12 Line Protection

12.1  CLASSIFICATIONS OF LINES AND FEEDERS

Lines provide the links—the connections—between the various parts of the power
system and the associated equipment. Power generated at low voltages is stepped up
to higher voltages for transmission to various stations, where it is stepped down for
distribution to industrial, commercial, and residential users.
Most power systems have two to many voltage levels. Over the 100-year history
of AC systems, the actual three-phase voltages used have varied considerably, with
no international standards. In the United States, the IEEE Standards Board adopted
a set of standards in 1975 proposed by the Industrial Applications Society (IAS).
These are summarized in Table 12.1. The class designations are not completely or
uniformly agreed on between the IEEE Power Engineering Society and the IAS,
both involved in power systems. Within the power utility area, there has been, and
continues to be, a general understanding of voltage classes as follows:

Industrial distribution 34.5 kV and lower

Subtransmission 34.5–138 kV
Transmission 115 kV and higher

with the last class generally divided into

High voltage (HV) 115–230 kV

Extra-high voltage (EHV) 345–765 kV
Ultrahigh voltage (UHV) 1000 kV and higher

As indicated, these are not well defined, so the range can vary somewhat in any spe-
cific power system. With time, more conformity with the standards will take place,
but there exist many different and nonstandard voltages that were adopted many
years ago and will not be changed for a long time. Some of these, but not all, are
indicated in the table as optional or existing.
The voltage values indicated represent the nominal and typical RMS system volt-
ages (line-to-line unless so indicated) commonly designated in technical informa-
tion and communication. As power flows through a system, the actual voltage varies
from point to point from the generators to the ultimate terminals from the drops,
transformer ratios, taps, regulators, capacitor banks, and so on; hence, arbitrary,
nominal, or typical values are selected as indicated.
The terminals of the lines and feeders and the location of equipment, such as trans-
formers, generators, and circuit breakers, are known as stations, plants, and substa-
tions. The specific designation is neither well defined nor standardized. A generating
station or plant is obvious. A substation is smaller and less important than a station.

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TABLE 12.1
ANSI/IEEE Classifications of Three-Phase Power System Voltages
Nominal RMS Line-to-Linea System Voltage
Three-Wire Systems Four-Wire Systems
IASb PESc Preferred Optional or Existing Preferred Optional or Existing Maximum Voltage
Low (LV) No voltage class stated (ANSI C84.1) 208Y/120 220Y/127
240 V 240/120 Tap 245/127
480 V 600 V 480Y/277 508Y/293 635
Medium (MV) 2,400 V 2,540
4,160 V 41,660Y/2,400 4,400Y/2,540
4,800 V 5,080
6,900 V 7,260
8,320Y/4,800 8,800Y/5,080
12,000Y/6,930 12,700Y/7,330
12,470Y/7,200 13,200Y/7,620
13,200Y/7,620 13,970Y/8,070
13,800 V 13,800Y/7,970 14,520Y/8,380
20,780Y/12,000 22,000Y/12,700
22,860Y/13,200 24,200Y/13,970
23,000 V 24,340
24,940Y/14,400 26,400Y/15,240
34,500 V 34,500Y/19,920 36,510Y/21,080
Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications
High (HV) Higher voltage (ANSI C84.1) 46 kV 48.3 kV
69 kV 72.5 kV
115 kV 121 kV
138 kV 145 kV
161 kV 169 kV
Line Protection

230 kV 242 kV
Extra-high (EHV) ANSI C92.2 345 kV 362 kV
500 kV 550 kV
765 kV 800 kV
Ultrahigh (UHV) 1,100 kV 1,200 kV

Sources: ANSI/NEMA C84.1, Electric Power Systems and Equipment—Voltage Ratings, NEMA, Rosslyn, VA, 1977; ANSI/IEEE Standard C92.2, Alternating-Current
Electrical Systems and Equipment Operating at Voltages above 230 kV Nominal—Preferred Voltage Ratings, IEEE, New York, 1987; IEEE Standard Dictionary,
Glossary of Terms and Definitions, IEEE, IEEE Service Center, Piscataway, NJ, 1987.
a The second voltage for the three-phase four-wire systems is line-to-neutral or a voltage tap, as indicated.

b IAS: IEEE Industrial Applications Society. Their voltage class designations adapted by IEEE Standard Board (LB 100A).

c PES: IEEE Power Engineering Society. Standard references indicated in the table.
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418 Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications

In one system relative to another, a station in one might be designated as a substation

in the other and vice versa. So common designations are generating stations, switching
stations, power stations, substations, distributions stations, and so on.
Many lines are two-terminal, but there are a number of multiterminal lines
with three or more terminals. These may interconnect stations, or substations, but
frequently are taps to supply loads. Thus, lines of all voltage levels can become
distribution circuits. When an industrial or commercial complex with a large load
requirement is located near a transmission line, it often becomes economical to tap
the line. Distribution lines usually have many taps, either three-phase or single-
phase, as they supply loads along their routes.
Three-phase line impedance angles vary with the type, size of the conductors,
and spacings. Typical ranges for different voltages are as follows:

kV Angles
7.2–23 25°–60°
23–69 45°–60°
69–230 60°–80°
230 and above 75°–85°

12.2 LINE CLASSIFICATIONS FOR PROTECTION

For protection purposes, lines in this book are classified as follows:

1.
Radial or feeders: These have a positive-sequence source at only one terminal.
Typically, they are distribution lines supplying power to nonsynchronous
loads. As indicated in Section 4.8, induction motors are usually not consid-
ered as sources. For faults on the line, current to the fault is only from
this source end. With both ends grounded and a ground fault on the line,
current can flow from both ends, but tripping the positive-sequence source
de-energizes the fault. However, zero-sequence mutual coupling from adja-
cent line(s) can continue the ground fault; therefore, the ground sources
must be tripped. With the increased frequency of installations of distributed
generation, as discussed in Chapter 8, radial lines can be converted to a
network line on short notice.
2.
Loop or network: Loop lines are those with positive-sequence sources at
two or more ends. In general, these are all types of transmission lines and
can include distribution circuits. Fault current to the line faults is supplied
from these source terminals, and all source terminals must be tripped
for both phase and ground faults. Power systems in the United States are
generally multigrounded; thus, positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence
currents can flow to the line faults. If one end of the two-terminal line is
ungrounded, then the line is a loop for phase faults, but a radial for ground
faults. Again mutual induction from parallel lines can induce significant
zero sequence into the line. The effect is covered later in this chapter.
Line Protection 419

Line length is another means by which lines are classified. Such classification is
most significant with regard to higher-voltage lines that operate in the network. Line
length has an impact on issues relating to the application of effective protective sys-
tems. Lines are typically classified as short, medium, or long. A measure of line
length that is significant with regard to protection is the ratio of source impedance to
line impedance (SIR). Higher SIRs imply shorter lines. Lines with SIRs above 4 are
generally classified as short, and lines with SIRs below 0.5 are generally classified as
long. Lines with SIRs between 0.5 and 4 are classified as medium.

12.2.1 Distribution Lines
The design of distribution systems varies, depending on the nature and the density
of the load served. Load within business districts of larger cities and large indus-
trial complexes tends to be highly concentrated and, by its nature, requires a high
level of reliability. Distribution circuits to supply such load are often made up of
underground cable. Low-tension networks (LTNs) are often used to supply business
districts within larger cities. The majority of distribution circuits that are in service,
however, supply load that is made up of a mixture of rural load and supply to smaller
cities, towns, and villages. Distribution lines that supply this type of load are typi-
cally overhead and usually operate at voltages between 4 and 34 kV. For distribution
circuits, 13.2 kV is the common voltage utilized, and 23 and 34.5 kV are becoming
more popular in areas that have a higher load density.
A typical overhead line is about 10–20 miles in length, with the main portion of
the line constructed for three-phase operation. Customers who require three-phase
service are supplied from the main line or from three-phase taps off the main line.
Customers requiring single-phase service are supplied from the main line or from
single-phase taps off the main line.
A sound protection philosophy for distribution circuits should include the
following:

1. Permanent faults should outage as few customers as practical. The main

line should not be permanently outaged for faults on taps.
2. Sensitivity requirements need to be established for settings or operating
ratings of distribution protective devices to promote safety of personnel,
the public, and of system facilities. These requirements should assure with
high probability that all faults on distribution circuits will be detected and
promptly cleared.
3. Automatic restoration of a circuit following a trip due to a fault should
occur to the maximum extent possible. This practice acts to facilitate
prompt restoration of service following a temporary fault. Experience has
shown that up to 80%–90% of faults on overhead distribution lines are
temporary in nature.

To meet the previous criteria, typical overhead distribution circuits are sectionalized
with numerous fault interrupting devices. Distribution transformers that tap the lines
to provide service to customers are usually protected with fuses. Taps off the main
420 Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications

line are protected with fuses, automatic reclosers, and sectionalizers. Automatic
reclosers and sectionalizers are also often installed in the main line. A relayed cir-
cuit breaker is typically installed at the line terminal at the substation, although
automatic reclosers are also sometimes applied at the terminal location. In recent
years, techniques to apply new technologies for obtaining a greater level of automa-
tion on distribution circuits have been developed and applied in order to improve
service reliability.

12.2.2 Transmission and Subtransmission Lines

Transmission lines are used to transmit power from generation sources to regional
load areas or adjacent power systems. Such lines are operated in network in order
to provide the required reliability. Transmission lines do not normally serve load
directly to customers except in some cases, when economically justified, to serve
customers who utilize very large amounts of power. Transmission line terminals are
equipped with relayed circuit breakers. These breakers may use oil, gas, or vacuum
as the interrupting and insulating medium.
Protection objectives for transmission lines should include the following:

1. Faults should be cleared as fast as possible in order to enhance the transient

stability of the power system and minimize voltage disturbance and dam-
age to equipment.
2. During a system fault condition, only those breakers required to isolate the
fault should trip, in order to minimize the scope of the resultant outage.
3. Overhead transmission lines should be reenergized automatically, follow-
ing the clearing of a fault in order to restore the line to service, if the fault
is temporary in nature.
4. Protection should not restrict the line from being loaded to its maximum
short-term emergency load rating, to which it is operated.

It is desirable for all transmission line faults to be detected by instantaneous relays in

order to meet the objectives already mentioned. It is acceptable, however, for highly
restricted faults to be detected and cleared by action of time delay relays.
Subtransmission lines transport power to local load areas or directly to larger
customers. Protection for subtransmission lines will generally be a blend between
that described for transmission and that for distribution lines. Specific protection
applications will depend on the nature of the associated system and the importance
of the subtransmission line being protected.

12.3 TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT FOR LINE PROTECTION

The relay protection techniques available for all line protection include the following:

1. Nondirectional instantaneous overcurrent (IT)

2. Nondirectional inverse-time–overcurrent
3. Nondirectional definite-time–overcurrent
Line Protection 421

4. Directional IT
5. Directional inverse-time–overcurrent
6. Directional definite-time–overcurrent
7. Current balance
8. Directional distance—instantaneous or step or inverse time
9. Pilot with a communication channel between terminals (see Chapter 13)

All of these are employed individually or in various combinations for both phase and
ground protection of lines. These relay types are discussed in Chapter 6, and their
applications are covered in this chapter. The current-balance type compares the cur-
rents in parallel lines to detect an unbalance resulting from a fault in one line. It is not
in general use in the United States. This is because it is not applicable to single lines;
it must be disabled for single-line operation; it requires interconnections between the
controls for the two lines, which is not desirable for operation and testing; and it can
experience difficulties for a fault involving both paralleled lines.
Circuit breakers are ubiquitous in power systems, but in the distribution areas,
fuses, reclosers, and sectionalizers are in common use. A brief review of these follows.

12.3.1 Fuses
The continuous, rated current of the fuse must be equal to or greater than the maxi-
mum short-time load that will pass through it. In addition, the symmetrical-interrupting
rating of the fuse should be equal to or greater than the maximum fault current.
Attention must be given to system voltage and insulation level and the system X/R
ratio. Fuses operate in a time–current band between maximum clearing times and
minimum-melt (or damage) times. The difference is the arcing time within the fuse.
The minimum-melt time is important when the fuse backs up or overreaches
other devices. The latter devices must clear the fault before thermal damage can
occur to the fuse, as indicated by the minimum-melt time.
Types of fuses utilized include expulsion, nonexpulsion, and current limiting.
Expulsion-type fuses are the most common type of fuse used for pole-mounted out-
door applications. Standards have been developed in the early 1950s that classify
fuses based on the slope of their operating characteristics. Fuses are classified as
K (fast), T (slow), or N. A benefit of such standards is that it allows utilities to pur-
chase and stock fuses from different manufacturers and be assured that their operat-
ing characteristics will fall within defined limits.

12.3.2 Automatic Circuit Reclosers

Commonly known as reclosers, these are a type of circuit interrupters with self-
contained controls to sense overcurrent and open on faults, either instantaneously or
with the time delay. They can be programmed to initiate automatic reenergization of
the circuit (reclosing) at variable intervals if the fault persists and eventually to lock out.
Three-phase reclosers may have both phase and ground units. Single-phase
reclosers cannot have ground sensors, but rather, they rely on the phase unit for line-
to-neutral or line-to-ground faults involving the phase to which they are connected.
422 Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications

Single-phase reclosers to clear single-phase faults can be used on three-phase

feeders. The advantage is that service can be maintained on the unfaulted phases.
However, three-phase reclosers are generally recommended to avoid single-phasing
three-phase motors and potential ferroresonance, as discussed in Section 7.9.
Reclosers are designed with both hydraulic and electronic controls. Hydraulically
controlled reclosers sense overcurrents by means of a series trip coil, connected in
series with the line. When current exceeds the trip rating of the coil, a plunger is
drawn into the coil, which causes the recloser contacts to open.
Electronically controlled reclosers are more flexible and accurate than hydrauli-
cally controlled reclosers but are also more expensive. The electronic control can
be easily adjusted to change the time–current tripping characteristic, minimum trip
setting, and the closing sequence of the recloser. The electronic control also provides
a wide range of accessory enhancements to meet the specific needs of the user.
Reclosers are designed to use either oil or vacuum as the interrupting medium.
In oil reclosers, the same oil is used for both arc interruption and basic insulation.
Vacuum reclosers use either oil or air as the basic insulation medium.
Reclosers are used because their cost is generally less than conventional breakers
and separate relays.

12.3.3 Sectionalizers
A circuit-isolating mechanism that is not rated to interrupt fault current is a section-
alizer. It opens when it is de-energized after sensing a preset number of downstream
faults. It is manually reset.
Sectionalizers are applied in conjunction with backup reclosers or breakers and
count the operations of the backup device during fault conditions. Counts are reg-
istered by the sectionalizer only when fault current flow through the sectionalizer
had been detected prior to the operation of the backup device. After a given number
of counts, as selected as a part of the sectionalizer setting, the sectionalizer opens
to isolate the faulted section of the line when the backup device is in the open posi-
tion and the section of line where the sectionalizer is located is in a de-energized
state. The object is for the sectionalizer to remain closed on temporary faults—the
backup device will trip and reclose to restore the line to service for such faults
prior to the sectionalizer opening. For permanent faults, the sectionalizer recog-
nizes that one or more trips have occurred after the backup device reclosed, and it
subsequently opens to isolate the faulted portion of the line. After the sectionalizer
opens, the backup device automatically recloses to restore to service that portion of
the line up to the sectionalizer location. Application of sectionalizers requires that
the backup interrupting device be capable of detecting faults in the sectionalizer
zone of protection.

12.3.4 Coordinating Time Interval

The coordinating time interval (CTI) is the time interval between the operation of
protection devices at a near station and the protection devices at a remote station for