. 3.
generating features. The collection of all such features
forms the feature vector. The confusion matrix can be interpreted as follows. The
diagonal elements in the matrix are correctly classified

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 2

 Fault Diagnosis of Monoblock Centrifugal Pump Using Stationary
Wavelet Features and Bayes Algorithm

instances and non-diagonal elements are incorrectly accuracy was calculated accordingly. Therefore, for rbio3.1,
classified data points. From the matrix it can be easily the classification accuracy was found to be 82%.
understood how it was misclassified. The classification

Fig.1 Histogram for classification accuracies for different wavelet families

Fig.2 Histogram chart for classification accuracies of rbior wavelet and its versions

TABLE.III. CONFUSION MATRIX FOR RBIO3.1

Good CAV FB FI FBI
Good 208 9 0 30 3
CAV 5 215 0 26 4
FB 0 0 246 1 3
FI 84 36 12 118 0
FBI 0 9 3 0 238

A – Good; B –Cavitation; C – Impeller Fault (FI); D – Bearing Fault (FB); E –Bearing and Impeller Fault (FBI).

VII. CONCLUSION
In the present study monoblock centrifugal pump was taken
for the study. Stationary Wavelet features were extracted
and classified using bayesnet algorithm to study the fault
discriminating capabilities of wavelets for vibration signal.
From the results and discussion one can confidently say that
the best wavelet for this application is reversed bi-
orthogonal wavelet 3.1 and whose classification accuracy is
found to be 82%. Therefore, to conclude, the SWT features
with bayesnet algorithm based classification also very much
suited for real time applications.

3 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

V. Muralidharan, V.Sugumaran and N.R. Sakthivel
REFERENCES
[1] V. Muralidharan and V. Sugumaran, “Selection of Discrete
Wavelets for Fault Diagnosis of Monoblock Centrifugal Pump using
the J48 Algorithm”, Applied Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 27, pp. 1-
19,2013.
[2] V. Muralidharan, V. Sugumaran and N.R.Sakthivel, “Wavelet
decomposition and support vector machine for fault diagnosis of
monoblock centrifugal pump”, International Journal of Data
Analysis and Strategies, Vol. 3, pp.159 – 177, 2011.
[3] Jiangping Wang, Hongtao Hu, “Vibration based fault diagnosis of
pump using fuzzy technique”, Measurement, Vol.39, pp.176-185,
2006.
[4] Fansen Kong and Ruheng Chen, “A combined method for triplex
pump fault diagnosis based on wavelet transforms, fuzzy logic and
neuro-networks” Mechanical System and signal processing, Vol.18,
pp. 161-168, 2004.
[5] V. Muralidharan, V. Sugumaran and Hemantha Kumar, “Fault
Diagnosis of Monoblock Centrifugal Pump Using Discrete Wavelet
Features and J48 Algorithm”, International Journal of Mechanical
Engineering and Technology, Vol. 3, pp.120 – 126,2012.
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
[6] V Muralidharan and V. Sugumaran, “Feature Extraction using
Wavelets and classification through Decision Tree Algorithm for
Fault Diagnosis of Mono-Block Centrifugal Pump”, Measurement,
Vol.46, pp.353 – 359, 2013.
[7] D. Zogg, E. Shafai, H.P. Geering, “Fault diagnosis of heat pumps
with parameter identification and clustering”, Control Engineering
practice , Vol.12, pp.1435-1444, 2006.
[8] V. Muralidharan and V. Sugumaran, “Rough Set Based Rule
Learning and Fuzzy Classification of Wavelet Features for Fault
Diagnosis of Monoblock Centrifugal Pump” Measurement, Vol. 46,
Issue 9, pp. 3057-3063, Nov. 2013.
[9] V. Muralidharan, S. Ravikumar and H.Kanagasabapathy,
“Condition monitoring of Self aligning carrying idler (SAI) in belt-
conveyor system using statistical features and decision tree
algorithm”, Measurement, Vol. 58, pp. 274–279, Dec. 2014.
[10] V. Muralidharan, V.Sugumaran and M. Indira, “Fault Diagnosis of
Monoblock Centrifugal pump using SVM” Engineering Science and
Technology, an International Journal, Vol. 17, pp.152-157, Sep
2014.
[11] V. Muralidharan, V. Sugumaran and Gaurav Pandey, “SVM Based
Fault Diagnosis of Monoblock Centrifugal pump using Stationary
Wavelet Features” International Journal of Design and
Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 2, Issue 1, pp. 1-6, 2011.
4
 Experimental Investigations on Finding Ball Bearing Defects Using
Signature Analysis
K.Gunasekar1 and A.Pugazhenthi2
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
PSNA College of Engineering and Technology, Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering Anna University,
University College of Engineering, Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India
E-mail: gunasekark17@gmail.com

Abstract - This paper presents for identify the defected bearing
using vibration frequency. There have been a lot of researches
on diagnosing rolling element bearing faults using wavelet
analysis, but almost all methods are not ideal for picking up
fault signal characteristics under strong noise. The rolling
element bearing is used widely in all rotating components. It is
one of the most susceptible components in a machine because it
is most often under maximum load and high speed running
conditions. This paper describes the suitability of vibration
monitoring and analysis techniques to become aware of defects
in antifriction bearings. Time domain analysis, frequency
domain analysis and spike energy analysis have been working
to identify different defects in bearings.
Keywords: Signal characteristics, Time domain analysis, and
frequency domain analysis.
elements. These defects may result from manufacturing
error and abrasive wear. Hence, study of vibrations
generated by these defects is important for quality
inspection as well as for condition monitoring. Antifriction
bearing failures result in serious problems, mainly in places
where machines are rotating at constant and high speeds. In
order to prevent any terrible consequences caused by a
bearing failure, bearing condition monitoring techniques,
such as, temperature monitoring, wear debris analysis, oil
analysis, vibration analysis and acoustic emission analysis
have been developed to identify life of flaws in running
bearings. Among them vibration analysis is most generally
accepted technique due to its easiness of application.

Notation Vibration signature monitoring and analysis in one of the

BD, PD : roller diameter and pitch d respectively,
mm
fo , fi,, fR
: outer race, inner race an malfunction
frequencies, r espectively, H
fr : rotational frequency, Hz
n : number of rollers
b : angle of contact
I. INTRODUCTION
Bearings are what enable things to roll. Without
bearings our industrial world would, in many respects,
stand still. The first bearing with the help of the wheel
enabled people to move themselves and their goods from
one village to another. It helped them in producing their
food. Today, bearing technology has developed to a stage
where bearings are one of the most advanced mechanical
components with regard to optimized design, high quality
materials and accurate manufacturing. Condition
monitoring of antifriction bearings in rotating machinery
using vibration analysis is a very well established method.
It offers the advantages of reducing down time and
improving maintenance efficiency. The machine need not
be stopped for diagnosis. Even new or geometrically perfect
bearings may generate vibration due to contact forces,
which exist between the various components of bearings.
Antifriction bearing defects may be categorized as localized
and dispersed. The localized defects include cracks, pits
and spalls caused by fatigue on rolling surfaces. The other
category, ie, distributed defects includes surface roughness,
waviness, and misaligned races and off size rolling
main techniques used to predict and diagnose various
defects in antifriction bearings. Vibration signature analysis
provides early information about progressing malfunctions
and forms the basic reference signature or base line
signature for future monitoring purpose. Defective rolling
elements in antifriction bearings generate vibration
frequencies at rotational speed of each bearing component
and rotational frequencies are related to the motion of
rolling elements, cage and races. Initiation and progression
of flaws on antifriction bearing generate specific and
predictable characteristic of vibration. Components flaws
(inner race, outer race and rolling elements) generate
specific defect frequencies calculated.
The time domain and frequency domain analyses are
widely accepted for detecting malfunctions in bearings. The
frequency domain spectrum is more useful since it also
identifies the exact nature of defect in the bearings. Spike
energy analysis makes use of spike energy meter to measure
three parameters of high frequency pulses, namely, pulse
amplified, pulse rate and high frequency ‘random vibratory
energy’ associated with bearing defects.
II.EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
An experimental test rig built to predict defects in
antifriction bearings is shown in Figure 1. The test rig
consists of a shaft with central rotor, which is supported on
two bearings. An induction motor coupled by a flexible
coupling drives the shaft. Self aligning double row ball
bearing is mounted at driver end and cylindrical roller
bearing is mounted at free end. The cylindrical roller

5 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

K.Gunasekar and A.Pugazhenthi
bearing is tested at constant speed of 1400 rpm with radial
load of 230 N. Cylindrical roller bearing type NRB NU 305
(with outer race and roller defects), HMT e-245 (with inner
race defect) have been used for analysis.
Fig.1 Basic Experimental Setup
1–roller bearing; 2–rotor; 3–self aligning ball bearing;
III.DEVELOPMENT OF MONITORING System
Parameter Value
Number of rollers 10
Outer diameter, mm 62
Inner diameter, mm 25
Pitch diameter, mm 44
Roller diameter, mm 8 Accelerometers
Contact angle, b 0
The details of the bearings used in the present analysis are given
in table 1. provision is made on the roller bearing coupling
and 5-motors.
The basic functions of monitoring system are
sensing, signal conditioning, data acquisition and signal
processing. Each function has many parameters with
different specifications. In the present work, the monitoring
system uses motor current and vibration parameters to
determine the machine condition. The selection of the
sensing elements depends on the limit of changes of the
machine variables, desired accuracy and the monitoring
method. Machine variables such as three phase stator
currents in the case of induction motor, speed, vibration
(radial and horizontal) that cover the entire requirement to
recognize the expected types of faults, are selected for
monitoring. Speed sensor, piezoelectric accelerometer and
ac current clamps are used to measure the mentioned
machine variables.
Most of the sensors provide outputs in the form of
electrical signals (digital or analog) and the level of the
output and the linearity with the input needs to be
conditioned. A signal conditioning circuit is developed to
make the signal levels compatible with the NIDAQ 6024E.
In the present work the analog signals are transferred to data
acquisition card(NIDAQ 6024E) through BNC-2120
connector (Fig. 2). The speed of data acquisition system and
the number of inputs to be scanned are controlled by the
LabVIEW software.
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
4–flexible
Fig.2 Basic Schematic Diagram of Remote Monitoring System
Spring balance
DAQ
Bearing
Fig.3 Test Setup
IV.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The vibration signals of good bearing and defective
bearing is shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively. The
magnitude of peak to peak time response of good bearing is
found to be in the 10 mV range in comparison to 200 mV
range for defective bearings. In order to assess the clarity in
different defects in bearings the spectrum analysis is shown
in Figures 4-6 for good bearing, bearing with inner race
defect, bearing with outer race defect and bearing with
roller defect, respectively. The details of inner race defect,
outer race defect and roller defect are shown in Figures 4-6,
respectively. The magnitude of spectrum at various
harmonic frequencies for defective bearing is found to be
quite distinct in comparison to good bearings. The
frequency spectrum of the vibration signal from the inner
race defect bearing shows the peaks at 137 Hz, 275 Hz, 413
Hz, 551 Hz and 827 Hz. The fundamental frequency
estimated for the inner race defect is found to be 137.85 Hz.
The frequency spectrum of the vibration signal from outer
race defect shows the peaks at 95 Hz, 190 Hz, 286 Hz, 477
Hz, 668 Hz, 763 Hz and 950 Hz. The fundamental
frequency for the outer race defect bearing is found to be
95.44 Hz.
The frequency spectrum of the vibration signal from the
roller defect bearing shows the peaks at 81 Hz, 163 Hz, 244
6

Hz and 326 Hz, 408 Hz , 489 Hz, 571 Hz , 653 Hz and 698
Hz. The fundamental frequency for the roller defect bearing
is found to be 81.65 Hz. The results correlate very well.
Fig.4 Freq domain Analysis - Healthy Bearing
Fig.5 Freq Domain Analysis – Inner Race Ball fault
Fig.6 Ball Bearing-Freq Domain Analysis - Ball Fault
V.CONCLUSIONS
Time waveform and frequency spectrum provide useful
information to enables to predict presence of defects on
inner race, outer race analyze defects in antifriction
bearings. Time waveform indicates severity of vibration in
7 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
Experimental Investigations on Finding Ball Bearing Defects
Using Signature Analysis
defective bearings. Frequency domain spectrum identifies
amplitudes corresponding to defect frequencies and rollers
of antifriction bearings. Spike energy factor helps to identify
the severity of the defect in antifriction bearings. The
distinct and different behavior of vibration signals from
bearings with inner race defect, outer race defect and roller
defect helps in identifying the defects in roller bearings.
REFERENCES
[1] Dr. S. J. Lacey “An Overview of Bearing Vibration Analysis,”
Engineering Manager Schaeffler UK Limited.
[2] Ronald N. Bracewell “Waveform Analysis Using The Fourier
Transform,” Scientific American, June 1989, pp. 86-95.
[3] YDr. S. J. Lacey “An Overview of Bearing Vibration Analysis,”
Engineering Manager Schaeffler UK Limited.
[4] Arul Muthukumarasamy, Suri Ganeriwala “The Effect of
Frequency Resolution in Bearing Fault Studies,” Technote,
SpectraQuest Inc., (Feb 2010).
[5] S. A. McInerny and Y. Dai “Basic Vibration Signal Processing
for Bearing Fault Detection,” IEEE Transactions On Education,
VoL. 46, No. 1, February 2003.
[6] Alan Friedman “ Demodulation technique for vibration
analysis,” 253 Winslow Way West, Bainbridge Island, WA.
[7] Alan Friedman – DLI Engineering “Bearing vibration condition
monitoring of motor coupled pump,”
[8] D. Ganeshkumar and K. Krishnaswamy “Intelligent bearing
tester using labview,” Jl. of Instrum. Soc. of India, Vol. 39 No.
1, March 2009.
[9] S B Khandagal and R Shrinidhi “Prediction of Defects in
Antifriction Bearings using Vibration Signal Analysis,” IE (I)
Journal-MC, Vol 84, July 2004.
[10] Dr. S. P. Gupta “Remote condition monitoring of electric
motors using labview,” xxxii national systems conference, NSC
2008, December 17-19, 2008
[11] Sanjeev Kumar & Rupinder Singh (2010) “A LABVIEW mini-
expert to identify bearing defects automatically,” National
system conference, Vol. 50:625–633.
[12] Ahmed A. Elfeky, Mahmoud I. Masoud, Ibmhim F. El-
Arabawy (SMIEEE) “Fault Signature Production for Rolling
Element Bearings in Induction Motor,” 1-4244-1055-
X/07©2007 IEEE.
 Flow Measurement Using RTDs
Nagaraju B.P1 and Rathanraj K.J2
1
Border Security Force Institute of Technology, BSF STC, Bangalore-63.
2
Professor, Dept of Industrial Engineering & Management, B.M.S.College Engineering, Bangalore-19, Karnataka, India.
E-Mail:nagarajubp@gmail.com
Abstract- In many processing industries, it is essential to
measure either the flow rate or just to know whether the flow
or no flow conditions exists. The change in resistance measures
the prevailing temperature differential in the flow pipe. The
temperature difference could be related to flow rate or flow or
no-flow conditions. This may be achieved by the selection of
right sensor, signal conditioning circuit and display.
Keywords: Flow Or No Flow Conditions, Temperature
differential, sensor, signal conditioning and display
I.INTRODUCTION
The flow rate can be measured using venturimeter, orifice
meter, turbine flow meter and ultrasonic flow meter.
However, just to know the flow or No-flow conditions in
the flow, the simplest reliable system developed is based on
the thermal dispersion principle
II.THERMAL DISPERSION PRINCIPLE
The typical sensing element contains two thermowell-
protected precision platinum Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs). When placed in the process stream, one
RTD is heated and the other RTD sense the process
temperature. The temperature difference between the two
RTDs is related to the process flow rate as well as the
properties of the process media. Higher flow rates or denser
media cause increased cooling of the heated RTD and a
reduction in the RTD temperature difference. Thermal
dispersion technology to provide the highest reliability in
flow, level and temperature detection. The sensing element
is composed of two matched RTD's. One RTD is
preferentially heated. The other RTD is unheated and
thermally isolated to provide continuous process condition
temperature and baseline indication. At no flow or under
dry conditions, the temperature differential between the two
RTDs is greatest. For flow / no flow detection, No-flow
conditions produce a large signal. As flow increases, the
heated RTD is cooled and proportionally reduces
temperature differential. Changes in flow velocity directly
affect this rate of heat [11]
The acronym “RTD” is derived from the term “Resistance
Temperature Detector”. The most stable, linear and
repeatable RTD is made of platinum metal. The temperature
coefficient of the RTD element is positive. An
approximation of the platinum RTD resistance change over
temperature can be calculated by using the constant
0.00385//°C. This constant is easily used to calculate the
absolute resistance of the RTD at temperature. [2]
Equation
RTD(T) = RTD0 + T X RT D0 X 0.00385//°C
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
where:
RTD(T) is the resistance value of the RTD element at
temperature ToC
RTD0 is the specified resistance of the RTD element at 0°C
and, ToC is the temperature environment that the RTD is
placed. The RTD element resistance is extremely low when
compared to the resistance of a NTC thermistor element,
which ranges up to 1 M at 25°C. Typical specified 0°C
values for RTDs are 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 or 2000. Of
these options, the 100 platinum RTD is the most stable
over time and linear over temperature. If the RTD element
is excited with a current reference at a level that does not
create an error due to self-heating, the accuracy can be
±4.3°C over its entire temperature range of -200°C to
800°C. If a higher accuracy temperature measurement is
required, the linearity formula below (Calendar-Van Dusen
Equation) can be used in a calculation in the controller
engine or be used to generate a look-up table.
RTD ( T ) = RTD0 [1+ AT+ BT 2 - (100CT3 +CT4 )
where:
RTD(T) is the resistance of the RTD element at
temperature,
RTD0 is the specified resistance of the RTD element at 0°C,
T is the temperature that is applied to the RTD element
(Celsius) and, A, B, and C are constants derived from
resistance measurements at 0°C, 100°C and 260°C.
III.SENSOR FABRICATION TECHNOLOGY
Realization of a thin film sensor involves the deposition of a
sensing film on a suitable substrate. There could be
combination of metals and insulating materials needs to be
deposited on one another depending upon the application or
sensing requirements. [3]
Film Deposition Methods for Sensor Fabrication
Based on the thickness of the deposited film and the
technology used to deposit these films, fabrication
technology is broadly divided into two categories like i)
thick film technology and ii) thin film technology, details of
which are given below.
IV.THICK FILM TECHNOLOGY
Thick film technology uses pastes or “inks” with fine
particles (5μ average diameter) of common or noble metals
dispersed in an organic vehicle, along with a glass frit that
binds them. Depending on the dispersed particles, the paste
can be conductive, resistive or dielectric. Those pastes are
screen printed on a substrate according to pattern involving
width lines from 10 μ to 200μ. The printed film is dried by
8

o
heating at about 150 C to remove the organic solvent that
provided the low viscosity needed for the paste to squeeze
through the open areas in the screen. The substrate with the
deposited film is then fired on a conveyor belt furnace,
usually in the air atmosphere, so that the metal powder
sinters and glass frit melts, thereby bonding the film to the
substrate. The result is 10μ to 25μ thick film, impermeable
to many substances but relatively porous for specific
chemical or biological agents. Thick film components have
a printed tolerance of about ±10% to ± 20%, but they can be
later trimmed to within ±0.2% to ±0.5% through selective
abrasion or laser evaporation.
Thick film technology finds at least three different uses in
sensors. It has been used for years to fabricate hybrid
circuits offering improved performance compared to
monolithic integrated circuits for signal conditioning and
processing. Thick film circuits and some sensors can be
integrated in the same package, which improves the
reliability (strong connections), permit functional trimming
and reduces cost. It is also used to create support structures
or substrates onto which a sensing material is deposited.
Some thick film pastes directly responds to physical and
chemical quantities. There are pastes – some developed for
sensing applications- with high temperature coefficients of
resistance useful for temperature sensing, piezo-resistive
pastes, magneto-resistive pastes, pastes with high Seeback
coefficient among others. Pastes based on organic polymers
and metal oxides such as SnO2 can detect humidity and
gases because of adsorption and absorption. Using thick
film technology, it is straightforward to define the inter-
digitated structures required for those sensors. Thick film
sensors with ceramic substrate withstand high temperatures,
can be driven with relatively large voltages and currents,
can integrate heaters and can resist corrosion. Because the
paste is fired into the ceramic, thick film sensors are
compact and sturdy. The printing process is quite
inexpensive, which permits competitive low volume
fabrication. [4-6]
V.THIN FILM TECHNOLOGY
Thin films (generally less than 1 micron thick) are obtained,
in general by vacuum deposition on a substrate. Sensor and
circuit patterns are defined by masks and transferred by
photolithography, similar to monolithic IC fabrication. Even
though their names may suggest that the only difference
between thick film and thin film technology is in film
thickness, they are quite different technologies. In fact,
metallized thin films may become thicker than some thick
films. The properties of thin film differ from the bulk
material.
Common materials in thin film circuits are nichrome for
resistors, gold for conductors, and silicon dioxide for
dielectrics. Many thin film sensors are resistive.Piezo-
resistors use nichrome and poly crystalline silicon,
conductivity sensors use platinum, strain gauge based
sensors use platinum – tungsten alloys, and gas sensors use
zinc oxide.
9 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
Flow Measurement Using RTDs
NI MULTISIM
The National Instruments Electronics Workbench Group
(formerly Electronics Workbench) equips the professional
printed circuit board (PCB) designer with world-class tools
for schematic capture, interactive simulation, board layout,
and integrated test. [7]
VI.SOURCES OF ERRORS AND CORRECTION
RTDs are externally powered sensors and based on the
variation of resistance with temperature. The accuracy of
platinum Resistance Thermometer (PRT) temperature
measurement is largely determined by the number of leads
used between the probe and the instrument. Two leads are
often acceptable in the case of short cable runs; three leads
compensating for lead resistance variations give improved
accuracy; and four leads provide the greatest precision.
Self-heating of RTD also causes measurement inaccuracy.
The maximum excitation current is determined by the self-
heating within the RTD and this limits the maximum signal
for a required measurement temperature range. To produce
a higher-level signal for indication and recording, a separate
signal conditioner is needed.
Noise interference can have a significant effect on accuracy.
Shielded twisted pair signal cable minimizes noise
interference on measuring circuit. For long cable runs a 4-
20m A current transmitter may be used.
RTD elements are, in fact very vulnerable to contamination
of all kinds, and must be used only in hermetically sealed
probes for any industry application. Moisture, dirt or any
seriously affect the accuracy of RTD. [1]
TABLE 1. RTD ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages Disadvantages
Very Accurate and Stable Expensive Solution
Fairly Linear to ±4%C Requires Current Excitation
Good Repeatability Danger of Self-Heating
Low Resistive Element
Common elements, such as Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs), thermistors, thermocouples or diodes are
used to sense absolute temperatures, as well as changes in
temperature. Of these technologies, the platinum RTD
temperature sensing element is the most accurate and stable
over time and temperature.
Figure-1. Current excitation.
Nagaraju B.P and Rathanraj K.J

VII.RTD CURRENT EXCITATION CIRCUIT

For best linearity, the RTD sensing element requires a stable current reference for excitation. In this circuit, a voltage
reference, along with two operational amplifiers, are used to generate a floating 1 mA current source.

Figure 2. A Current Source For The RTD element can be constructed in a single-supply environment from two operational amplifiers
and a precision voltage reference.

This is accomplished by applying a 2.5V precision voltage
reference to R4 of the circuit. Since R4 is equal to R3, and the
non-inverting input to U1 is high impedance, the voltage
drop across these two resistors is equal. The voltage
EQUATION
between R3 and R4 is applied to the non-inverting input of
U1. That voltage is gained by (1 + R2/R1) to the output of
the amplifier and the top of the reference resistor, RREF. If
R1 = R2, the voltage at the output of U1 is equal to:

V OUTU1  1  2   V REF  V R4 

R
 R1 
V OUTU1 2 V REF V R4
Where:
VOUTU1 is the voltage at the output of U1 and
VR4 is the voltage drop across R4.
The voltage at the output of U1 is equal to:
EQUATION
V OUTU1V REF V R4 V R3
This same voltage appears at the inverting input of U2 and across to the non-inverting input of U2.
Solving these equations, the voltage drop across the reference resistor, RREF, is equal to:
V RREF V OUTA1V OUTA2
V RREF  2  V REF V R4   V REF V R4 V R3 
V RREF  V REF

where:
VRREF is the voltage across the reference resistor, RREF and, VR3 is the voltage drop across R3
The current through RREF is equal to:
EQUATION

I RTD V REF / R REF

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 10


This circuit generates a current source that is ratio metric to
the voltage reference. The same voltage reference can be
used in other portions of the circuit, such as the analog-to-
digital (A/D) converter reference. Absolute errors in the
circuit will occur as a consequence of the absolute voltage
of the reference, the initial offset voltages of the operational
amplifiers, the output swing of U1, mismatches between the
resistors, the absolute resistance value of RREF and the RTD
element. Errors due to temperature changes in the circuit
will occur as a consequence of the temperature drift of the
same elements listed above. The primary error sources over
temperature are the voltage reference, offset drift of the
operational amplifiers and the RTD element.
Figure 5. Simulated Circuit of flow switch
IX.CONCLUSION
1. No-flow conditions produce a large signal.
2. As flow increases, the heated RTD is cooled and
proportionally reduces the temperature differential.
3. Changes in flow velocity directly affect this rate of
heat dissipation.
4. An electronic circuit normalizes the differential
measurement with the process media temperature
and converts the RTD temperature/resistance
differential into a DC voltage signal.
11
Flow Measurement Using RTDs
VIII.RTD SIGNAL-CONDITIONING PATH
Changes in resistance of the RTD element over temperature
are usually digitized through an A/D conversion. The
current excitation circuit, is used to excite the RTD
element. With this style of excitation, the magnitude of the
current source can be tuned to 1 mA or less by adjusting
RREF. The voltage drop across the RTD element is sensed by
U3, then gained and filtered by U4. With this circuit, a 3-
wire RTD element is selected. This configuration minimizes
errors due wire resistance and wire resistance drift over
temperature.
REFERENCES
[1 ] Maity.R . & Dr.A.K.Singh . Ap ril 200 7. “ Electrical
Ind ia” mag azine. Vo lu me 4 7 No 4 . pp:79 -83.
[2] http://www.freescale.com/webapp/sps/site/homepage.jsp?
[3] Jacob Fraden. 2004. “Handbook of Modern Sensors”, Third
Edition, AIP press (Springer), New York
[4] Prudenziati (ed.). 1994.“Thick Film Sensors”, Elsevier.
[5] White N M and Turner J D. 1997.“Thick Film Sensors: Past,
Present and future”, Meas. Sci. Technol. 8, pp:1-20.
[6] Krishna Seshan (ed.). 2001. “Handbook of Thin Film
nd
Deposition Processes and Technologies” 2 Edition, Noyes
Publications, New York
[7] www.electronicsworkbench.com
[8] http://www.microchip.com/stellent
[9] Bolton W. 2003. “Mechatronics” Low Price Edition, Pearson
Education.
[10] John. P. Bentley. 2003. “Principles of Measurement Systems”
LPE, Pearson Edition.
[11] http://www.fluidcomponents.com/Industrial/Products/FlowSwit
ches/ProdFlowSwitch.
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
 An Investigation on Instantaneous Workability Behavior of Aluminium
SiC Air Quenched Powder Composites During Cold Upsetting

M. Prabhakar 1, T. Ramesh2, R. Narayanasamy3 and V. Anandakrishnan4

1
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, TRP Engineering College,
Trichirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
2
Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
3
Professor, 4 Asst. Professor, Department of Production Engineering,
National Institute of Technology, Trichirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
E-mail:mprabha2000@rediffmail.com

Abstract - Strain hardening of a material is an important Narayanasamy and Pandey [3] investigated the evaluation
phenomenon, which is required to study the plastic of cold upset-forming and densification features in
deformation of any material and also is an important aluminium–3.5% alumina sintered powder preforms and
parameter in the study of workability criteria of metals. The they concluded that the preforms possessing lower initial
present investigation has been undertaken to evaluate the
instantaneous strain hardening behaviour experienced during
aspect ratios have shown enhanced densification compared
the cold working of sintered aluminium SiC composites from 0 to preforms of higher initial aspect ratios, subject to the
to 15% under various stress state conditions namely uniaxial, condition where the initial preform densities maintained
plane and triaxial. Sintered preforms with three different constant. Further they studied the effect of Poisson’s ratio
aspect ratios namely 0.38, 0.76 and 1.19 with for different per with respect to the fractional theoretical density attained
cent of SiC contents ranging from 0 to 15% were prepared and exhibited three distinct stages, namely, a steep rise, a steady
cold forged. The results were obtained for each aspect ratios state, followed by a rapid rise approaching to value of 0.5 in
and SiC contents at different stress state conditions. the close vicinity of the theoretical density [4].
Keywords: Upsetting; Strain hardening exponent; Strength
coefficient; Powder Metallurgy; Triaxial stress
Narayanasamy and Ramesh investigated the workability
criteria under triaxial conditions for Aluminum and iron
I. INTRODUCTION
compacts with various particle sizes and they found the
triaxial stress conditions with various aspect ratios [5], the
Powder metallurgy (P/M) process provides several
same author investigated the strain hardening exponent and
advantages when comparing with conventional
strength coefficient for the same combination composites
manufacturing process. It can provide a reasonable
[6].
improvement in specific strength, stiffness and wear
resistant, compared with monolithic alloys. At present, the
Sridhar and fleck [7] did their experiment on triaxial test on
powder metallurgy components are being widely used for
cold compaction behavior of lead shot with steel
sophisticated industrial applications. The worldwide
reinforcement as well as Aluminium and 40% silicon
popularity of powder metallurgy lies in the ability of this
carbide powder under hydrostatic loading conditions and
technique to produce such complex shapes with exact
they found the shape deformations and hardening
dimensions at a high rate of production with low cost prices.
parameters along the loading directions.
Frequently, this technology is used for material systems that
are hard to machine such as tungsten or molybdenum or
Li and Mohamed [8] investigated the creep behavior on
very much difficult to cast due to detrimental solidification
10vol % SiC with 2124Aluminium composites. Z. Lin [9]
behavior of material chosen.
also investigated with the same aluminium combination
with 5vol % SiC additions and investigated the creep
Abdel-Rahman and Sheikh [1] discussed workability
behavior of the composites.
criterion of powder metallurgy compacts and they
investigated the effect of the relative density on the forming
In this paper, a complete investigation deformation behavior
limit of P/M compacts in upsetting. They proposed a
of aluminium powder metallurgy composites with various
workability factor (β) for describing the effect of the mean
percent of SiC contents ranging from 0 to 15% for the
stress and the effective stresses with the help of two theories
various stress state conditions namely, uniaxial, plane and
and they discussed the effect of relative density.
triaxial conditions with three different aspect ratios were
performed. The formability stress index found for various
Narayanasamy and Pandey [2] performed an excellent work
per cent of SiC content of preforms for various stress state
on the strain hardening behaviour of the powder metallurgy
conditions were calculated and plotted against the axial
composites. They evaluated the work hardening
strain. From the plot it is observed that the addition of SiC
characteristics of sintered aluminium–iron composite
particles in the aluminium powder preforms do have great
preform conducting experimental works under uniaxial
changes in the formability stress index ‘β’ and axial strain.
stress state conditions and studied the strength coefficient
value for various iron particle sizes.

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 12

 An Investigation on Instantaneous Workability Behavior of Aluminium
SiC Air Quenched Powder Composites During Cold Upsetting

Nomenclature is tensile in nature, also increases until it reaches the

fracture limit. The associated flow characteristics for porous
Db bulged diameter materials under plane stress state condition can be expressed
Dc contact diameter as
D0 initial diameter
Hf height of the compact at fracture dεz = dλ(σz − νσθ) (5)
H0 initial height of compact
dεθ = dλ(σθ − νσz) (6)
Greek letters
α Poisson’s ratio where dεz is the plastic strain increment in the axial
εeff effective strain component direction, dεθ is the plastic strain increment in the hoop
εr radial strain component direction, dλ is the constant.
εz axial strain component As an evidence of experimental investigation implying the
εθ hoop strain component importance of the spherical component of the stress state on
σeff effective stress component fracture called a formability stress index ‘β’ which is given
σm mean stress by:
σr radial stress component 3 m
σz axial stress component  (7)
σθ hoop stress component  eff
This index determines the fracture limit
II. THEORETICAL INVESTIGATIONS
According to Narayanasamy and Pandey [4], the state of
The mathematical expressions used and proposed for the stress in a plane stress condition is as follows:
determination of various upsetting parameters for various
stress state conditions are discussed below. σeff = (0.5 + α)[3(1 + α + α2)]1/2σz (8)

A. Uniaxial stress state and plane stress state conditions where σeff-is the effective stress, α is the Poisson’s ratio =
(εθ/2εz)
In the compression of P/M part, under frictional conditions, Since, the radial stress σr is zero at the free surface it follows
the average density is increased. Friction enhances from the flow rule that,
densification and at the same time decreases the height
 1  2 
reduction at fracture. The state of stress in a homogeneous     Z (9)
compression process is as follows.  2  
According to Abdel-Rahman and Sheikh [1]: Further using the values of σz and σθ, the hydrostatic stress
(σm) can be calculated as follows:
σz = −σeff, σr = σθ = 0 (1) 1
m   Z     (10)
where σz is the axial stress, σeff is the effective stress, σr is 3
the radial stress and σθ is the hoop stress.
Z
m  (2)
3
where σm is the mean or hydrostatic stress and the strain
state is
h 
 Z  ln 0  (3)
 hf 
and
 2 Db2  Dc2 
   ln 2
 (4)
 3 Do 
where Db is the bulged diameter of compacts; Dc is the
contact diameter of compacts and; D0 is the initial diameter
of compacts. Fig. 1. SEM photo of the aluminium powder.
When the compression continues, the final
diameter increases and the corresponding hoop strain, which

13 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

M. Prabhakar, T. Ramesh, R. Narayanasamy and V. Anandakrishnan

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. (a) Al + 5% SiC specimen- SiC particle size 180 microns- macrostructure (b) Al + 10% SiC specimen- SiC particle size 180 microns- macrostructure
(c) Al + 15% SiC specimen- SiC particle size 180 microns- macrostructure

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 3. Microstructure of (a) pure Aluminium (b) pure Aluminium and 5% SiC addition (c) pure Aluminium and 10% SiC addition (d) pure Aluminium and
15% SiC addition

B. Triaxial stress state condition At triaxial stress state condition, the relative density (R) of
the compacts plays a vital role in the determination of the
According to Narayanasamy and Ponalagusamy [14] the hoop stress component (σθ). Since σr = σθ in the case of
state of stress in triaxial stress state condition is as follows: triaxial stress stated condition, the hydrostatic stress (σm) is
(2  R 2 )   R 2 ( Z  2  ) given by
 (11) 1   2   3 1
(2  R 2 ) Z  R 2 ( Z  2  ) m   ( Z  2  ) (13)
where R is the relative density. 3 3
From the Eq. (11) for the known values of α, R and σz, the
hoop stress component (σθ) can be determined as follows: III. EXPERIMENTAL

 2  R 2  Atomized aluminium and SiC powders of the characteristic

     Z (12)
 2  R  2R  
2 2 stated in the Table 1 was procured and analyzed for its
purity. The purity level of the aluminium and SiC powders

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 14

 An Investigation on Instantaneous Workability Behavior of Aluminium
SiC Air Quenched Powder Composites During Cold Upsetting

was found to be 99.7 and 99.62%, respectively. Fig. 1 show
the SEM photographs of aluminium powder. The compacts
were prepared from aluminium and SiC powders with
different aspect ratios at the compacting pressure range of
200–225MPa (410-485 MPa) in order to obtain the initial
preform density ranging from 0.85 to 0.92 of the theoretical
value. The powder metal compacts were prepared by
blending aluminium and SiC powders of different SiC
contents (0–15%) with SiC powders of particle size namely
180μm. The ceramic coating was applied over the surface of
the compacts to protect them from oxidation during
sintering. The ceramic-coated compacts were sintered in an
electric muffle furnace at 550 ◦C for period of 90 min and
air quenched by switching off the furnace power supply and
opened to the room temperature.

TABLE I CHARACTERISTICS OF ALUMINIUM AND SIC POWDERS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sieve analysis (aluminium) Characteristics of aluminium powder
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sieve number (μm) wt.% retained
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+106 0.26 Apparent density (g cm−3) 1.030
+90 2.54 Flow rate, S (by Hall flow meter) (50 g−1) 32.00
+75 14.73 Compressibility at a pressure
+63 17.58 of 300MPa (g cm−3) 2.344
+53 24.86
+45 12.33
+38 6.27
−38 21.42
SiC particle size 180 μm
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The sintered preforms were cleaned from the sand particles
and the dimensional measurement made before and after
each deformation. The deformation of the compact was
carried out between two flat open dies hardened to Rc 50–
55 and tempered to Rc 46–50 on a 100 t capacity hydraulic
press.
Each compact was applied with the compressive loading in
step of 0.01MN (one metric ton) until the appearance of first
visible cracks on the free surface. No lubricant was used for
axial deformation. Immediately after the completion of each
step of loading, the deformed height, the contact diameters,
the bulged diameters and the density were measured. The
axial stress (σz) is used for the calculation of strength
coefficient (Ki) and strain hardening exponent (ni) for the
case of uniaxial stress condition and the hoop stress (σθ) is
used for the case of plane stress state conditions.

(a)

15 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

M. Prabhakar, T. Ramesh, R. Narayanasamy and V. Anandakrishnan

(b)

(c)

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 16

 An Investigation on Instantaneous Workability Behavior of Aluminium
SiC Air Quenched Powder Composites During Cold Upsetting

(d)

(e)

17 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

M. Prabhakar, T. Ramesh, R. Narayanasamy and V. Anandakrishnan

(f)

(g)

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 18

 An Investigation on Instantaneous Workability Behavior of Aluminium
SiC Air Quenched Powder Composites During Cold Upsetting

(h)

(i)

19 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

M. Prabhakar, T. Ramesh, R. Narayanasamy and V. Anandakrishnan

(j)

(k)

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 20

 An Investigation on Instantaneous Workability Behavior of Aluminium
SiC Air Quenched Powder Composites During Cold Upsetting

(l)
Fig. 2. (a-c) Various stresses vs. axial strain for Al–0% SiC composite; (d-f) various stresses vs. axial strain for Al–5% SiC composite; (g-i) various stresses
vs. axial strain for Al–10% SiC composite; (j-l) various stresses vs. axial strain for Al–15% SiC composite;

Formability stress index Vs axial strain for aspect

0.4 ratio 0.38
0.35
Al
0.3
Axial strain

0.25
Al+5% SiC
0.2
0.15
Al+10% SiC
0.1
0.05
Al+15% SiC
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Formability stress index

(a)

Formability stress index Vs axial strain for aspect

0.4 ratio 0.76
0.35 Al
0.3
Axial strain

0.25 Al+5% SiC

0.2
0.15 Al+10% SiC
0.1
0.05 Al+15% SiC
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Form ability stress index

(b)

21 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

M. Prabhakar, T. Ramesh, R. Narayanasamy and V. Anandakrishnan

Formability stress index Vs axial strain for aspect

0.7 ratio 1.12
0.6 Al

0.5 Al+5%

Axial strain
SiC
0.4 Al+10%
0.3 SiC
Al+15%
0.2 SiC
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Formability stress index

(c)
Fig. 3 (a-c) Axial strain (εz) vs. formability stress index β – triaxial stress state condition for various aspect ratios

Relative density Vs stress ratio parameter σm/

σeff for aspect ratio 0.38
0.00005
Al
0.00004
parameter 1
Stress ratio

Al+5%
0.00003 SiC
Al+10%
SiC
0.00002 Al+15%
SiC
0.00001

0
0.85 0.9 0.95 1
Relative Density
(a)

Relative density Vs stress ratio parameter σm/

0.00002 σeff for aspect ratio 0.76
0.000018 Al
Stress ratio parameter

0.000016
0.000014 Al+5%
0.000012 SiC
Al+10%
0.00001
1

SiC
0.000008
Al+15%
0.000006 SiC
0.000004
0.000002
0
0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
Relative Density

(b)

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 22

 An Investigation on Instantaneous Workability Behavior of Aluminium
SiC Air Quenched Powder Composites During Cold Upsetting

Relative density Vs stress ratio parameter σm/

σeff for aspect ratio 1.12
0.00002 Al

0.000015 Al+5%

parameter 1
Stress ratio
SiC
Al+10%
0.00001 SiC
Al+15%
0.000005 SiC

0
0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Relative Density
(c)
Fig. 4 (a-c) Stress ratio parameter (σm/σeff) vs. relative density (R).

Relative density Vs stress ratio parameter σr/ σeff

0.4
for aspect ratio 0.38
0.35 Al
Stress ratio parameter

0.3
Al+5%
0.25 SiC
0.2 Al+10%
2

SiC
0.15 Al+15%
0.1 SiC
0.05
0
0.85 0.9 0.95 1
Relative Density

(a)

Relative density Vs stress ratio parameter σr/

0.4 σeff for aspect ratio 0.76
0.35 Al
Stress ratio parameter

0.3
Al+5%
0.25 SiC
0.2 Al+10%
2

SiC
0.15 Al+15%
0.1 SiC
0.05
0
0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
Relative Density

(b)

23 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

M. Prabhakar, T. Ramesh, R. Narayanasamy and V. Anandakrishnan
Relative density Vs stress ratio parameter σr/
0.4
σeff for aspect ratio 1.12
0.35
Stress ratio parameter
0.3
0.25
0.2
2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.92
Fig. 5 (a-c) Stress ratio parameter (σr/σeff) vs. relative density (R).
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig. 2(a)–(f) have been plotted between the stresses namely
axial–uniaxial, hoop-plane stress, hoop–triaxial, mean-plane
stress and mean–triaxial and axial strain (ez) for different
SiC content ranging from 0 to 15%. When the SiC addition
is made, then all the above stresses and the axial strain (εz)
value increase. It is also observed that hoop stresses
according to plane stress and the axial stress value increase
with the increase in SiC addition in the composite. The
hydrostatic stress value according to triaxial stress condition
increases with an increase in SiC addition. But, this value is
less when comparing with compact with no addition of SiC.
Here upto 10% SiC addition the axial stress and triaxial
stresses namely hoop stress as well as mean stress are
slightly higher than 120 MPa even upto 140 MPa recorded
but addition of more silicon carbnide particles above this
levcel shows reduction in the stress level, this may due to
the particle size which we selected is higher so the void
closure may be the reason for this reductions.
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
Al
Al+5%
SiC
Al+10%
SiC
Al+15%
SiC
0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Relative Density
(c)
REFERENCES
[1] M. Abdel-Rahman, M.N. El-Sheikh, Workability in forging of
powder metallurgy compacts, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, Vol.54, 1995, pp. 97-102.
[2] R. Narayanasamy, K S. Pandey, Some aspects of work
hardening in sintered aluminium–iron composite preforms
during cold axial forming, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, Vol. 84, 1998, pp.136–142.
[3] R. Narayanasamy, K S. Pandey, salient features in the cold
upset-forming of sintered aluminum-3.5% alumina powder
composite preforms, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, vol. 72, 1997, pp. 201-207.
[4] J. Bensam, P. Marimuthu, M. Prabhakar, V. Anandakrishnan,
Effect of Sintering temperature on the Formability and Pore
Closure Behavior of Al-SiC matrix P/M composite, Applied
Mechanics and Materials, Vol.392, 2013, pp.24-30.
[5] R. Narayanasamy, T. Ramesh, K.S. Pandey, Some aspects on
workability of aluminium–iron powder metallurgy composite
during cold upsetting, Materials Science and Engineering, Vol.
A 391,2005, pp. 418–426
[6] R. Narayanasamy, T. Ramesh, K.S. Pandey, Some aspects on
strain hardening behaviour in three dimensions of aluminium–
iron powder metallurgy composite during cold upsetting,
Materials and Design, Vol. 27, 2006, pp. 640–650.
[7] Sridhar and N. A. Fleck, Yield behaviour of cold compacted
composite powders, Acta mater. , Vol.48, 2000, pp. 3341-3352.
[8] Yong li and f. A. Mohamed, An investigation of creep behavior
in an SiC-2124 Al composite, Acta mater. Vol. 45, No. 11, pp.
4775-4785,
[9] Zhigang Lin, Yong Li, Farghalli A. Mohamed, Creep and
substructure in 5 vol.% SiC–2124 Al composite, Materials
Science and Engineering, Vol. A332, 2002, pp. 330–342.
24
 Solar Radiation Catalyzed Aerobic Photooxidation of 1-Naphthol on
Some Semiconductors
S. Karuthapandian and K. Arunsunaikumar
Department of Chemistry, V.H.N.Senthikumaranadar College, Virudhunagar – 626 001, Tamil Nadu, India
E-mail: pandiansk2000@yahoo.com
Abstract - Phototransformation of 1-naphthol into 1,2-
naphthoquinone (1,2-NQ) using photocatalysts; TiO2, V2O5,
PbO2, ZnO, Fe2O3, ZnS and Al2O3 has been studied in ethanol
in the presence of air, under sunlight. The photooxidation
exhibits saturation type kinetics with respect to [1-naphthol]
and air. The rate of formation of 1,2-naphthoquinone increases
linearly with respect to illumination area. The photooxidation
rate is not suppressed by Singlet oxygen quencher, azide ion.
Vinyl monomers and sacrificial electron donors do not
interfere in photooxidation. The mechanisms of solar
photocatalysis on semiconductor and non-semiconductor
surfaces have been discussed and a kinetic law deduced. The
solar photocatalytic efficiencies of the catalysts follow the
order: Al2O3 > Fe2O3 > V2O5 > TiO2 > ZnO > PbO2 > ZnS.
UV-visible, FT-IR and NMR spectroscopy spectral data clearly
indicate that the photo product is 1,2-NQ.
I. INTRODUCTION
Photochemical processes in heterogeneous systems have
gained popularity in recent years because of their wide
applications in degradation and mineralization of
pollutants, bactericidal activity, chemical synthesis and
conversion and storage of solar light energy.
Semiconductor mediated photocatlysis involves photo-
excitation that causes charge separation in semiconductor
particles followed by simultaneous oxidation and
reduction of adsorbed substrates.
Reports on photocatalyzed oxidation of a variety of
substrates on semiconductor surfaces are numerous;
titania is the most extensively used photocatalyst.1-3
Photosensitization of the titania nanoparticles with
carotenoids leads to the formation of superoxide anion and
singlet oxygen on red light irradiation.4 The dye
photosensitization of zinc oxide occurs by injection of
electron by the directly adsorbed dye.5 Doping of titania
with iron(III) shifts the adsorption to longer wavelength and
the absorbance increases with increasing dopant
concentration.6 An increase in dopant ion content favours
electron-hole separation and therefore enhances the
photoactivity. Although doping of titania with
chromium(III) shifts the absorbance to visible region the
photocatalytic activity is nil in the visible region and
diminished by 25-1000 times under UV light.7 This is
attributed to an increase in electron-hole recombination at
the chromium(III) ion site. On the other hand, doping of
titania with lithium increases the photocatalytic efficiency,
as seen from the degradation of malachite green.8
The photo-oxidation of iodide on 60% and 80% of aqueous
ethanol was studied as a function of iodide ion
25
concentration, amount of catalyst suspended, airflow rate,
light-intensity and solvent composition and wavelength of
illumination, conform to Langmuir-Hinshelwood kinetic
model. Iron(II) undergoes photooxidation generating
iron(III) 12-14 which is simultaneously photoreduced on
the metal oxides surfaces.15
The photooxidation of 4-chloroaniline in aqueous solution
has been reported.16 A photo-oxidation of aniline to
azobenzene on titania in ethanol medium has been studied.17
The catalytic efficiency of titania has been increased for the
photooxidation of aniline by doping with transition metal
(or) noblemetals.18 The bimetallic catalyst of Au-Cu/Tio2
has employed for the partial oxidation of methanol to
produce hydrogen.19
The photooxidation of cyclohexane shows that the
photocatalytic efficiency depends on the particle size of the
photocatalyst.20 The rate of photocatalytic production of
hydrogen peroxide is 100 to 1000 times faster with Q-sized
particles than with bulk zinc oxide particles.21 The
photocatalytic oxidation of ethanol on small and large zinc
sulfide particles reveals selective oxidation,22 ethanol is
selectively oxidized at micrometer particles to acetaldehyde
without side products by a “two hole” process. In the case
of nanometer particles the primarily formed -hydroxyethyl
radicals in a “one hole” process undergo a secondary
reaction, i.e., the dimerization and disproportionation of the
free radicals. A two hole process on nanometer particles
becomes impossible because the time interval between two
successive photon absorption incidents which lead to a
successful hole transfer process in a nanometer particle is
much longer than the maximum life time of the -
Hydroxyethyl radicals formed in the first step.
Photooxidation of 1- naphthol to 1,2-naphthoquinone has
been studied extensively. The product of photooxidation of
1-naphthol affords significant amount of 1,2-
naphthoquinone. 23-25 Oxidation of 1-naphthol using a
sunlight on heterogeneous photocatalyzed oxidation of a
variety of organic substrates are numerous literature lacks
reports using solar radiation and hence this work.
II. EXPERIMENTAL
A. Materials
1-naphthol AR (merck) was used as received. TiO2, Al2O3,
ZnO, Fe2O3, PbO2, ZnS and V2O5 were used as received
from merck. Commercially available ethanol was distilled
over calcium oxide and used.
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
S. Karuthapandian and K. Arunsunaikumar
B. Solar Photocatalysis
Photooxidations of 1 – naphthol using sunlight in presence
of catalysts TiO2, V2O5, PbO2, ZnO, Fe2O3, ZnS and Al2O3
were made from 11.30 am to 12.30 pm during summer,
February to May on open terrace exposed to sunlight. The
intensity of solar radiation was measured using Digital
Illuminance Meter (LUX-METER), Model: TES-1332A,
TES Electrical Electronic Corp., Taiwan. The reactions
were carried out in glass case; solutions of 1-naphthol (1-
NAPH), prepared afresh were taken in wide reaction vessels
of uniform diameter and catalyst beds covering the entire
bottom of the reaction vessels were maintained. Air was
bubbled using micro pumps without disturbing the catalyst
bed. The volume of the reaction solution was kept as 25
mL and the loss of solvent due to evaporation was
compensated periodically (every 20 min). The area of cross
section of the reaction vessel was determined from the
measured height of known volume of deionized distilled
water taken in the reaction vessel.
C. Product Analysis and Estimation
Solar photooxidation of 1-naphthol in ethanol on TiO2,
Al2O3, ZNO, Fe2O3, PbO2, ZnS yields a single product as
1, 2-naphthoquinone (max = 380nm)26 which is confirmed
by TLC. The reaction solution was evaporated and the
product isolated using column chromatography using
benzene as eluent. The brownish yellow solid was obtained
(mp: 147°). The analysis of the product by FT-IR spectrum
of a powder sample of 1,2-naphthoquinone was recorded
using Shimadzu (8400S) spectrometer using KBr disc and
the NMR Spectra were record on a 300 MHz Bruker
spectrometer (using CDCl3 as a solvent). The UV-vis
spectra of the reaction solutions irradiated with sunlight,
were identical with that of reported 1, 2-naphthoquinone
(max = 380nm).27 The absorbance of the product formed
conforms to the Beer-Lambert law and the product was
estimated using the reported value of the molar extinction
coefficient (3.162103 L mol-1 cm-1).28 The photo product
identified by using UV, IR and 1H-nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) spectral datas are: IR : 3319, 3051, 1701,
1458, 1515, 1579 and 1625 and 1273 cm-1 ; 1H NMR: 8.10,
7.74, 7.40, 7.30, 7.10 and 6.70 ppm; 13C NMR: 180,
178,144, 135, 134.5, 132, 131, 130, 129 and 128 ppm.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Solar Photooxidation of 1-Naphthol in the Presence of
Semiconductors
The measurement of solar radiation shows fluctuation of
sunlight intensity during the course of the photooxidation
even under clear sky (Fig.1, Table I). Also, the intensity of
solar radiation is different on different days. Now, for solar
photooxidation experiments of different reaction conditions
carried out in a set, the quantum of sunlight incident on unit
area was made the same, by carrying out the experiments
simultaneously, side-by-side, thus making it possible to
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
compare the solar results. The solar photooxidation results
are consistent. Solar photooxidation of 1-naphthol in
ethanol on Titania, vanadia, zinc oxide, ferric oxide, lead
dioxide, zinc sulfide and alumina yields 1, 2-
naphthoquinone as the product. The progress of the solar
photooxidation on observed using TiO2 catalysts at various
time intervals is shown in Fig. 2. The spectra clearly show
a maximum absorbance (λmax) at 380 nm; however there is
no such absorbance is observed at 0 min. It reveals that the
maximum absorbance at 380 nm is corresponding to 1,2-
naphthoquinone which was identical with that of reported in
literature.101 A couple of solar experiments of identical
reaction conditions carried out simultaneously, side by side,
yield results within ± 5% and this is so on different days.
This reproducibility is not surprising as the quantum of solar
radiation absorbed by the test is the same as that of the
control (standard) and the ratio becomes independent of
fluctuation.
B. Factors Influencing Solar Photocatalysis
The various factors such as concentration of 1-naphthol, air
flow rate and bed area influencing the solar photocatalyzed
reactions in ethanol was examined by carrying out a set of
experiments simultaneously under identical illumination;
also an experiment under standard conditions was carried
out side by side with the entire rate measuring experiments.
The rate of formation of 1,2-naphthoquinone (1,2-NQ) at
different concentration of 1-naphthol at various
semiconductor catalysts show that the oxidation rate
increases with increase in the concentration and the
variation conforms to Langmuir-Hinshelwood model (Fig. 3,
Table II). The double reciprocal plot of rate versus [1-
NAPHTHOL] affords straight line with positive y-intercept
in all cases ( Table III). The effect of airflow rate on the
rate of formation of 1,2-NQ was also carried out. Study of
the photo catalyzed oxidation 1-naphthol as a function of
airflow rate reveals that the enhancement of photo catalysis
with oxygen concentration in the formation of 1,2-NQ (Fig
4, Table IV ). The variation of rate with airflow rate
suggests Langmuir-Hinshelwood kinetic model. The double
reciprocal plots of rate versus airflow rate confirm the same
(Table V). The reaction was also studied without bubbling
air but the solutions were not deaerated. The dissolved
oxygen itself brings out the reaction but the photo oxidation
is weak. The reaction does not occur in dark. The photo
catalysts used do not lose their catalytic activities on
irradiation. Study of the photocatalyzed oxidation of 1-
naphthol as a function of illumination area on the rate of
formation of 1,2-NQ was also carried out. The reaction rate
increases linearly with the apparent area of the catalytic bed
(Fig. 5, Table VI). The Photoformation of 1,2-NQ have
been studied in the presence of surfactants, vinyl monomer
and azide ion (Table VII). The surfactants, singlet oxygen
quencher and azide ion does not interfere the photochemical
reaction. The vinyl monomers neither retard and nor
polymerize during the course of photocatalysis.
26

C. Mechanism
Of the seven photocatalyst employed in this study alumina
is an insulator providing non-reactive surface while others
are semiconductors with finite band gap energies. The
bandgap excitation of semiconductors results in creation of
electron-hole pairs such as holes in the valence band and
electrons in the conductance band. Illumination of the
semiconductors with light of an energy greater than the
bandgap results in electron-hole pair generation. Since
the recombination of a photogenerated electron-hole pair in
a semiconductor is so rapid (occurring in a picoseconds time
scale) (Eq. 3.1), for an effective photocatalysis the reactants
Semiconductor  hv  h(vb )  e(cb )
 
1  NAPH ( ads )  h ( vb )  1  NAPH
 
O2( ads )  e
( cb ) O 2
 
1  NAPH O 
2  H 2O
The donor and acceptor adsorbed on the photocatalyst
surface undergoes photoexcitation followed by electron
transfer. The donor excitation results in the transfer of
excited electron whereas the acceptor excitation leads to an
electron jump from the donor level to the vacant acceptor
level.28
D. Kinetic Law
The photocatalysis on reactive as well as non-reactive
surfaces requires adsorption of 1-naphthol and oxygen
Hence
kK 1K 2 A[1- NAPHTHOL] I
Rate =
1  K 1 [1- NAPHTHOL]  K 2   K 1K 2  [1- NAPHTHOL]
where K1 and K2 are the adsorption coefficients of 1-
naphthol and oxygen molecules on the catalyst surface, k is
the specific rate of oxidation of 1-naphthol,  is the airflow
rate, A is the surface area of the catalyst bed and I is the
intensity of light. The fitment of the experimental data (Fig.
2 and 3) to the Langmuir-Hinshelwood curve, drawn using
a computer program based on saturation kinetics with
respect to 1-naphthol and airflow rate, confirms the kinetic
equation. The kinetic expression explains satisfactorily the
product formation as a function of 1-naphthol concentration,
the airflow rate and the apparent surface area of the catalytic
bed. The experimentally determined photocatalytic
efficiencies of the catalysts reveal that they are not
determined solely by the bandgap energies.
IV. CONCLUSION
Solar radiations catalysed photooxidation of 1-naphthol in
ethanol in the presence of air on semiconductors yields 1-
27
Solar Radiation Catalyzed Aerobic Photooxidation of 1-Naphthol on
Some Semiconductors
are to be adsorbed on the catalysts7. The hole reacts with the
adsorbed 1-naphthol molecule to form 1-naphthol radical-
cation ( 1  NAPH

) (Eq. 3.2), while the electron is
effectively removed by transfer to the adsorbed oxygen
resulting in highly active superoxide radical-anion,
O2 (Eq. 3.3).27 The 1-naphthol radical-cation may react
with superoxide radical-anion yielding 1,2-naphthoquinone
and water molecules (Eq. 3.4). And this mechanism is
similar to the ZnO photocatalyzed oxidation of aniline in
ethanol.27
(3.1)
(3.2)
(3.3)
(3.4)
molecules on the catalyst surface. The rate of formation of
1,2-naphthoquinone is a function of
(i) The fraction of the surface adsorbed by the 1-naphthol
molecule,
(ii) The fraction of the surface on which oxygen molecule is
adsorbed,
(iii) The surface area of the catalyst bed, and
(iv) The intensity of illumination.
naphthoquinone and the conversion follows satutation
kinetic with respect to 1-naphthol and airflow rate. The
kinetic expression explains satisfactorily the product
formation as a function of 1-naphthol concentration, the
airflow rate and the apparent surface area of the catalytic
bed.
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243; (b) Z. H. Brunisholz and R. Sidler, in New Comprehensive
Biochemistry: Photosynthesis, J. Amesz (Ed.), Elsevier,
Amsterdam, 1987.
[3] M. Muneer, M. Qamar and D. Bahmemann, J. Mol. Catal. A:
Chem., 234 (2005) 151.
[4] T.A. Konovalova, J. Lawerence and L.D. Kispert, J. Photochem.
Photobiol. A, 1 (2004) 162.
[5] R Katoh, A. Furube, Y. Tamaki, T. Yoshihara, M. Murai, K. Hara,
S. Murata, H. Arakawa and M. Tachiya, J. Photochem. Photobiol.
A, 166 (2004) 69.
[6] K.T. Ranjit and B. Viswanathan, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A, 108
(1997) 79.
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[7] J.M. Herrmann, J. Disdier and P. Pichat, Chem. Phys. Letts., 108 [19] T.-C. Gou, F.-W. Chang and L.Selva Roselin, J. Mol. Catal. A
(1984) 618. Chem., 293 (2008) 8.
[8] Y. Bessekhouad, D. Robert, J. V. Weber and N. Chaoui, J. [20] B. Su, Y. He, X. Li and E. Lin, Indian J. Chem. A, 36 (1997) 785.
Photochem. Photobiol. A, 167 (2004) 49. [21] A. J. Hoffman and M. R. Hoffmann, Trace Met. Enviorn., 1993, 3,
[9] P. V. Kamat, Chem., Rev., 93 (1993) 267. 155; Chem. Abstr., 1994, 120, 231613q.
[10] A. L. Linsebigler, G. Lu and J. T. Yates Jr., Chem. Rev., 95 (1995) [22] B. R. Muller, S. Majoni, R. Memming and D. Meissner, J. Phys.
735. Chem. B, 101 (1997) 2501.
[11] N. Nageswara Rao and P. Natarajan, Curr. Sci., 66 (1994) 742. [23] J. Kwong-Yungchu and C. Hawkins, J. Chem. Soc. Chem.
[12] S. R. Logan, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans., 86 (1990) 615. Commun., (1976). 676.
[13] R. W. Sloper, P. S. Braterman, A. G. Cairns-Smith, T. G. Truscott [24] A. Kuboyama and H. Arano, Bull. Chem. Soc. Japan, 49 (1976)
and M. Craw, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., (1983) 488. 1401.
[14] J. Jortner and G. Stein, J. Phys. Chem., 66 (1962) 1258. [25] P. J. Thornalley, M. Doherty, M. T. Smith, J. v. Bannister and G.
[15] C. Karunakaran, R. Dhanalakshmi and S. Karuthapandian, J. M. Cohen, Chem. Biol. Inter., 48 (1984) 195.
Photochem. Photobiol. A,170 (2005) 391. [26] S. Nagakura, and A. Kuboyama, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 76 (1954)
[16] C. G. Miller and D. G. Crosby, Chemosphere, 12 (1983) 1217. 1003.
[17] C. Karunakaran, S. Senthilvelan and S. Karuthapandian, J. [27] C. Karunakaran, S. Senthilvelan, S. Karuthapandian and K.
Photochem. Photobiol. A Chem., 172 (2005) 207. Balaraman, Catal. Commun., 5 (2004) 283.
[18] V. Iliev, D. Tomova, L. Bilyarrca and L. Petrov, Catal. Commun., [28] A. Hagfeldt and M. Gratzel, Chem. Rev., 95 (1995) 49.
5(2004) 759.

950.00

900.00
solar intensity(lux)

850.00

800.00

750.00

700.00

650.00
11.30 11.35 11.40 11.45 11.50 11.55 12.00 12.05 12.10 12.15 12.20 12.25 12.30
Indian standard time

Series1 13FEB'09 16FEB'09 17FEB'09 18FEB'09 26FEB'09

Fig. 1 Solar Intensity measured using LUX-meter

Fig. 2 Photoformation of o- naphthaquinone in ethanol in the presence of TiO2 at various time intervals. The UV-visible spectrum of the irradiated
solutions. [1-NAPH] = 5.0 mM; catalyst bed area = 11.36 weight of catalyst = 1.0 g; airflow rate = 8.74 mL s-1;
volume of reaction solution = 25 mL.

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 28

 Solar Radiation Catalyzed Aerobic Photooxidation of 1-Naphthol on
Some Semiconductors

Fig. 3. Heterogeneous solar photooxidation of 1-Naphthol at different [1-NAPH]. Weight of Catalyst = 1.0 g; airflow rate = 8.74 mL s-1; bed area =
11.36 cm2; solvent: ethanol; volume of reaction solution = 25 mL.

Fig. 4 Dependence of solar photooxidation rate of 1-naphthol on airflow rate . [1-NAPH] = 5.0 mM; weight of catalyst = 1.0 g; bed area = 11.36 cm2;
solvent: ethanol; volume of reaction solution = 25 mL.

29 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

S. Karuthapandian and K. Arunsunaikumar
80

70

60

1,2-NQ formation, nM s-1

50

40
ZnO
30 Fe2O3
Al2O3

20 PbO2
ZnS
V2O5
TIO2
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2
Catalyst bed area, cm
Fig. 5 Solar photooxidation of 1-Naphthol in ethanol as a function of illumination area. [1-NAPH] = 5.0 mM; weight of catalyst = 1.0 g; airflow rate =
8.74 mL s-1; Solvent: ethanol; volume of reaction solution = 25 mL.

TABLE I SOLAR INTENSITY MEASURED USING LUX-METER

Solar intensity  100 LUX
IST
13 Feb 2009 16 Feb 2009 17 Feb 2009 18 Feb 2009 26 Feb 2009
11.30 678 797 714 747 849
11.35 689 821 859 781 864
11.40 674 816 815 822 890
11.45 698 822 817 838 902
11.50 724 827 839 851 906
11.55 726 834 875 853 910
12.00 723 838 903 878 915
12.05 818 829 912 883 910
12.10 781 867 889 871 908
12.15 830 863 909 864 916
12.20 823 851 917 898 914
12.25 811 853 953 878 915
12.30 824 840 922 893 920

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 30

 Solar Radiation Catalyzed Aerobic Photooxidation of 1-Naphthol on
Some Semiconductors

TABLE II SOLAR PHOTOOXIDATION OF 1-NAPHTHOL: 1,2-NQ FORMATION AT DIFFERENT [1-NAPH]

1,2-NQ formation, nM s-1
[1-NAPH],
mM ZnO Fe2O3 Al2O3 PbO2 ZnS TiO2 V2O5

1.0 8.34 17.13 23.28 11.88 7.9 15.00 15.81

2.0 14.06 25.47 34.26 15.21 10.10 19.32 24.16
5.0 23.72 32.50 47.87 18.89 13.18 24.59 32.42
10.0 25.91 37.78 53.15 20.28 13.61 28.81 41.72
15.0 24.60 43.00 53.58 21.04 15.37 30.30 42.78
20.0 29.43 45.24 59.29 21.23 14.05 31.62 43.48

Weight of catalyst = 1.0 g; catalyst bed = 11.36 cm2; airflow rate = 8.74 mL s-1; solvent: ethanol; volume of reaction solution
= 25 mL.

TABLE III THE DOUBLE RECIPROCAL PLOT OF RATE (NM S-1) VERSUS [1-NAPH]
1/(Rate of 1,2-NQ formation), (1/ nM s-1)  108
(1/[1-NAPH]),
mM ZnO Fe2O3 Al2O3 PbO2 ZnS TiO2 V2O5

1000 1.199 0.5830 0.4255 0.8418 1.2659 0.6665 0.6325

500 0.7112 0.3926 0.2918 0.6575 0.9900 0.5175 0.4139
200 0.4210 0.3076 0.2088 0.5294 0.7587 0.4066 0.3085
100 0.3850 0.2646 0.1881 0.4931 0.7347 0.3471 0.2397
66.66 0.4065 0.2325 0.1866 0.4753 0.6506 0.3300 0.2337
50 0.3398 0.2210 0.1686 0.4710 0.7117 0.3162 0.2299
r 0.995 0.996 0.999 0.999 0.993 0.993 0.998

TABLE IV SOLAR PHOTOOXIDATION OF 1-NAPHTHOL: 1, 2-NQ FORMATION AT DIFFERENT AIRFLOW RATES

Airflow rate 1,2-NQ formation, nM s-1

mL s-1 ZnO Fe2O3 Al2O3 PbO2 ZnS TiO2 V2O5
0 4.33 5.14 11.10 3.35 5.23 8.25 7.19
4.8 15.81 28.99 47.44 15.37 15.81 18.45 25.48
8.7 22.05 37.07 50.51 20.50 18.80 27.23 31.18
23.0 27.67 46.17 54.90 27.67 26.35 34.70 36.01

[1-NAPH] = 5.0 mM; weight of catalyst = 1.0 g; catalyst bed = 11.36 cm2; solvent: ethanol; volume of reaction solution = 25
mL.

31 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

 S. Karuthapandian and K. Arunsunaikumar

TABLE V THE DOUBLE RECIPROCAL PLOT OF RATE (NM S-1) VERSUS (FLOW RATE)

(1/flow rate) 1/ (Rate of 1,2-NQ formation), (1/ nM s-1)  108

mL s-1 ZnO Fe2O3 Al2O3 PbO2 ZnS TiO2 V2O5
0 2.309 1.9455 0.9009 2.9850 1.9120 1.2120 1.3908
0.2083 0.6325 0.3449 0.2210 0.6506 0.7241 0.5420 0.3925
0.1144 0.4535 0.2697 0.1979 0.4878 0.5319 0.3672 0.3207
0.0434 0.3614 0.2168 0.1821 0.3162 0.3795 0.2881 0.2777
r 0.995 0.999 0.999 0.996 0.999 0.991 0.998

TABLE VI SOLAR PHOTOOXIDATION OF 1-NAPHTHOL: 1, 2-NQ FORMATION AT DIFFERENT AREAS OF CATALYST BED
Catalyst bed, 1,2-NQ formation, nM s-1
2
cm
ZnO Fe2O3 Al2O3 PbO2 ZnS TiO2 V2O5

8.33 23.01 31.71 46.05 17.13 12.30 22.84 28.55

11.36 25.01 37.34 47.26 19.77 17.13 25.48 31.63
16.95 29.87 41.72 52.93 21.08 17.57 28.12 34.70
30.86 33.38 50.51 62.05 33.82 23.72 33.82 41.73
44.44 38.05 70.93 71.08 42.17 31.63 36.46 46.12
48.37 42.15 71.59 74.85 46.56 36.46 38.02 47.88

[1-NAPH] = 5.0 mM; weight of catalyst = 1.0 g; airflow rate = 8.74mL s-1; solvent: ethanol; volume of reaction solution = 25
mL.

TABLE VI PHOTOOXIDATION OF 1-NAPHTHOL WITH SOLAR RADIATION IN THE PRESENCE OF SEMICONDUCTORS: 1,2-NQ
FORMATION WITH SURFACTANTS, VINYL MONOMER AND AZIDE ION.

1,2-NQ formation, nM s-1

Surfactant
ZnO Fe2O3 Al2O3 PbO2 ZnS TiO2 V2O5
- 24.16 36.90 47.73 19.50 17.85 24.99 31.63
SLS 39.97 47.88 51.83 28.11 42.60 25.48 40.41
CTAB 29.87 43.04 53.58 27.23 38.65 29.43 35.14
Acrylamide 25.12 37.09 48.15 21.96 19.05 26.35 33.38
Azide ion 26.23 37.97 48.32 20.25 19.76 23.95 32.85

[1-NAPH] = 5.0 mM; [ reagents] = 5.0 mM; weight of catalyst = 1.0 g;

airflow rate = 8.74mL s-1; solvent: ethanol; volume of reaction solution = 25 mL.

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 32

 New Visualizing Agents for Developing Latent Fingerprints on Various
Porous and Non-Porous Surfaces Using Different Household Food Items
Richa Rohatgi*1 and A. K. Kapoor 2
1*
UGC-JRF, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, India
2
Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, India
E-mail: rrohatgi2010@gmail.com, rrohatgi@anthro.du.ac.in
Abstract - Most of the time it is seen that the conventional
fingerprint powders used for developing latent fingerprints are
toxic and pose potential health hazards. In order to overcome
this disadvantage I have attempted to use new powders for
developing latent fingerprints which are simple, non- toxic, less
expensive than the commercially used fingerprint powders.
These are easily available in every house. In the present study
a preliminary attempt has been made to develop latent
fingerprints with commonly used household kitchen food
products such as cocoa powder, custard powder, corn flour,
baking soda, baking powder, black salt, edible food (orange
colour) and turmeric powder. This type of work has not been
reported previously and can provide useful information to the
investigators in cases of scarcity or non-availability of regular
conventional fingerprint development powders. The use is
simple and a novice in the field of forensic fingerprinting can
also do it.
Keywords: Latent Fingerprints, Food Products, Porous, Non-
Porous surfaces.
I.INTRODUCTION
Criminal offenders usually tread carefully and try to not
leave any traces at the scene of crime and handling
objects. Yet, latent fingerprints are found in majority of
the crime scenes. The surface onto which a fingerprint is
deposited is often the primary decipher as to which
technique is selected for enhancement. There is a vast
range of porous and non-porous surfaces and specific
enhancement techniques are selected based on the surface
type and porosity, the condition of latent marks and the
level of contamination which has occurred [1]. New
techniques have been developed for latent fingerprints
detection but the traditional fingerprint detection
technique for treating latent prints is powdering method,
which consists of a colorant for contrast and a resinous
material for good adhesion. When powder is sprinkled
over an affected area, it adheres to oil, sweat or other
material left in the print while colorant in the powder
gives contrast to the print from its background thus,
helping in visualizing the print. Researches have been
done on visualizing latent fingerprints on various surfaces
using powder form of turmeric [2]; synthetic food and
festival colours [3] and silica gel G [4]. In their study it
was concluded that turmeric powder and Silica gel G are
good substitutes to other conventional powders like black
magnetic powder, grey powder etc. Although the results
found by turmeric and synthetic food and festival colours
were best for contrast surfaces. The development of latent
33
fingerprints present on surfaces like, simple paper, bond
paper, thermal paper, aluminum foil, transparency sheet,
wood (sun mica-glossy), plastic sheet, painted steel, top
and writing surface of the CD showed clear ridges
[2][3][4]. Singh et al [5] determined that fingerprints
could be successfully enhanced and recovered from food
surfaces such as banana, apple and potato when using
black powder although Iodine fuming was also successful
on apples. A further study by Trapecar and Vinkovic [6]
focussed on similar fruits and vegetables with some
successful results. The process of cyano-acrylate fuming
was also investigated in their study however, results
proved less successful. Fergusan et al. [7] conducted a
similar study focussed on latent fingerprints enhancement
and recovery on different fruits, vegetable and dairy
product (egg). Black magnetic powder proved most
successful on all surfaces. They also observed that using
SPR developed more than twice the amount of fingerprint
albeit at a lower rating. R. Rohatgi et al. [8] conducted
experiment with SPR based on crystal violet dye for
developing latent fingerprints on wet non-porous surfaces
and found similar positive results on ceramic tile, glass
and aluminium surface when immersed in clean water.
Some of the chemical substrates used in fingerprint
powders are toxic and pose potential health hazards. In
order to overcome this disadvantage we have attempted to
use new powders for developing latent fingerprints which
are simple, non- toxic, less expensive than the
commercially used fingerprint powders. These are easily
available in every house. In the present study a
preliminary attempt has been made to develop latent
fingerprints with commonly used household kitchen food
products such as cocoa powder, custard powder, corn
flour, baking soda, baking powder, black salt, edible food
(orange colour) and turmeric powder. This type of work
has not been reported previously and can provide useful
information to the investigators in cases of scarcity or
non-availability of regular conventional fingerprint
development powders.
II.MATERIALS AND METHODS
10 test latent fingerprints were collected on various porous
and non-porous surfaces each. Porous surfaces used for
the study were normal paper, currency note, fruit peel
(pomegranate), glazed magazine cover paper, card sheet,
card board and thermocol while non-porous surfaces were
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
Richa Rohatgi and A. K. Kapoor
granite, wood (sun-mica coated), glass, mirror, aluminium
foil, ceramic tile, plastic sheet, steel, writable surface of
CD and rubber. The test sebum latent prints were collected
from the subjects on different surfaces. For collecting
sebum prints, subjects were asked to touch their forehead
or face for getting sebum on their fingertips these in turn
were applied to various substrates. No particular care was
taken for contamination on fingertips as sebum prints are a
complex mixture of natural secretion and contaminants
from the environment. The method used in development
of prints was powder dusting without using brush as
preliminary study. Application of powder to the prints by
brushing is a simple and easy technique but it also has a
disadvantage that the brush on coming in contact with the
surface having prints destroys the print and hence the
ridge characteristics get destroyed. In order to develop
latent fingerprints with food products, 20-30 grams
commercially available cocoa powder, custard powder,
corn flour, baking soda, baking powder, black salt, edible
food (orange colour) and turmeric were procured in dry
powder form. The powders (as available in the market)
were weighed and dried in oven (for 5 minutes at 500C)
and sprinkled over the affected surface. The excess
powder was removed by tapping in order to get clear
prints. This method was repeated for all powders and on
all surfaces, ten times each (for 10 test latent prints on
each surface per powder). Out of these only the best
developed prints were recorded for the result computation.
The experiment was carried out in the month of June-July
2014 when the temperature varied from 31-420C and the
relative humidity between 46% and 70%. In order to
check the comparative evaluation of surfaces, the different
powders were applied on all mentioned porous and non-
porous surfaces respectively as shown in Tables 1 and 2
and Graphs 1 and 2.
III.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results obtained from present investigation using
different food products in powder form on various porous
and non-porous surfaces are shown in Figures -1 to 4. The
latent fingerprints present on majority of the surfaces
examined can be successfully developed with all
employed food products. It has been observed that latent
fingerprints were not developed on rubber using any
powder. In case of white ceramic tile the prints were
developed but lacked contrast in cases of corn flour,
custard powder, black salt, baking powder and baking
soda. Most clear and visible prints were developed on
almost all porous surfaces such as currency note, card
sheet, plain paper, glossy magazine cover as revealed by
Figures 1 and 3. While non-porous surfaces such as
aluminium foil, steel (spoon) and plastic sheet showed
very clear decipherable prints with all powders as revealed
by Figures- 2 and 4. Among the food powders used for
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
this experiment, cocoa powder, custard powder, corn
flour, baking soda and turmeric powder demonstrated best
results on all porous and non-porous surfaces. It was noted
that all these powders give better results on contrast
surfaces. The latent fingerprints present on surfaces such
as plain paper, currency note, fruit peel (pomegranate),
glazed magazine cover paper, card sheet, card board,
thermocol, granite, wood (sun-mica coated), glass, mirror,
aluminium foil, ceramic tile, plastic sheet, steel and
writable surface of CD, were developed and showed clear
ridges as is evident from the figures with all food powders
used in the present experiment. The negative results were
obtained on white ceramic tile, transparent polythene and
thermocol due to poor contrast in cases of custard powder,
corn flour, baking soda, baking powder and black salt.
However, these surfaces showed clear visible fingerprints
with edible (orange) colour and turmeric. No prints could
be developed on rubber and card board due to lack of
adherence of sebum from latent fingerprints and
developing agents on these surfaces. The present study is a
preliminary work in this field which is based on physical
method of enhancement of latent prints and works on the
mechanical adherence of the fingerprint powder particles
to the oily components of the skin ridge deposits.
These preliminary observations indicate that the common
food products can also be used for the visualization of
latent fingerprints present on various porous and non-
porous substrates. A similar study conducted by Garg et
al. [2] revealed development of latent fingerprints using
turmeric powder on varied surfaces. Similarly, in another
study by Kumari et al. [3] new method of visualizing
latent fingerprints using synthetic food and festival
colours was reported. The present study also substantiated
that decipherment of fingerprints depends upon the type of
powder used and the type of surface on which the finger
prints are present.
IV.CONCLUSION
It can be concluded from the present study that these
commonly and easily available as well as less expensive
and non-toxic agents could be a useful substitute for the
decipherment of latent fingerprints deposited on different
surfaces. These can provide a good substitute for
fingerprint visualization in comparison particularly to
commercially available chemical powders, under the
instances of scarcity. Further work on the decipherment of
aged latent fingerprints needs to be taken up.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
RR is grateful to UGC for financial support in the form of
Junior Research Fellowship in the present study and
highly thankful to all the subjects who contributed their
fingerprint samples for the experiment purposes.
34
 New Visualizing Agents for Developing Latent Fingerprints on Various
Porous and Non-Porous Surfaces Using Different Household Food Items

REFERENCES [5] Singh G., Sodhi G.S., and Jasuja O.P., Detection of latent
fingerprints on fruits and vegetables. Journal of Forensic
Identification, 56(3) 374-381 (2006).
[1] Morimoto S., Kaminogoa A. And Hiranob T., A new method to
[6] Trapecar M. and Vinkovic M.K., Techniques for fingerprint
enhance visualization of latent finger marks by sublimating dyes
recovery on vegetable and fruit surfaces used in Slovenia- a
and its practical used with a combination of cyano acrylate
preliminary study. Science and Justice 48(4) 192-195 (2008).
fuming. Forensic Science International 97(2) 101-108 (1998).
[7] Ferguson S., Nicholson L., Farrugia K. J., Bremner D. H. and
[2] Garg R. K., Kumari H. and Kaur R., A new technique for
Gentles D., A preliminary investigation into the acquisition of
visualization of latent fingerprints on various substrates using
fingerprints on food. Science and Justice. 53(1): pp.67-72
powder from turmeric: a rhizomatous herbaceous plant
(2013). ISSN 1355-0306
(Curcuma longa) Egypt J Forensic Sci, 1, pp. 53–57 (2011).
[8] Rohatgi R., Sodhi G.S. and Kapoor A.K., Small Particle
[3] Kumari H. and Garg R.K., New visualizing agents for latent
Reagent based on crystal violet dye for developing latent
fingerprints: Synthetic food and festival colors. Egyptian
fingerprints on non-porous wet surfaces. Egyptian Journal of
Journal of Forensic Sciences,Volume 1, Issues 3–4, Pages 133–
Forensic Science. (2014) Accepted: In Press.
139 (2011).
[4] Singh K., Sharma S. And Garg R.K., Visualization of latent
fingerprints using silica gel G: A new technique Egyptian
Journal of Forensic Sciences, 3(1), Pages 20–25 (2013).

TABLE 1 QUALITY OF DEVELOPED FINGERPRINTS ON POROUS SURFACES

Food powders
Porous
Cocoa Custard Baking Baking Edible Turmeric
surfaces Cornflour Black salt
powder powder soda powder colour powder
Paper 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5
Currency
3 4 4 2 2 2 3 3
Note
Fruit peel 2 1 2 1 0 0 1 1
Glossy paper 2 2 2 2 0 0 1 1
Cardsheet 4 0 0 0 0 0 4 4
Thermocol 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Cardboard 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Graph 1. showing quality of prints on porous surfaces

TABLE II QUALITY OF DEVELOPED FINGERPRINTS ON NON-POROUS SURFACES

Food powders
Non-porous
Cocoa Custard Baking Baking Black Edible Turmeric
surfaces Cornflour
powder powder soda powder salt colour powder
Granite 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 5
Stainless steel
5 5 5 5 4 4 3 5
spoon
Wood (sun-mica) 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 4
Glass 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 5
Mirror 5 5 4 3 2 2 3 5
Aluminium foil 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 5
Ceramic tile 5 0 0 0 0 0 5 5
Plastic sheet 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 3
CD (writable
4 4 4 4 3 3 3 4
surface)
Rubber 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

35 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

Richa Rohatgi and A. K. Kapoor

Graph 2 showing quality of prints on non-porous surfaces

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Fig. 1Showing comparative visualization of latent fingerprints on porous surfaces- (A) thermocol;
(B) glossy magazine cover; (C) card sheet and (D) currency note with cocoa powder.

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 36

 New Visualizing Agents for Developing Latent Fingerprints on Various
Porous and Non-Porous Surfaces Using Different Household Food Items

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Fig. 2 Showing comparative visualization of latent fingerprints on non-porous surfaces- (A) spoon with custard powder; (B) aluminium foil with corn flour;
(C) plastic with black salt and (D) mirror with baking soda.

(A) (B)

37 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

Richa Rohatgi and A. K. Kapoor

(C) (D)
Fig. 3 Showing comparative visualization of latent fingerprints onporous surfaces-(A) plain paper with edible (orange) colour; (B) magazine cover with corn
flour; (C) currency note with turmeric powder and (D) card sheet with cocoa powder.

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Fig. 4 Showing comparative visualization of latent fingerprints on non-porous surfaces- (A) plastic with edible colour; (B) spoon with turmeric powder;
(C)aluminium foil with turmeric and (D) aluminium foil with custard powder.

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 38

 Experimental Investigation for Tool Life by Optimizing Machining and
Geometric Parameters of CNC End Mill Tool
Nilesh S. Pohokar 1, Lalit B. Bhuyar2
1,2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Prof. Ram Meghe Institute of Technology and Research, Badnera , Amravati
nilesh. pohokar@gmail.com,lbbhuyar@gmail.com
Abstract - CNC end milling is a unique adaption of the
conventional milling process which uses an end mill tool for the
machining process. During the End milling process, the
material is removed by the end mill cutter. The effects of
machining parameters of end milling process like spindle speed,
depth of cut and feed rate and geometric parameter rake angle
of a 14 mm diameter HSS end mill tool have been investigated
on a AISI 1025 MS plate work material for pocket milling
operation to reveal their impact on tool life using Taguchi
Methodology. Experimental plan is performed by a Standard
Orthogonal Array three times. The results of analysis of
variance (ANOVA) indicate that the proposed mathematical
model can be adequately describing the performance within
the limit of factors being studied. The optimal set of process
parameters has also been predicted to maximize the tool life.
Keywords— CNC end milling, Taguchi method, ANOVA, Tool
life
I. INTRODUCTION
In present time the technology of CNC vertical milling
machine has been improved significantly to meet the
advance requirements in various manufacturing fields,
especially in the precision metal cutting industry. This
experiment gives the effect of different machining
parameters (spindle speed, feed, and depth of cut) and one
geometric parameter rake angle of end mill tool on tool life.
The demand for high quality and fully automated
production focus attention on the surface condition of the
product, surface finish of the machined surface is most
important due to its effect on product appearance, function,
and reliability. For these reasons it is important to maintain
consistent tolerances and surface finish. Among several
CNC industrial machining processes, milling is a
fundamental machining operation. End milling is the most
common metal removal operation encountered. It is widely
used in a variety of manufacturing industries. The quality of
the surface plays a very important role in the performance
of milling as a good-quality milled surface significantly
improves fatigue strength, corrosion resistance, or creep life.
The surface generated during milling is affected by different
factors such as vibration, spindle run–out, temperature, tool
geometry, feed, cross-feed, tool path and other parameters.
During finish milling, the depth of cut is small.
Technological parameter range plays a very important role
on surface roughness. In end milling, use of high cutting
speed, low feed rate and low depth of cut are recommended
to obtained better surface finish for the specific test range in
a specified material. Cutting feed is the most dominated
factor for surface finish. The most important interactions,
that effect surface roughness of machined surfaces, are
between the cutting feed and depth of cut, and between
39
cutting feed and spindle speed. Surface Roughness is
affected negatively if the applied force is increased. With
the more precise demands of modern engineering products,
the control of surface texture together with dimensional
accuracy has become more important. This experimental
investigation outlines the Taguchi optimization
methodology, which is applied trice to optimize tool life in
end milling operation. The experiment is conducted on a
AISI 1025 MS plate the processing of the job is done by
High Speed Steel (HSS) end-mill tool of 14 mm diameter
under rough milling conditions. The machining parameters
evaluated are spindle speed, feed rate, depth of cut and only
one geometric parameter is taken into consideration tool
rake angle. The experiments are conducted by using
Taguchi L9 orthogonal array as suggested by Taguchi and
this method is applying trice. Signal-to-Noise (S/N) ratio
and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is employed to analyse
the effect of milling parameters on tool life.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Optimization, in its broadest sense, can be applied to
solve any engineering problem. Some typical applications
from manufacturing area indicate the wide scope of the
subject [1],
1. Selection of machining conditions in metal-cutting
processes for minimum production cost
2. Design of material handling equipment, such as
conveyors, trucks, and cranes, for minimum cost
3. Optimal production planning, controlling, and
scheduling
4. Optimum design of chemical processing equipment
and plants
5. Planning of maintenance and replacement of
equipment to reduce operating costs
6. Allocation of resources or services among several
activities to maximize the benefit
7. Controlling the waiting and idle times and queueing
in production lines to reduce the costs
8. Planning the best strategy to obtain maximum profit
in the presence of a competitor.
Genichi Taguchi is a Japanese engineer who has been
active in the improvement of Japan’s industrial products and
processes since the late 1940s. He has developed both the
philosophy and methodology for process or product quality
improvement that depends heavily on statistical concepts
and tools, especially statistically designed experiments.
Many Japanese firms have achieved great success by
applying his methods. Barker [2] reported that since 1983,
after Taguchi’s association with the top companies and
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
Nilesh S. Pohokar, Lalit B. Bhuyar
institutes in USA (AT & T Bell Laboratories, Xerox,
Lawrence Institute of Technology (LIT), Ford Motor
Company etc.), his methods have been called a radical
approach to quality, experimental design and engineering.
L. Eriksson et. al. [3] pointed out that the key element for
achieving high quality and low cost is parameter design &
optimization. Through parameter design, levels of product
and process factors are determined, such that the product’s
functional characteristics are optimized and the effect of
noise factors is minimized.
H. Singh et. al. [4] applied Taguchi’s technique for
optimizing surface finish, tool wear, cutting force and
power consumed in turning operations for machining En24
steel with titanium carbide-coated tungsten carbide inserts.
The success of many applications has demonstrated the
power of Taguchi’s overall approach. It is also worth
mentioning that many of the specific statistical techniques
he has proposed for implementing robust parameter design
have generated a great deal of controversy. However, most
commentators agree that Taguchi’s loss function concept
represents a solid contribution. Furthermore, there is general
agreement that off-line experiments during the product or
process design stage are of great value and the methodology
is based on solid engineering principles. Reducing quality
loss by designing the products and processes to be
insensitive to variations in noise variables is a novel concept
to statisticians and quality engineers.
Gupta et. al. [5] investigated the application of Taguchi
method with logical fuzzy reasoning for multiple output
optimization of high speed CNC turning of AISI P-20 tool
steel using TiN coated tungsten carbide coatings. The
machining parameters (cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut,
nose radius and cutting environment) are optimized with
considerations of the multiple performance measures
(surface roughness, tool life, cutting force and power
consumption). Taguchi’s concepts of orthogonal arrays,
signal to noise (S/N) ratio, ANOVA have been fuzzified to
optimize the high speed CNC turning process parameters
through a single comprehensive output measure (COM).
They investigated the following results related to
combination of parameters multi-response problem and
response and multi-response optimization analysis
(1) The factor/level combination S3F2D2N3E3 for
surface roughness,S1F1D1N2E3 for the tool life,
S1F1D1N2E3 for power consumption and S2F1D1N2E3
for cutting force are the recommended optimum parameters,
for high speed CNC turning when all four responses are
considered independently.
(2) In the multi-response problem, all the four responses
tool life, power consumption, cutting force and surface
roughness were simultaneously considered, and
S2F1D1N2E3 was the recommended optimum condition as
per the hybrid Taguchi-fuzzy approach.
(3) It can be concluded that middle level of cutting speed
(160 m/min) and nose radius (0.8 mm) and lower level of
AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014
feed (0.1 mm/rev) and depth of cut (0.2 mm) yield the
optimal result. Cryogenic environment is the most favorable
condition out of three cutting environments.
(4) Both single response and multi-response optimization
analysis proved that cryogenic machining environment E3 is
favorable in increasing tool life and reducing surface
roughness, cutting force and power consumption compared
to wet (conventional coolant ILO cut 154 Indian Oil
recommended for CNC machine) and dry machining.
They also presented the use of fuzzy logics to the
Taguchi method in optimization of the high speed CNC
turning with multiple performance characteristics. A fuzzy
reasoning of the multiple performance characteristics has
been performed by the fuzzy logic unit. As a result, four
performance characteristics namely surface roughness, tool
life, cutting force and power consumption can be improved.
It can be concluded that the optimization methodology
developed in this study is useful in improving multiple
performance characteristics in high speed CNC turning.
A. Cicek & T. Kivak [6] investigated the application of
Taguchi method for Surface roughness and roundness error
in drilling of AISI 316 stainless steel. In his study, the
effects of deep drilling parameters on surface roughness and
roundness error were investigated in drilling of AISI 316
austenitic stainless steel with M35 HSS twist drills. In
addition, optimal control factors for the whole quality were
determined by using Taguchi technique. Two cutting tools,
cutting speeds and feed rates were considered as control
factors, and L8 (23) orthogonal array was determined for
experimental trials. Multiple regression analysis was
employed to derive the predictive equations of the surface
roughness and roundness error achieved via experimental
design. Minimum surface roughness and roundness error
were obtained with treated drills at 14 m/min cutting speed
and 0.08 mm/rev feed rate. Confirmation experiments
showed that Taguchi method precisely optimized the
drilling parameters in drilling of stainless steel.
Moshat S. & Datta S. [7] investigated the Optimization of
CNC end milling process parameters using PCA-based
Taguchi method. To optimize aforesaid quality attributes in
a manner that these multi-criterions could be fulfilled
simultaneously up to the expected level. This invites a
multi-objective optimization problem which has been
solved by PCA based Taguchi method. To meet the basic
assumption of Taguchi method; in his work, individual
response correlations have been eliminated first by means of
Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Correlated responses
have been transformed into uncorrelated or independent
quality indices called principal components. Finally Taguchi
method has been adapted to solve this optimization problem.
The aforesaid methodology has been found fruitful in the
cases where simultaneous optimization of huge number of
responses is required.
40
 Experimental Investigation for Tool Life by Optimizing Machining and
Geometric Parameters of CNC End Mill Tool

III.MATERIAL & METHOD (experimentation), the analysis phase (ANOVA). Following

Experiment is divided into three main phases. These
three phases are the planning phase (design of experiments,
experimental data consideration and machine, machine tool
and work material used) the conducting phase
are the planning phase input parameter and there levels
A. Design of Experiments
Experiments are designed with the help of using
Taguchi L9 orthogonal array. The software used for DOE
(Design of experiment) is Minitab15.

TABLE I PROCESS PARAMETERS AND THERE LEVELS

Factors Parameters Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
A Spindle Speed in RPM 600 800 1000
B Feed in mm/min 50 100 150
C Axial depth of Cut in mm 0.1 0.2 0.3
D Rake Angle in Degree 10 15 20

As per Taguchi experimental design philosophy a set of selected in this work. The nearest three level orthogonal
three levels assigned to each parameter has two degrees of array available satisfying the criterion of selecting the OA is
freedom (DOF). Here we have four parameters with three L9 having 8 DOF [8].
levels. This gives a total of 8 DOF for four parameters
TABLE II TAGUCHI’S L9 STANDARD ORTHOGONAL ARRAY
Response S/N Ratio
1 2 3 4
(Raw Data) (dB)
Expt. No R1 R2 R3 R4
V Fr dp Γ
1 1 1 1 1 Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 S/N1
2 1 2 2 2 Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24 S/N2
3 1 3 3 3 Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34 S/N3
4 2 1 2 3 Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 S/N4
5 2 2 3 1 Y51 Y52 Y53 Y54 S/N5
6 2 3 1 2 Y61 Y62 Y63 Y64 S/N6
7 3 1 3 2 Y71 Y72 Y73 Y74 S/N7
8 3 2 1 3 Y81 Y82 Y83 Y84 S/N8
9 3 3 2 1 Y91 Y92 Y93 Y94 S/N9
R1, R2, R3, R4 represent response values for three In order to study the significance of the process
repetitions of each trial. The 1’s, 2’s, 3’s and 4’s represent variables towards flank wear, face wear and surface
levels 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the variables, which appear at the top roughness analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed
of the column. Yij are the measured values of the quality for lower is the better term. And for tool life higher is better
characteristic (response). The responses of the term are used.
experimentation was measured in four terms namely flank
wear, face wear, surface roughness and tool life

1R 2 
Lower is better (S/N)LB = -10 Log  y j 
R  j 1 
1 R 1 
Higher is better (S/N) HB = -10 Log  
R  j1 y2 j 
Where, Yj = value of the characteristic in an observation j
R = number of repetitions in a trial

B. Experimental data Consideration
All the experiments are carried out in Indo German Tool
Room Aurangabad and testing of tools are carried out in
NABL accredited Mikronix calibration Centre Chikhalthana
MIDC, Aurangabad. Due to the limitation of infrastructure
facilities for making the desired angles, decision are made
only one geometric parameter tool radial rake angle is
modified. The tools are purchase and modified from Raja
Tools Aurangabad. The workpiece material is purchase and
cut into number of equal dimensions pieces by Design steel

41 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

Nilesh S. Pohokar, Lalit B. Bhuyar

private limited Waluj M.I.D.C. Aurangabad. In this work
only one geometric parameter is modified and other
parameters such as helix angle, end cutting edge concavity
angle, axial and radial relief angle are kept constant. This
modified radial rake angle is supplied by the supplier and
marked as per the requirement and tested in the laboratory
with the help of video measuring machine. Also the three
machining parameters spindle speed, feed and axial depth of
cut are considered for the optimization and other parameters
such as machine power environment and redial depth of cut
kept constant. The CNC machine is utilized to make control
and accurate measurement of these parameters on the screen
of display monitor. All the ranges of value of selected
parameters are taken as per hand book recommendations.
C. Machine, Machine tool and work material
The experiments were carried out on 3-axis on Surya
VF30CNC VS this CNC machine is a quality product of
Bharat Fritz Werner Ltd. Bangalore. The HSS M2 grade
four flute end mill tool was chosen for the experiments as it
is most widely used in the industries because of its superior
performance characteristics like good red-hardness and
retains its cutting edge longer than other general purpose
high speed steels. The table III shows the chemical
composition of the tool material. The AISI 1025 (122 X 100
X 10 mm) MS plates are used for the experimentation the
chemical composition are shown in table IV.

Figure 1b. . HSS M2 grade four flute end mill tool

Figure 1a. 3-axis Surya VF30CNC VS CNC machine Figure 1.c. AISI 1025 M.S. Plate
Figure1 (a,b,c). Machine, Machine tool and Work Material used in the Experimentation

TABLE III CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HSS M2 GRADE TOOL

Element W% Cr % V% C% Mo %
Composition 6 4 2 0.8 9.5

TABLE IV CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WORK MATERIAL

C% Mn % P% S% Density Hardness Tensile Strength
0.26 0.4 0.03 0.04 8.41 kg/m3 115 BHN 750 Mpa

D. Tool wear and tool life criteria experiments. The tool life criteria were based on the desired
The maximum acceptable flank wear for end milling is flank wear of 0.25mm is accepted.
0.5 mm stated by W. R. Devries [9]. This criterion is tested
by doing the preliminary experimentation and the result
obtained for the work and tool material was 0.25 mm is the
uniform wear stage. So it is acceptable for all the

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 42

 Experimental Investigation for Tool Life by Optimizing Machining and
Geometric Parameters of CNC End Mill Tool

IV. OBSERVATION RECORDED
As per hand book recommendation the parameters are
first selected. The units of these values are converted as per
the input system of CNC program. In this work the Taguchi
method applied trice to find the optimal parameters. The
observations are divided into three sets
1. First set: Parameters selected as per range given in
handbook
2. Second set: Parameters selected just above and
below the optimal parameters obtained in first set
3. Final set: Final parameters selected just above and
below the optimal parameters obtained in second
set
A. Observation of first experiment set
In the first set of experimentation the parameters
range are selected as per handbook values. The Table I
shows the factors and levels selected for experimentation.
For each combination of parameter three trials are
conducted.

TABLE V
OBSERVATION RECORDED IN THE SECOND EXPERIMENTATION SET
Ex. Cutting Feed Depth Rake Flank Face Surface TL
No. speed rate in of cut angle wear wear roughness minute
in rpm mm/min in in in in in µm
mm degree mm mm
0.213 0.241 4.21 178
1 600 50 0.1 10 0.221 0.242 4.26 176
0.212 0.245 4.24 177
0.228 0.250 4.34 165
2 600 100 0.2 15 0.219 0.249 4.32 167
0.230 0.243 4.37 169
0.198 0.248 3.57 174
3 600 150 0.3 20 0.211 0.245 3.49 175
0.213 0.248 3.66 176
0.192 0.250 4.87 179
4 800 50 0.2 20 0.193 0.249 4.84 178
0.195 0.251 4.65 177
0.178 0.221 4.76 183
5 800 100 0.3 10 0.181 0.213 4.72 182
0.179 0.223 4.71 182
0.216 0.248 3.16 179
6 800 150 0.1 15 0.221 0.249 3.20 178
0.218 0.251 3.18 178
0.253 0.259 4.34 163
7 1000 50 0.3 15 0.251 0.258 4.38 164
0.249 0.261 4.36 163
0.261 0.259 3.33 171
8 1000 100 0.1 20 0.259 0.262 3.48 173
0.258 0.260 3.51 172
0.254 0.261 3.59 173
9 1000 150 0.2 10 0.251 0.265 3.37 174
0.249 0.262 3.34 175

B. Observation of second experimentation set : first set of experimentation. The Table VI shows the factors
In the second set of experimentation the parameters and levels selected for experimentation.
range are selected as per optimized values obtained from the
TABLE VI PROCESS PARAMETERS SELECTED IN SECOND SET
Factors Parameters Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
A Spindle Speed in RPM 790 800 810
B Feed in mm/min 95 100 105
C Axial depth of Cut in mm 0.2 0.25 0.3
D Rake Angle in Degree 9 10 11

Again the L9 orthogonal array is selected which is trials are conducted to achieve a better accuracy for
discussed earlier, for each parametric combination three observation. Table VII shows the observations recorded for

43 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

Nilesh S. Pohokar, Lalit B. Bhuyar

flank wear, face wear and surface finish for every trial the wear surface roughness and tool life are taken in each trial.
readings are noted. The average values of flank wear, face
TABLE VII OBSERVATION RECORDED IN THE SECOND EXPERIMENTATION SET
Depth Rake Flank Face
Cutting Feed Surface
Ex. of cut angle wear wear TL
speed rate in roughness
No. in in in in minute
in rpm mm/min in µm
mm degree mm mm
0.190 0.22 3.56 181
1 790 95 0.2 9 0.191 0.21 3.54 180
0.192 0.22 3.55 183
0.177 0.22 3.31 184
2 790 100 0.25 10 0.178 0.23 3.32 182
0.176 0.21 3.31 183
0.178 0.22 3.35 180
3 790 105 0.3 11 0.177 0.23 3.34 179
0.178 0.21 3.35 181
0.181 0.25 3.45 178
4 800 95 0.25 11 0.182 0.25 3.44 179
0.183 0.26 3.45 180
0.185 0.27 3.49 177
5 800 100 0.3 9 0.184 0.28 3.49 176
0.185 0.29 3.48 178
0.192 0.28 3.78 178
6 800 105 0.2 10 0.194 0.29 3.76 179
0.195 0.29 3.75 177
0.198 0.29 3.76 176
7 810 95 0.3 10 0.199 0.28 3.75 175
0.201 0.27 3.76 178
0.210 0.28 3.23 176
8 810 100 0.2 11 0.221 0.27 3.24 177
0.212 0.29 3.25 176
0.219 0.26 3.45 175
9 810 105 0.25 9 0.225 0.25 3.46 174
0.226 0.26 3.47 173

C. Observation of Final Experimentation set: second set of experimentation. The Table VIII shows the
In the final set of experimentation the parameters range factors and levels selected for experimentation.
are selected as per optimized values obtained from the

TABLE VIII PROCESS PARAMETERS SELECTED IN FINAL SET

Factors Parameters Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
A Spindle Speed in RPM 785 790 795
B Feed in mm/min 98 100 102
C Axial depth of Cut in mm 0.24 0.25 0.26
D Rake Angle in Degree 9 10 11

Again the L9 orthogonal array is selected which is
discussed earlier, for each parametric combination three
trials are conducted to achieve a better accuracy for
observation. Table IX shows the observations recorded for
flank wear, face wear and surface finish for every trial the
readings are noted. The average values of flank wear, face
wear surface roughness and tool life are taken in each trial.
On the basic of optimal results obtained in the second
and final set of experimentation the mathematical model
and the ANOVA response of flank wear, face wear, surface
roughness and tool life are discuss in the results and
analysis. The mathematical model is prepared by
considering both sets parameters combination results. The
observation suggested that the slight difference in the
variation of parameters and there levels whereas the final
experimentation set are prepared for micro level
observations. These observations imply the vital role for
finding the response characterises of tool wear and surface
roughness by knowing the exact significant parameter
which has to be again optimized to the greater extent.

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 44

 Experimental Investigation for Tool Life by Optimizing Machining and
Geometric Parameters of CNC End Mill Tool

TABLE IX OBSERVATIONS RECORDED IN THE FINAL EXPERIMENTATION SET

Ex. Cutting Feed Depth Rake Flank Face Surface TL
No. speed rate in of cut angle wear wear roughness minute
in rpm mm/min in in in mm in In µm
mm degree mm
0.181 0.22 3.37 183
1 785 98 0.24 9 0.182 0.21 3.35 182
0.183 0.22 3.36 184
0.177 0.22 3.34 182
2 785 100 0.25 10 0.178 0.23 3.35 183
0.176 0.21 3.34 184
0.178 0.22 3.35 181
3 785 102 0.26 11 0.177 0.23 3.34 180
0.178 0.21 3.35 182
0.180 0.23 3.31 179
4 790 98 0.25 11 0.181 0.23 3.32 180
0.179 0.22 3.34 181
0.179 0.24 3.32 182
5 790 100 0.26 9 0.178 0.24 3.31 181
0.175 0.23 3.32 183
0.176 0.22 3.45 184
6 790 102 0.24 10 0.177 0.21 3.46 183
0.178 0.22 3.47 184
0.175 0.22 3.23 179
7 795 98 0.25 10 0.176 0.21 3.33 179
0.178 0.22 3.34 180
0.170 0.23 3.29 179
8 795 100 0.24 11 0.171 0.21 3.30 179
0.172 0.22 3.28 178
0.182 0.24 3.24 179
9 795 102 0.25 9 0.181 0.23 3.25 179
0.183 0.22 3.24 178

V. TOOL LIFE MODEL

The relationship between the independent variables of milling parameters (cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut and
rake angle) and machining response of tool life can be represented by the following mathematical model.

where TL is tool life in minutes, V, fr, dp and γ are the cutting speed (rpm), feed rate (mm/min) depth of cut (mm) rake angle
in degree respectively. C, l, a, b,c are constants and ε is a random error. Equation 3.1 can be written in the following
logarithmic form: ln T=ln C + l ln V + a ln Fr + b ln dp + c ln + ln έ
In micros Q1 software, equation of predicted tool life can be rewritten in the following form:
TP10 (predicted tool life) = constant + β1V + β 2 fr + β 3dp + β 4
Instead of just an intercept and slope, the multiple linear for each combination of values of the independent variables,
regression equation contains a constant (analogous to the distribution of the dependent variable is normal with a
intercept) and four coefficients (β1-β4), one for each of the constant variance. If the independent variables are not
three independent variables. These coefficients are called linearly related to the dependent variable, in order to
partial regression coefficients. Before using the micros Q1 estimate the coefficients, one has to transform the data. The
software, one needs to assume that the relationship between mathematical equation of tool life can be written as follows
the dependent and independent variables is linear and that

45 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

Nilesh S. Pohokar, Lalit B. Bhuyar

TL= 433.691-0.31 [v] -0.065[Fr]-10.684[dp]+0.167[γ]

Where, V- cutting speed in rpm
Fr- feed rate in m/min
dp- depth of cut in mm and
γ-rake angle in degree
of ANOVA of the S/N data and the raw data for flank wear
VI. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
are given in Tables X. From this table, it is clear that feed
A. Effect on flank wear rate and rake angle significantly affect the variation in the
It was found that cutting speed and depth of are less flank wear values.
significant process parameters for flank wear. Non
significant parameters were pooled and the pooled versions
TABLE X RESPONSE FOR FLANK WEAR
Level V Fr Dp γ
1 14.95 14.92 15.06 14.87
2 14.99 15.13 14.95 15.15
3 15.07 14.95 15.02 15.08
Delta 0.12 0.21 0.11 0.22
Rank 3 1 4 2

Figure 2 show that the flanks wear decreases with
the increase in the cutting speed. For a speed of 785 rpm,
feed rate of 98 mm/min, depth of cut 0.24 mm and at rake
angle of 90 lowest flank wear is registered. Figure also
indicates that flank wear increases with rise in feed rate but
suddenly it is decreases. Increase in rake angle is seen with
larger flank wear is observed. This is because the chip
formation is continuous. Further, increases in flank wear
after 100.

Main Effects Plot for SN ratios

Data Means
V Fr

15.1

15.0
Mean of SN ratios

14.9

785 790 795 98 100 102

Dp γ

15.1

15.0

14.9

0.24 0.25 0.26 9 10 11

Signal-to-noise: Smaller is better

Figure 2. Main effect plot for S/N ratios for flank wear

B. Effect of face wear

Similarly from Table XI it is clear that the cutting speed and the depth of cut are more significant parameter for face wear.
The cutting speed and rake angle in comparison of S/N ratio are less significant.

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 46

 Experimental Investigation for Tool Life by Optimizing Machining and
Geometric Parameters of CNC End Mill Tool

TABLE XI RESPONSE FOR FACE WEAR

Level V Fr dp γ
1 13.15 12.08 11.65 11.97
2 11.28 11.76 12.30 11.65
3 11.27 11.87 11.76 12.08
Delta 1.88 0.33 0.64 0.43
Rank 1 4 2 3

Figures 3 the face wears decreases increases at 785 rpm registered. This is because the chip formation is continuous.
and is constant at 790 rpm between 795 rpm cutting speed. Further, decrease in face wear 100. Cutting parameters like
For a speed of 785 m/min, feed rate of 98 mm/min, depth of cutting speed and depth of cut results in to higher S/N ratio
cut of 0.26 mm and rake angle of 110 highest face wear is which ultimately increase face wear.

M a i n E f f e c ts P l o t f o r f a c e w e a r
Da ta M e a n s
V Fr
13.0

12.5

12.0
Mean of SN ratios

11.5

11.0
785 790 795 98 100 102
Dp γ
13.0

12.5

12.0

11.5

11.0
0.24 0.25 0.26 9 10 11

S ig n a l- to - no is e : S m a lle r is b e tte r

Figure3. Main effect plot for S/N ratios for face wear

C. Effect on surface roughness surface roughness. The cutting speed and feed rate in
Similarly from Table XII it is clear that the rake angle comparison of S/N ratio are less significant.
and the depth of cut are more significant parameter for

TABLE XII RESPONSE FOR SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Level V Fr dp γ
1 -10.50 -10.44 -10.36 -10.57
2 -10.36 -10.41 -10.52 -10.36
3 -10.50 -10.50 -10.45 -10.42
Delta 0.15 0.08 0.15 0.22
Rank 3 4 2 1

Figure 4 show the surface roughness increases at 102 mm/min, depth of cut of 0.25 mm and rake angle of 90
790 rpm in the cutting speed, 100 mm/min feed rate, 0.24 lesser surface roughness is registered.
mm depth of cut and 100 rake angle. For a speed of 785 rpm,

47 AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014

Nilesh S. Pohokar, Lalit B. Bhuyar

Main Effects Plot for SN ratios

Data Means

V Fr
-10.35

-10.40

-10.45

Mean of SN ratios
-10.50
-10.55

785 790 795 98 100 102

Dp γ
-10.35
-10.40

-10.45
-10.50
-10.55

0.24 0.25 0.26 9 10 11

S ignal-to-noise: S maller is better

Figure 4.Main effect for S/N ratio on surface roughness

D. Effect on tool life life. The depth of cut and feed rate in comparison of S/N
Similarly, from Table XIII it is clear that the cutting speed ratio are less significant.
and the rake angle are more significant parameter for tool

TABLE XIII RESPONSE FOR TOOL LIFE

Level V Fr Dp γ
1 45.22 45.14 45.19 45.16
2 45.20 45.16 45.12 45.20
3 45.05 45.16 45.18 45.10
Delta 0.17 0.02 0.07 0.10
Rank 1 4 3 2

Figure 5 show that the tool life increases with the that tool life increases with rise in feed rate. Increase in rake
decrease in the cutting speed. For a speed of 785 rpm, feed angle is seen with larger tool life is observed but suddenly it
rate of 100 mm/min, depth of cut 0.24 mm and at rake angle is decreases.
of 100 highest tool life is registered. Figure also indicates

Main Effects Plot for Tool life

Data Means
V Fr

45.20

45.15
Mean of SN ratios

45.10

45.05
785 790 795 98 100 102
Dp γ

45.20

45.15

45.10

45.05
0.24 0.25 0.26 9 10 11
Signal-to-noise: Larger is better

Figure5. Main effect for S/N on tool life

AJSAT Vol.3 No.2 Julu - December 2014 48


E. Mathematical model for tool life
Using the tool life model equation the tool life is calculated
for finding the regression coefficient it is observed that the
Figure 6 relationship between observed tool life and caluclated tool life
F. Optimum values of parameters
The optimum values of parameters found out from
ANOVA response methodology and experimentation are
as follows.
• Optimum Value for Cutting Speed- 790 rpm
• Optimum Value for Feed Rate-100 mm/min
• Optimum Value for Depth of Cut-0.24 mm
• Optimum Value for Rake Angle-100
VII. CONCLUSIONS
1. The geometric and machining parameters are studied
in order to optimize tool life to the greater extent. As
per the handbook recommendation the parameters
cause the tool wear which is directly proportional to
tool life is studied and modified for better results.
By understanding the concepts of establishing the
values of geometric and machining parameters, the
suitable optimization procedures for a wide variety
of problem in the area of design and manufacturing
was develop and implemented. The optimized values
of geometric and machining parameters directly used
in the manufacturing industry.
2. Based on the results of experimentation it can be
concluded that there is considerable improvement in
the tool life.
3. Taguchi method is adopted for finding the significant
factors influencing the output S/N and ANOVA
• Significant parameters for controlling the flank
wear are feed rate and rake angle.
• Significant parameters for controlling the face
wear are cutting speed and rake angle
• Significant parameters for controlling the
surface roughness value are rake angle and
depth of cut.
49
Experimental Investigation for Tool Life by Optimizing Machining and
Geometric Parameters of CNC End Mill Tool
value of R square is 0.91. The model accuracy was
estimated to be 91 %. Figure 6 shows a relationship
between observed tool life and calculated tool life.
• Significant parameters for controlling the tool
life are cutting speed and rake angle.
From the above it is cleared that the rake angle has
most significant parameter was obtained from the
micro level observation. The variation in the cutting
speed, feed rate and depth of cut are also important
as the machining parameters for the tool life.
4. The methodology is verified by optimization method
and the experimental readings can directly impart the
procedure accuracy.
5. Finally it is concluded that optimization of geometric
and machining parameters made more effective by
selecting an appropriate values of geometric and
machining parameter affecting factor it viz. flank
wear, face wear, surface roughness. Also a simplified
mathematical equation of tool life can predict tool
life at accuracy of 91 %.
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