Fluid Mechanics Hydromechanics

1TV024, 5 hp 1HY125, 5hp

Fluid Mechanics (1TV024) Instructor:

Chris Hieronymus
Office: Geocentrum Dk255
Phone: 471 2383
and email: christoph.hieronymus@geo.uu.se

Literature:
Engineering Fluid Mechanics
by Clayton T. Crowe, Donald F. Elger, Barbara C. Williams and
Hydromechanics (1HY125) John A. Roberson
9th edition, 2010 (alternatively 8th ed., 2005)
Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA

Mandatory components of the course:

Spring 2011 Grades will be based on final examination.
Attendance at Lab Exercises towards end of term is mandatory.
Lab report to be handed in is also mandatory.

Further Information:
Grading:

Additional information regarding schedule, assignments, etc. can be The goals of this course are quantitative.
found at
At the end of the course the student is expected to be able
http://studentportalen.uu.se
to solve specific problems of fluid mechanics. Examples of
Past student evaluations of this course can be found at the web page listed past examinations are given at
above. http://studentportalen.uu.se.

GradingScale:
The exam will be closed-book. In other words, you cannot use your
book or your notes during the exam. However, you may (and should!) 80%– 100% 5
prepare a “cheat sheet” to bring to the exam. One page (A-4, double- 60%– 79.9% 4
sided) of equations and whatever you think might be useful. (A list of
equations will also be provided with the exam. But I think youʼll learn
40%– 59.9% 3
more if you make your own.) 0%– 39.9% U

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 Course Outline
Chapter 3

• Fluid Statics (Chapter 3)

• Flowing Fluids and Pressure Variation (Chapter 4)
FLUID STATICS
• Control Volume Approach and Continuum Principle
(Chapter 5)
• Momentum Principle (Chapter 6)
• Energy Principle (Chapter 7)
• Surface Resistance (Chapter 9)
• Flow in Conduits (Chapter 10)
• Varied Flow in Open Channels (Chapter 15)

Fluid Mechanics, Spring Term 2011

Flow of an
unconfined viscous
fluid down an
Shear Forces Normal Forces incline.
(pressure)

• Flowing viscous fluid exert shear forces.

• Static fluids only exert normal forces.
• Moving fluids (dynamics) will be covered later.
where F is a force normal to area A

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 Pressure is a scalar quantity

Force balance in the z-direction:

Figure 3.1 (p. 31)

Force balance in the x-direction:

Vertical force Vertical force Total weight of wedge
on ΔA on lower element
boundary = specific weight

From last slide:

“For your Culture” (i.e., not required for this course…)

Divide through by to get

=

Now shrink the element to a point:

It is possible to have different normal stresses.
Consider a small cubic fluid element that is part of a
larger fluid mass:
This can be done for any orientation α, so
Different normal forces in one (coordinate) orientation
are equal to shear forces in another orientation.

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(contʼd:) Pressure Transmission

So what is the pressure then?

• Pressure is the average of the normal forces acting

at a point.
• Differences between normal forces are due to fluid
motion.

In this case, if the force vectors are Hydraulic Lift

equal in magnitude, then Figure 3.2 (p. 32)

p=0 In a closed system, pressure changes from one point

are transmitted throughout the entire system
(Pascalʼs Law).

Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure, and Vacuum

Pressure Variation with Elevation
Figure 3.3 (p. 34) Static fluid:
Example of All forces must
pressure relations
balance as there are
no accelerations.

Look at force balance

in direction of

Figure 3.4 (p. 35)

• Pressure in a vacuum is p = 0.
• Absolute pressure is referenced to perfect vacuum.
• Gage pressure is referenced to another pressure,
typically atmospheric pressure (most gages measure
relative pressures).

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 Pressure Variation for a Uniform-Density Fluid
From figure, note that
The pressure-elevation relation derived on the previous slide,

Shrink cylinder to is perfectly general (applies also to variable γ).

zero length:
But if γ is constant, the above equation is easy to integrate:

(from previous slide)

The quantity is known as the piezometric pressure and

or is called the piezometric head.

Example 3.3: What is the water pressure at a depth of 35 ft?

For an incompressible fluid, γ is constant.
Pressure and elevation at one point can thus be related With the information given,
to pressure and elevation at another point: all we can calculate is the
pressure difference between
points 1 and 2.

for
or

(Do yourself a favor and work in SI-units!)

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Example 3.4: What is the gage pressure at point 3 ? Pressure Measurements
Two step solution:
1) Calculate
2) Calculate

Figure 3.7 (p. 42)

Figure 3.6 (p. 41) U-tube manometer
Piezometer or
simple manometer Better for higher pressures.
Possible to measure pressure
in gases.
(relative to atmospheric pressure at point 1)

Find pressure at center of pipe:

The complete path from
Can start either at open end point 1 to point 2 may
or inside pipe. include several U-tubes.

In general:
Here we start at open end:

From example 3.9 (p. 44)

p at Change Change p in
open in p from in p from pipe
end 1 to 2 3 to 4

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 Example 3.10: Find the change in piezometric pressure
Differential Manometer and in piezometric head between points 1 and 2.

Figure 3.8 (p. 44)

Used for measuring pressure differences between

points along a pipe.

( from )

Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

The white area AB

in the figure is a
plane of irregular
shape.
The cancel out Line A-B is an edge
to give view of that area.

What is the net force

due to pressure
acting on the sloping
(piezometric pressure)
plane AB?
(piezometric head)
First, note that hydrostatic pressure increases along y as
(since y is not vertical)

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This figure is absolutely From the definition of pressure:
awful
or
Line AB represents the
true location of the so that the total force on a plane area A is
surface.

The white surface is not

drawn in its actual or
location.

Line 0-0 is horizontal; the white area has been rotated about
axis A-B from its proper location. In other words, the apparent or, since γ and sin α are constants
depth of the white area within the fluid is not as it appears.

But the first moment of the area is defined as Vertical Location of Line of Action of Resultant
Hydrostatic Force

In English: We wish to represent the distributed pressure

so that the total force can be written as force by an equivalent point force. Where (in the vertical)
does that force act?

where is the pressure at the centroid of the area.

The boxed equation is known as the hydrostatic force
equation.
We have thus replaced an integral involving a variable
pressure by a constant resultant pressure:

2 weights on a beam
supported at ycp

8
 So, for the moment about a point at ycp we have The book just refers to the “parallel axis theorem” to write

Mathematically, I think it is easy to see that using

But with and we get

The integral on the right-hand side is the second

moment of the area (about point y=0):

Notice that the last term is zero because

As an aside, you may recall that

The moment of inertia of an object

Identifying as the 2nd moment about y=0 about an axis through its center of
mass Icm is the minimum moment
and as the 2nd moment about about any axis in that direction.

The moment about any other

We have thus proved the parallel-axis theorem:
parallel axis is equal to Icm plus the
moment of inertia about distance d
of the entire object treated as a
point mass located at the center of
mass.
Our system of pressures has nothing to do with rotations, but
the equations are of the same form…

9
Back to the problem at hand: Example 3.12:

Find the normal force

Recall from a few slides ago that required to open the
elliptical gate if it is
hinged at the top.
so that
First find Ftotal, the total
or hydrostatic force acting
on the plate:
or
With (Appendix p. A-5) we get
Note that at great depth , the difference between
the centroid and the center of pressure gets very small.

Now calculate the slant distance between and

The slant distance to the hinge is 8m x 5m/4m = 10m, and the

slant distance from the hinge to the centroid is 2.5m. Hence,

The two moments about the hinge must add to zero:

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 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces Example 3.14:

Find magnitude and line of

action of equivalent force F.

Force balance in x and y:

We could integrate the vector forces along segment AB, but it

is often easier to find equivalent forces on a free body as
illustrated above.
FAC acts at the center of pressure as from previous section,
FCB acts at centroid of area CB, and W acts at the center of
mass of the free body ABC.

The line of action of the horizontal force is

From Appendix p. A-5 (Figure A.1):

Where we just read directly off the figure.

The line of action for the vertical force can be found by

summing the moments about C (or any other point…)

Distance from C to centroid is:

(notice that we could add a constant to every x-coordinate
since )

So that xcp is found to be

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The complete result is summarized below:

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