1 EXAMPLE

Longitudinal Binary Fission

Longitudinal binary fission occurs when the division plane passes through the
longitudinal axis.
Example: This occurs in flagellates such as Euglena.

2
EXAMPLE
Oblique Binary Fission

The plane of division is oblique (slanting). Hence, two daughter cells are formed.
It occurs in dinoflagellates.
Example: Ceratium
3
EXAMPLE
Transverse Binary Fission

The division plane runs along the transverse axis of the organism.
Examples: Paramecium, Planaria, diatoms and bacteria
In Paramecium, the meganucleus divides by amitosis, while micronucleus divides by
mitosis.
4
DEFINITION
Binary fission
Fission can occur by binary fission, multiple fission and plasmotomy. In binary
fission, the parent organism divides into two halves. Each half forms an
independent offspring. It involves mitosis.
In binary fission, the parent body forms the reproductive unit. It disappears after
it divides into daughter individuals. So, organisms which undergo binary fission
never die, thus are said to be immortal.
Binary fission is divided into four types based on the plane of division. They are:
Simple Binary Fission/ Irregular Binary Fission
Longitudinal Binary Fission
Transverse Binary Fission
Oblique Binary Fission
5
EXAMPLE
Simple Binary Fission

When division occurs through any plane, it is called as simple binary fission.
Example: Amoeba
6
DEFINITION
Introduction to Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a process of producing new organism from a single parent. A
genetically identical offspring (clone) is formed. Male and female gametes are not
involved in this type of reproduction.
In this, the parent of the organism either splits or a part of parent organism is
separated to form a new organism. Organisms can reproduce asexually by different
methods. They are- Fission, Budding, Fragmentation, Gemmae, Regeneration,
Vegetative Propagation and Spore Formation.
7
DEFINITION
Asexual reproduction in plants - Multiple fission
In some prokaryotic organisms, binary fission occurs in a very unique way which
includes dividing into many daughter cells simultaneously by the means of multiple
fission .
Amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia and secrets a hard covering around itself which is
called as cyst formation .When the conditions are unfavourable for Amoeba the
nucleus divides into many daughter nuclei. As the cytoplasm divides it gives rise
to many daughter cells.

During favourable conditions the cyst breaks open and releases many daughter cells.

8
DEFINITION
Multiple fission

GIF
In some prokaryotic organisms binary fission occurs in a very unique way which
includes dividing into many daughter cells simultaneously by the means of multiple
fission.

Amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia and secrets a hard covering around itself, which
is called as cyst formation. When the conditions are unfavourable for Amoeba the
nucleus divides into many daughter nuclei. As the cytoplasm divides it gives rise
to many daughter cells.

During favourable conditions the cyst breaks open and releases many daughter cells.
9
DEFINITION
Reproduction by Plasmotomy
The multinucleate individual divides into many offsprings. These offspring are
obtained by simple division of the cytoplasm. The division is independent of
nuclear division.

The daughter individuals regain the normal size. The number

of nuclei is also restored by further nuclear division.

10
DEFINITION
Plasmotomy
It is the division of a multinucleate parent into many multinucleate individuals
without division of nuclei.
For example, Opalina.
11
DEFINITION
Asexual reproduction in plants - Binary fission
The type of asexual reproduction in which a microorganism splits in two equal
halves is called as binary fission, e.g., Amoeba.

The cells which split during binary fission have the potential to grow to the size
of the original one.

There are two types of binary fission: transverse (e.g., Paramoecium) and
longitudinal (e.g., Euglena).

12
DEFINITION
Spore formation in Bread Mould

The bread mould or Rhizopus plant undergoes asexual reproduction using spores.
Spores are resistant to adverse environmental conditions. Though spores are present
in the environment, fungus does not grow on dry surfaces. They need moisture to
grow. Hence, fungus is seen on the bread. The dispersed spores fall on the bread's
surface. As desirable conditions are obtained, they germinate and reproduce.
13
DEFINITION
Spore formation
Reproducing using spores is an asexual method. Many spores are stored in sacs
called Sporangia. The sporangia are knob-like structures. They are present at the
top of the thread-like structures called hyphae. When Sporangia burst; minute,
single-celled, thin or thick walled structures called spores are obtained. They are
dispersive, i.e. they are scattered by rain, wind or insects. Under suitable
conditions, they develop into a new plant. The suitable condition is provided by a
substance, like bread.
14
DEFINITION
Asexual reproduction - Budding
Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which there is a continuous
regeneration of cells at one specific site on the body of an organism.

A bud grows as an outgrowth on that site .

When this bud matures it detaches from the parent body and grows into an
independent individual.

15
DEFINITION
Fragmentation in Spirogyra

Fragmentation is a type of asexual reproduction in which an organism simply breaks

in individual pieces at maturity.

These individual small pieces then grow to form a new organism e.g., Spirogyra.
Spirogyra undergoes fragmentation which results in many filaments. Each filament
grows into mature filament.

16
DEFINITION
Fragmentation
During the process of fragmentation, a fragment of the parent forms a new being. It
occurs when a shoot that is rooted becomes detached from the main group.
Multicellular organisms with simple body organization can divide or reproduce by
fragmentation. But, it cannot be used by all multi-cellular organisms. Organisms
with complex structures cannot undergo cell-by-cell division. This is because, in
complex multicellular organisms, each set of cells have specialized functions.
These specialized cells are organized as tissues and are placed in
organs. Organs are placed in different positions of the body.

17
DEFINITION
Endogenous gemmae

If gemmae appear as outgrowths on a part of the gametophyte, they are called as

exogenous gemmae. Gemmae within gametophyte cells are endogenous gemmae.
Exogenous gemmae are attached to the gametophyte during their development. As the
gemmae mature, the attachment weakens. This allows the mature gemmae to break off.
Endogenous gemmae are released by the breakdown of the surrounding cell.
18
DEFINITION
Reproduction by Gemmae
Gemmae are specialized asexual multicellular bodies. A gemmae is an asexual budlike
propagule capable of developing into a new individual. They are vegetative
propagules which are small and undifferentiated growths.
19
DEFINITION
Zoospore
The zoospores are special kind of motile and flagellated spores produced inside the
zoosporangia.
The flagella help to swim in aquatic habitat for proper dispersal.
For example, Achlya, Saprolegnia, Albugo, Phytophthora, etc.
20
DEFINITION
Conidia
They are formed in Pencillium.
These are non-motile spores produced singly or in chains by constriction at the tip
or lateral side of special hyphal branches, called conidiophores.
21
DEFINITION
Chlamydospore
They are thick-walled spores produced directly from hyphal cells. They may be
terminal or intercalary.
They store reserve food material and are capable of withstanding long unfavourable
conditions.
For example, Rhizopus, Agaricus (mushroom), etc.
22
DEFINITION
Oidia
In some fungi (e.g., Agaricus) the hyphae break up into numerous small fragments
known as oidia which are thin-walled and do not store reserve food material.
The oidia are generally formed under conditions of excess water, sugar and certain
salts.
23
DEFINITION
Sporangiospore
They are non-motile spores produced inside the sporangia.
They are generally dispersed by wind and germinate to produce new mycelium.
For example, Rhizopus, Mucor.
24
DEFINITION
Vegetative propagation by root

In some plants, buds are produced at the base of old stem just above the tap root
help in vegetative propagation.
For example, carrot, sweet potato etc.

25
DEFINITION
Vegetative propagation in Kalanchoe

Vegetative propagation in Kalanchoe takes place by leaves.

From the activity of growing Kalanchoe by vegetative propagation it can be found
that, plantlets starts growing on the leaf margin.
26
DEFINITION
Introduction of vegetative propagation
Vegetative propagation is the asexual form of reproduction wherein part of plant
other than seeds are used for the production of new plants.
There are two methods of vegetative propagation: natural and artificial.
27
DEFINITION
Vegetative propagation by underground stem
Some plants have modified stem. These stem contains nodes and internodes. Axillary
buds grow from these nodes.
For example, ginger.
28
DEFINITION
Creeping stem or subaerial
These are of three types:
Runners
These are narrow, green, horizontal branches which develop at the base of crown and
root at intervals where new crowns are also formed.
Breaking of runners helps in vegetative propagation.
For example, lawn grass, Centella, Oxalis (wood-sorrel).
These are arched horizontal branches that develop at the base of a crown and help
in vegetative propagation like runners.
For example, strawberry, Vallisneria.
Offsets
These are one intemode long runners that occur in some aquatic plants.
Breaking of offsets helps in propagation.
For example, Eichhomia (water hyacinth), Pistia (water lettuce).
29
DEFINITION
Vegetative propagation by aerial stem

In some plants, long internodes creep on the surface of the ground.

Roots are given out from each node.
For example, common doob (lawn grass).
30
DEFINITION
Vegetative propagation by leaves

Some plants produce buds in the margin of the leaf. When such leaves falls in moist
soil, their buds begin to grow as young tiny plants.
For example, Bryophyllum.
31
DEFINITION
Bulbils
These are multicellular fleshy buds that take part in vegetative propagation, e.g.,
Oxalis, pineapple, lily etc.
32
DEFINITION
Turions
A turion is a swollen bud, which contains much stored food.
It is detached from the parent plant and remains inactive through the winter and
gives rise to a new plant in following spring.
For example, Potamogeton, Utricularia.
33
DEFINITION
Methods of artificial vegetative propagation - Cutting (by stem cutting)
The common method of artificial vegetative propagation are cutting, grafting,
budding and layering.
Cutting
Cutting is removing a portion of the stem and fixing it in the soil to allow the
growth of roots and buds growing into shoots.
For example, rose, sugarcane, cotton etc.
34
DEFINITION
Cutting (by root)
These are long pieces of roots which are used to artificially propagate now plants.
For example, lemon, orange, blackberry, boysenberry, raspberry, etc.
35
DEFINITION
Cutting (by leaf)
Snake plant (Sansevieria) can be propagated by leaf cuttings.
Leaves are cut transversely into two or three parts and planted in vertical
positions in the soil.
For example, Sansevieria (snake plant), Begonia, Bryophyllum.
36
DEFINITION
Mound layering

Layering is a method in which a branch of the plant is covered with some material
and supplied water to produce roots. They are done in two ways: mound layering and
aerial layering.
Mound layering
Lower branches of a plant is allowed to bent down until it touches the soil. Roots
form in that part of the plant can be cut from the parent plant and can be grown
anywhere.
For example, jasmine and grapevine.
37
DEFINITION
Aerial layering

A girdled aerial stem is maintained in moist condition and wrapped in a polythene

till it develops roots.
For example, orange, guava, litchi, etc.
38
DEFINITION
Simple layering
In this layering, soft basal partly injured branch is pegged at one place.
For example, cherry, jasmine, grape vine.
39
DEFINITION
Serpentine layering
Branch is pegged at several places so as to form many plants.
For example, Clematis.
40
DEFINITION
Grafting or scion grafting

Grafting is joining a part of a living plant (scion) to another (stock) causing it

to grow as a part of the second plant.
It may be in the form of whip grafting or cleft grafting.
41
DEFINITION
Types of grafting
The various techniques of grafting are as follows:
Tongue grafting
Wedge grafting
Side grafting
Approach grafting
Bud grafting
Micropropagation
Use of special vegetative organs
42
DEFINITION
Bud grafting
Bud grafting is the one in which a bud is used instead of a twig.
For example, roses and fruits, like peaches.
43
DEFINITION
Tissue culture

Tissue culture is an in vitro method carried on an artificial medium in which a

cell, tissue, callus or explant is used to create a whole new plant.
Orchids, asparagus, chrysanthemum etc. are propagated by this method.