SUGAR INDUSTRY

327 BC – Alexander the Great discovers sugar cane, then spreads it through
Persia and introduces it in the Mediterranean.
200 BC – Chinese Emperor T’ai Tsung sends a successful scientific mission to
study sugar manufacturing from sugar cane in India.
1493 – Columbus brings sugar cane to the New World on his second voyage.
1747 – Chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf uses alcohol to extract sugar
from beets.
1812 – Benjamin Delessert invents a sugar extraction process
from beets suitable for industrial use in France.
1878 – Saccharin (benzoic sulfinide) is accidentally invented by Constantin
Fahlberg, a chemist working on coal tar derivatives in a laboratory at
the Johns Hopkins University.
1879 – E.H. Dyer opens the first successful sugar beet factory in the United
States.
1957 – Richard O. Marshall and Earl R. Kooi invent the production of High
Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)
1965 – Aspartame was accidentally invented by James M. Schlatter, a chemist
working for G.D. Searle & Company.
1976 – Sucralose is invented by scientists from Tate & Lyle.
1993 – Florida Crystals launches natural cane sugar product line.
1998 – Florida Crystals becomes the only producer of certified organic sugar in
the U.S., marketed through the Florida Crystals® brand.
2008 – Florida Crystals® Natural and Organic sugar become the first American
sugar to be certified Carbon free®

Sugar
- comes from sucrose, a carbohydrate found in fruit and vegetables
- highly concentrated in sugar beets and canes
- eparated from the beet or cane plant, and the result is 99.95% pure
sucrose (sugar)

Properties of sucrose
- Sucrose is a disaccharide sugar that occurs naturally in fruits and
vegetables.
- Also sugar occurs in greatest quantities in sugarcane and sugar
beets from which it is separated for commercial use.
- The melting point is approximately 188°C that is rather indefinite.
STARCH INDUSTRY
- It is sparingly soluble in alcohol but moderately soluble in organic
(rice, wheat, potato and corn)
solvents

Starch or amylum is a polysaccharide which is produced by most plants as an

Saccharimeter – used to measure the amount of sucrose in a sample
energy store.

Saccharum is the Latin word for sugar and the derived term is saccharide.
Polysaccharides are carbohydrate polymers consisting of tens to hundreds to
several thousand monosaccharide units.
Different Classes of Sugars
All of the common polysaccharides contain glucose as the monosaccharide
 Monosaccharide - simple sugars with multiple hydroxyl groups.
unit when hydrolyzed, which is one of the compounds in our body use for
Based on the number of carbons, a monosaccharide is a triose,
energy.
tetrose, pentose, or hexose, etc. They include glucose and fructose
with the chemical formula: C6H12O6
Pure starch – white, tasteless and odorless powder that is insoluble in cold
 Disaccharides - formed by two monnosaccharides with the loss of
water or alcohol.
one molecule of water. It includes lactose, cellobiose, maltose, and
sucrose. The molecular formula for sucrose is: C12H22O11
The word “starch” is derived from Middle English sterchen, meaning to stiffen.
“Amylum” is Latin for starch, from the Greek αμυλον, “amylon” which means
The hydrolysis of sucrose yields D-glucose and D-fructose, the process is called
“not ground at a mill”. The root amyl is used in biochemistry for several
inversion and the sugar mixture produced is known as invert sugar because,
compounds related to starch.
although sucrose itself rotates plane-polarized light to the right, the mixture
inverts this light by rotating to the left.
AD 77-79: extraction of starch is first described in the Natural History of Pliny
the Elder
1804: Bouillon-Lagrange first reported the production of dextrin
1811: Kirchoff discovered that sugar could be produced from potato starch by Alfred Wilm, a German chemist, who melted aluminum with small quantities
hydrolosis with acid, thus bringing into being the first modified of cuprum, magnesium and manganese.Duralumin was first produced in
starches and starch sweeteners Dueren, Germany, in 1911 and the alloy was named after the city. The
Main Sources of Starch first aircraft made from duralumin was built in 1919.
1. Wheat
2. Tapioca (Cassava) Processes
3. Potatoes Bayer Process - separation of pure alumina from bauxite ore.
4. Corn  One ton of aluminum is produced from every two tons of alumina.
 The ore is heated in an autoclave with caustic soda.
Starch Production  It is then cooled and a solid residue «red mud» — is separated from
Wheat Source the liquid.
1. Mixing Wheat flour and water  Aluminum hydroxide is then extracted from this solution and
2. Starch and Gluten Separation calcined to produce pure alumina.
3. Starch Washing and Concentration
4. Starch Dewatering and Drying Hall-Heroult Process - smelting aluminum.
Potato Source  Alumina is then transformed into aluminum through electrolytic
1. Potato Washing reduction
2. Rasping  When the alumina solution is electrolyzed in molten cryolite
3. Starch Extracting (NaAlF) to lower its melting point for easier electrolysis, pure
4. Starch washing and Concentration aluminum is produced.
5. Drying  Transferred into a holding furnace, then to a casting line to produce
Corn Source aluminum ingot.
1. Steeping
2. Grinding and Germ Separation Tin
3. Fine Grinding and Fiber Separation • Is one of the basic chemical elements.
4. Starch-Gluten Separation • The chemical symbol for tin, Sn, is derived from the Latin name of
5. Starch Washing the material, stannum.
• When refined, it is a silvery-white metal known for its resistance
to corrosion and its ability to coat other metals
ALUMINUM AND TIN INDUSTRY
310 B.C.: that the Greek explorer Pytheas discovered the location of the mines
Aluminum near Cornwall, England.
• Is a light and soft white metal with a frosted silver tint due to a thin 1810, Pierre Durand of France patented a method of preserving food in sealed
oxide film which covers it on contact with air tinplate cans.
• Is widespread in nature: it is the fourth most common of all 1839: Isaac Babbitt of the United States invented an antifriction alloy, called
the elements and the first most common of all metals (making Babbitt metal, which consisted of tin, antimony, and copper.
up 8.8% of the Earth’s crust), but it is not found in pure form.
• It is mainly extracted from bauxite, although there are several Manufacturing Process
hundred aluminum minerals (aluminum silicates, alum stones, 1. Mining
etc.), the majority of which are not suited to produce the metal. 2. Concentrating
3. Smelting
16th century: the first step in extracting aluminum was made by the famous 4. Refining
Paracelsus
18th century: the experiment was repeated by Andreas Marggraf, a German
chemist. He called the aluminum oxide ‘alumina’ (Latin word ‘alumen’ — SEMICON INDUSTRY
astringent)
1808: Humphry Davy, an Englishman, tried to extract aluminum through Semiconductors
electrolysis. - Materials which has electrical conductivity between that of
1825: Hans-Christian Oersted’s experiments succeeded – by passing chlorine a conductor such as copper and that of an insulator such as glass.
through a hot mixture of alumina and coal, he produced aluminum - Elements/materials that exhibit high conductivity at high
chloride (heated with potassium amalgam). temperatures and nearly zero conductivity at low temperatures.
Friedrich Wohler, a German scientist, picked up where Oersted had left off and - Two of the most common elements used as semiconducting
spent 18 years working to produce an aluminum ingot. materials are Silicon and Germanium.
1854: Saint-Claire Deville, a French chemist and industrialist, developed a
more efficient method. He applied sodium as a deoxidizing agent instead Types of Semiconductors
of expensive potassium. 1. N-type semiconductors
1855: the ‘silver made of clay’ created a furor. (Emperor Napoleon III)  extrinsic semiconductors in which donor dopants have
end of 19th century: cheaper method to produce aluminum by Charles Hall, an been used
American student, and Paul Heroult, a French engineer  increase in negative electron charge carriers results
Karl Josef Bayer, an Austrian engineer working in Russia, developed an alumina
 majority carrier: negative charge carriers
production technology which made the new method even cheaper. The
 minority carrier: positive charge carriers
Bayer and Hall-Heroult processes are still applied at modern aluminum
2. P-type semiconductors
smelters.
 result of using acceptor dopants.
  increase in holes increases the concentration of positive and polar groups (e.g., −NH 2, −OH), which he named
charge carriers. auxochromes.
 The majority carrier would be positive and the minority  Chromogens refer to chromophore-auxochrome combinations.
negative.

Geoffrey Drummer – first to conceive of the idea of integrated circuits

Jack Kilby – first bonded 3 transistors together How are the colors altered?
Rober Noyce – merged the idea with Jean Hoerni’s planar process, and the first  The color of the dyes are changed by what are called modifiers.
modern semiconductor was born. These modifiers, probably methyl or ethyl groups, are the ones
Gordon Moore – make the observation that transistor density doubles every responsible for energy changes in the delocalized electrons of the
18 months, which becomes known as Moore’s law dyes. There is a progressive alteration of color by adding a
particular modifier.
Manufacturing Process  When no methyl group is present, the original dye Pararosanil as it
1. Oxide and Nitride film deposition is called is red in color
2. Pattern formation  As four methyl groups are added, the reddish purple dye Methyl
 Photoresist coating Violet is obtained.
 Exposure  With the addition of more groups a purple blue dye Crystal Violet
 Development is obtained.
 Etching  Further addition of seventh methyl group turns blue into Methyl
 Ashing/Cleaning Green.
3. Dielectric film formation
4. Gate formation Classification of Dyes
5. Contact formation  According to application
6. Interconnect formation 1. Reactive Dyes – directly links the colorant to the fibre by
7. Prove testing formation of a covalent bond.
2. Disperse Dyes – dyeing by immersion in an aqueous
dispersion of insoluble dyes, whereby the dye transfers
into the fibre and forms a solid solution.
DYE INDUSTRY
3. Direct Dyes – water-soluble, anionic dyes. When dyed
from aqueous solutions in the presence of electrolytes,
1774: Swedish chemist, Scheele, discovered chlorine destroyed vegetable
they have high affinity for cellulosic fibers. Their
colors by observing a cork in a bottle of hydrochloric acid
common use is on cotton and regenerated cellulose.
1775: Bancroft introduced the use of quercitron bark as a natural dye. One of
4. Vat Dyes – water-insoluble and are applied mainly on
only 2 natural dyes whose discoverer is known, it yields a yellow,
cellulosic fibers as soluble leuco salts after reduction in
brighter than fustic, and is from the inner bark of No. American oak.
an alkaline bath, usually with sodium gensulfite.
1856: William Henry Perkin discovered the first synthetic dye stuff "Mauve"
5. Sulfur Dyes – applied to cotton from an alkaline bath
(aniline, a basic dye) while searching for a cure for malaria and a new
with sodium sulfide as reducing agent.
industry was begun.
6. Cationic(Basic) Dyes – water-soluble dyes applied
1863: An English churchman named John Lightfoot, developed aniline black by
usually to paper, polyacrylonitrile, and modified nylons
oxidation of aniline on the cotton fiber
and polyesters. Their original use was for silk, wool and
1950: Dupont introduced first commercial availability of Orlon, a new acrylic
tannin-moderated cotton.
"wool substitute“
7. Acid Dyes –water-soluble anionic dyes used for paper,
1968: DuPont introduces Qiana, a fancy nylon with "silk" feel and drape
leather, ink-jet printing, food, and cosmetics.
8. Solvent Dyes – devoid of polar solubilizing groups. They
Dye – natural or synthetic substance used to add color or change the color of
are used for coloring plastics, gasoline oils, and waxes.
a textile, or any adhesive material.

 According to chemical structure (chromogens)

There are dyes that come with special properties such as:
1. Azo – contain at least one azo (nitrogen-nitrogen bond)
 Resistance to weather conditions, UV rays, and heat
group, where the azo groups are attached to two
 Conducts electricity
groups, of which one, but usually both, are aromatic
 Reinforced fibers
compounds.
 Free from heavy metals
2. Antraquinone – important red dyes. These dyes are
 Water soluble
based on 9,10-antraquinone, which is essentially
colorless.
Color of Dyes
3. Indigoid – usually made from ring closure of benzene
 Dyes are aromatic compounds, with chromogens in them, and
derivatives (e.g. Phenylacetic acid) by C-N or C-C cond
structures composed of aryl rings with delocalized electron
formation.
systems.
4. Cationic – carry a positive charge in their molecule, as
 In 1868 German chemists Carl Graebe and Carl Liebermann
the name implies. The salt-forming counterion is the
recognized that dyes contain sequences of conjugated double
colorless anion of a low molecular mass inorganic or
bonds: X=C−C=C−C=C− . . . , where X is carbon, oxygen, or nitrogen.
organic acid.
 In 1876 German chemist Otto Witt proposed that dyes contained
5. Polymethine – characterized by a chain of conjugated
conjugated systems of benzene rings bearing simple unsaturated
double bonds with an odd number of carbon atoms
groups (e.g., −NO2, −N=N−, −C=O), which he called chromophores,
between two terminal groups.
 6. Arylcarbenium – belong also to methane dyes and can b. Gelatin
be considered as branched polymethines. c. Hydrophilic colloids
7. Phthalocyanine – are of the class of organic dyes with d. Titanium oxide
colors ranging from reddish blue to yellowish green. The 5. Hardening agents - cellulose triacetate
term originates from naphtha for mineral oil and 6. Stabilizers
cyanine for dark blue. a. E-6 stabilizer
8. Sulphur Compounds – are made by heating aromatic or b. contains formaldehyde
heterocylic compounds with sulfur or species that 7. Antihalation backing - prevents any light from being reflected back
release sulfur. through the emulsion from the rear surface of the base
9. Metal Complexes – are coordination compounds in 8. Coating aids
which a metal ion is linked to one of more ligands
containing one or more electron pair donors. Photographic Process
1. Silver halides are employed
Manufacturing Process 2. Sensitizing the dyes
1. Charging 3. Light sensitive silver salts are prepared in the dark.
2. Reaction 4. Photochemical reaction on silver salt crystal.
3. Isolation 5. Bleaching the negative silver image
4. Drying and Grinding(optional), and Finishing(milling)
Process of Black and White Materials
1. Penetration and Adsorption
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRODUCT INDUSTRY 2. Replenisher
3. Stop bath
The word “photography” is derived from two Greek words which mean 4. Fixer
“drawing by light”. 5. Washer
6. Agents added
1819: Dauguerre produced the first practical photographic process. It was
named the daguerreotype, and it used mirror-like images on a copper Process of Colored Materials
plate, and it was developed with mercury. 1. Flexicolor development
1841: William Talbot developed a new process using paper instead of copper 2. Flexicolor bleach
plates. He developed the images using gallic acid 3. Wash
1850: Frederick Archer tried using sticky, salty glass; Louis-Dsire Blanquart- 4. Flexicolor Fixer and Replenisher
Evrard tried using egg whites. 5. Wash
1860 (Photographing the president): An American photographer named 6. Flexicolor Stabilizer
Matthew Brady was the first to photograph an American president. He 7. Dry
took a picture of Abraham Lincoln visiting New York.
1873: Celluloid film invented by John Wesley Hyatt
1877 - Pictures in motion: Eadweard Muybridge developed a shutter for his TOBACCO INDUSTRY
camera. This allowed him to photograph images in motion.
1887: Kodak is trademarked George Eastman had been in the camera business Tobacco
1895: German named Wilhelm Roentgen invented X - ray  a native plant from America and is one of the most widely used
1907: The first color camera. Up until this point, photographs were in black addictive substances in the world
and white. Auguste and Louis Lumiere introduced the Autochrome, the  Specifically, it refers to any of various plants of the genus Nicotiana
first color camera available to the public.  N. tabacum is the chief commercial crop while N. rustica is the
1925 - New developments (1925-1963: Over the next forty years the camera more potent species and is widely used around the world.
evolved at a fast pace. Photocopying became possible, the zoom lens
was developed, the Polaroid was released, and the point-and-shoot 1854 - Philip Morris begins making his own cigarettes.
camera was put out by Kodak. 1881 - First practical cigarette-making machine is patented by James Bonsack,
producing 100,000 cigarettes a day, replacing the labor of 50 people.
Application of Photography
1. Photomechanical reproduction of illustrations Tobacco Products
2. Microfilming  BIDI
• Small, thin hand-rolled cigarettes
Photographic Materials • Originated from India
1. Films and plates - a flat sheet of metal or glass on which a • Derived from the Marwari word beeda - a leaf wrapped
photographic image can be recorded in betel nuts, herbs, and condiments
2. Film support • Delivers higher concentration of nicotine, tar and
a. Cellulose acetate carbon dioxide.
b. polyester  CIGAR
c. glass • Mostly made up of a single type of air-cured or dried
3. Silver halide crystals - one of the compounds formed between tobacco
silver and one of the halogens — silver bromide (AgBr), chloride • larger than cigarettes and do not have a filter
(AgCl), iodide (AgI), and three forms of silver fluorides. • Quality cigars are handmade.
4. Antifogging agents • Composed of wrapper, binder and filler
a. Hydrogels  CIGARETTE
 • A combination of cured and finely cut tobacco,
reconstituted tobacco and other additives rolled or
stuffed into a paper wrapped cylinder.
 DISSOLVABLE TOBACCO
• is finely processed to dissolve on the tongue or in the
mouth
• Varieties include strips, sticks, orbs and compressed
tobacco lozenges
 HOOKAH
• A pipe used to smoke Shisha
• Tobacco or Shisha is heated in the hookah usually using
charcoal.
• It consists of a head, body water bowl and hose.
 KRETEKS
• Originated from Indonesia
• Sometimes referred to as clove cigarettes
• typically contain a mixture consisting of tobacco, cloves,
and other additives
• One kretek can contain more than 30 types of tobacco.
 PIPES
• Tobacco is placed into the bowl and lit
• Often reusable and consist of a chamber or bowl, stem
and mouthpiece
• Pipe smoking can cause "hairy tongue"
 SMOKELESS TOBACCO
• The two main types are: chewing tobacco and snuff
• Chewing tobacco comes in the form of loose leaf, plug,
or twist
• Snuff is finely ground tobacco that can be dry, moist, or
in sachets
 Flavor Making
• Cigarette manufacturers blend the flavors they use for
different brands of cigarettes.
• Flavorings are made in batch processes
• various ingredients for the different flavors are mixed in
tanks and pumped to the flavor cylinders that are used
in primary processing.
Electronic Cigarette
 Not a tobacco product but a nicotine delivery system
 Turns the nicotine and other chemicals into a vapor
 The first known person to have the idea for an electronic smoking
device was Herbert A. Gilbert in 1963, but an idea was simply not
enough at that time.
 In 2003, Han Lik, set forth to develop electronic cigarettes after his
father died of lung cancer.
Nicotine
 An addictive drug that’s readily absorbed into the bloodstream
when a tobacco product is chewed, inhaled, or smoked
 Upon entering the bloodstream, it immediately stimulates the
adrenal glands to release the hormone epinephrine which
stimulates the central nervous system and increases blood
pressure, respiration, and heart rate.
 Glucose is released into the blood while nicotine suppresses insulin
output from the pancreas, which means that smokers have
chronically elevated blood sugar levels.
 Nicotine increases levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which
affects the brain pathways that control reward and pleasure

Manufacturing Process CEMENT

 CULTIVATED and HARVESTED - a powdery substance that sets and hardens and can bind other
 CURING materials together.
• Air cured
• Fire cured 1842: Joseph Aspdin took out a patent for "Portland Cement," a material he
• Flue cured produced by firing finely-ground clay and limestone until the limestone
• Sun-cured was calcined.
 Primary Process 1845: Isaac Johnson made the first modern Portland Cement by firing a
mixture of chalk and clay at much higher temperatures (1400C-1500C),
similar to those used today.

Kinds of Cement
1. Non-hydraulic Cement
• It will not set in wet conditions or underwater, it sets as
the cement dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the
air.
2. Hydraulic Cement
• It is made by replacing some of the cement in a mix with
activated aluminium silicates, pozzolanas, such as fly
 Cigarette Manufacturing Process ash. This allows setting in wet condition or underwater
and further protects the hardened material from
chemical attack
Types of cement
1. Portland cement - fine powder produced by heating materials in a
kiln to form what is called clinker
2. Rapid Hardening Cement- increased Lime content
3. Quick setting cement – small percentage of aluminium sulphate as
an accelerator and reducing percentage of Gypsum with fine
grinding.
4. Low Heat Cement - manufactured by reducing tri-calcium
aluminate. It is used in massive concrete construction like gravity
dams
 5. Sulphates resisting Cement - it is prepared by maintaining the
percentage of tricalcium aluminate below 6% which increases
power against sulphates.
6. Blast Furnace Slag Cement - obtained by grinding the clinkers with
about 60% slag and resembles more or less in properties of
Portland cement.
7. High Alumina Cement - obtained by melting mixture of bauxite and
lime
8. White Cement - prepared from raw materials free from Iron oxide.
9. Coloured cement - produced by mixing mineral pigments with
ordinary cement.
10. Pozzolanic Cement - prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker with
Portland cement.
11. Air Entraining Cement - produced by adding indigenous air
entraining agents
12. Hydrographic cement - prepared by mixing water repelling
chemicals. This cement has high workability and strength.
Manufacturing Process
1. Quarrying and Digging
2. Grinding
3. Blending
4. Fine Grinding (Wet and Dry Process)
5. Burning
6. Finish Grinding
7. Packaging/Shipping
AGROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
Agrochemical – a generic term for the various chemical products used in
agriculture. In most cases, agrochemical refers to the broad range of
pesticides, including insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. It may also include
synthetic fertilizers, hormones and other chemical growth agents, and
concentrated stores of raw animal manure
Pesticide – any substance used to kill, repel, or control certain forms of plant
or animal life that are considered to be pests. Pesticides can be categorized
into several groups: fungicide, herbicide, and insecticide. Pesticides include
herbicides for destroying weeds and other unwanted vegetation, insecticides
for controlling a wide variety of insects, fungicides are used to prevent the
growth of molds and mildew, disinfectants for preventing the spread of
bacteria, and compounds used to control mice and rats.
1950: Paul Müller discovered that dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane or DDT
was a very effective insecticide.
1960: it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from
reproducing, which was a serious threat to biodiversity. Rachel Carson
wrote the best-selling book Silent Spring about biological magnification.
Insecticides – chemicals used to control insects by killing them or preventing
them from engaging in behaviors deemed undesirable or destructive. They are
classified based on their structure and mode of action. Many insecticides act
upon the nervous system of the insect while others act as growth regulators
or endotoxins. The most commonly used insecticides are the
organophosphates, pyrethroids and carbamates.
How does Baygon kill insects but doesn't harm humans?
The active ingredient of Baygon is pyrethrin. It is a structural analog of
pyrethrum, an insecticide extracted from chrysanthemum. They act very
quickly and intensively on insects' nervous systems- opens the sodium ion
channels, and induce strong reactions ranging from temporary paralysis up to
death. Warm-blooded animals such as humans and other mammals react in a
completely different way. They absorb pyrethrins at very low rates and
degrade them within a short time. For this reason, the toxic action on warm-
blooded creatures is 1,000 to 10,000 times lower than on insects.
Herbicide – a pesticide used to kill unwanted plants. Selective herbicides kill
certain targets while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed. Some of
these act by interfering with the growth of the weed and are often based on
plant hormones. The most commonly used herbicides are triazine and other
nitrogen-based compounds, carboxylic acids such as 2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, and glyphosate.
How does Roundup kill weeds but doesn't harm humans?
The active ingredient of Roundup is glyphosate. It inhibits a specific enzyme
that plants need in order to grow. The specific enzyme is called EPSPs (5-
enolpyruvylshikimate- 3-phosphate synthase). Without that enzyme, weeds
are unable to produce other proteins essential to growth, and die over the
course of several days or weeks. People do not have the same enzymes in their
cells that plants do, just like human cells and bacteria differ enough that
antibiotics kill bacteria cells but not human cells.
Fungicides – pesticides that kill or prevent the growth of fungi and their spores.
Fungicides work in a variety of ways, but most of them damage fungal cell
membranes or interfere with energy production within fungal cells. A very
common active ingredient is sulfur, present at 0.08% in weaker concentrates,
and as high as 0.5% for more potent fungicides.
How does sulfur works as a fungicide?
Sulfur forms a protective barrier on the plant surface. This barrier kills fungi by
interfering with cellular respiration, inhibiting the electron movement within
the fungi and preventing it from accumulating the materials and energy it
needs to survive and thrive. This protective barrier also acts as a stomach toxin
for the control of mites.
Manufacturing Process of Pesticide
EXPLOSIVES AND PYROTECHNICS
Explosives
• Explosives are chemical compounds or mixtures that rapidly
produce a large volume of hot gases when properly initiated.
• This kind of compounds are capable of handling high pressures, can
generate loud noise, produces mechanical, chemical, and nuclear
explosions and explodes at the rate of kilometres per second.
• Explosives provide the energy required to give us access to vast
resources of the earth for the advancement of civilization (Kent,
2007).
History
• The first explosive material, Black Powder also known as
gunpowder, is a mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulphur
by Chinese alchemists.
• In 1627, Berthol Schwarts introduced black powder for blasting
which is used for mining, road building, and recovering ore.
• In 1846, Ascanio Sobrero, discovered a powerful liquid explosive
known as Liquid nitro glycerine which was later studied and
manufactured by Immanuel Nobel, a Swedish inventor.
 • In 1863, Trinitroleune 4 (TNT, 4) was discovered by Wilbrand.
Trinitroleune 4 was prepared in pured dorm and the structure are
specified.
• In 1864, Alfred Nobel, discovered mercury fulminate (a
chemical complex which replaced black powder in the initiation of
nitrogylcerine in boreholes.
• In 1875, Alfred Nobel discovered that explosive gel formed by
mixing nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. Then, the gel was
converted into gelatine dynamite and ballistile or smokeless
powder.
• The explosive properties of dynamite were improved by the
Swedish chemists Ohlsson and Norrbin by adding ammonium
nitrate (NH4NO3).
• In 1885, Turpin discovered picric acid or trinitrophenol, 2. Tetryl, 3,
was also discovered at the same time as picric acid.
• In 1899, RDX (cyclotrimethylene trinitramine (C3H6N6O6)) was
prepared by the German scientist Henning.
• 1894. PETN 6 (pentaerythritol tetranitrate (C5H8N4O4).
• Polymer bonded explosives (PBXs) was developed to reduce the
sensitivity of the explosive crystals by embedding them in a rubber-
like polymer such as:
HMX — Cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine (Octogen)
HNS – Hexanitrostilbene
TATB - 1,3,5- triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene
Characteristic of Explosives
• It is a chemical compound or mixture ignited by heat, shock,
impact, friction, or a combination of these conditions
• Upon ignition, it decomposes rapidly in a detonation
• There is a rapid release of heat and large quantities of high-
pressure gases that expand rapidly with sufficient force to
overcome confining forces
• The energy released by the detonation of explosives produces four
basic effects: rock fragmentation, rock displacement, ground
vibration and air blast
Properties of Explosive
1. Density
2. Detonation and borehole pressure
3. Water Resistance
4. Fume Class
5. Shelf Life
6. Permissible or Permitted Explosives
How Explosive Works
The detonation of the explosives charge causes a high-velocity shock wave and
a tremendous release of gas. The shock wave cracks and crushes the rock near
the explosives and creates thousands of cracks in the rock. The cracks are then
filled with the expanding gases. The gases continue to fill and expand the
cracks until the gas pressure is too weak to expand the cracks any further, or
are vented from the rock.
Classification of Explosive
1. Low explosives
• Deflagrate rather than detonate
• Reaction velocities are 2000 to 3000 feet per second
and produce pressure of 50000 psi.
• Black powder is an example.
2. High explosives
• Decompose very rapidly to produce a huge volume of
gases, extremely high quantity of heat, rapidly
travelling shock waves in atmospheric gases as well as
the ground rock mass, light, deafening noise and
hazardous fly rock.
• Reaction velocities are over 5000 feet per second and
produce pressure of 5 million psi.
High explosives are further classified according to sensitivity level or ease of
initiation.
2.1 Primary or initiating explosives
Primary explosives are characterized by low detonation rates,
powders with a good flow transfer and have pressing
characteristics, dense and inorganic compounds, requires less
energy. Most sensitive to heat, friction, impact and shock.
Examples are Mercury fulminate or mercuric cyanate (Hg(CNO)2,
Lead azide Pb(N3)2, Silver azide. AgN3 (12), Lead styphnate.
2.2 Secondary or base explosives
Secondary explosives are usually more difficult to detonate and it
includes all the major military and industrial explosives.
Characteristic of Secondary explosives:
• Do not easily go from burning to detonation.
• Electrostatic ignition is difficult with secondary explosives.
• Secondary ignition requires large shocks.
Examples of Secondary explosives
• Nitrocellulose, 16
• Picric acid, 2 (2,4,6-trinitrophenol)
• TNT (trinitrotoluene, 4)
• PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, 6)
• RDX (cyclonite or cyclotrimethylene trinitramine, 5)
• Dynamite
o Straight Dynamite
o Ammonia Dynamite
o Gelatin Dynamite
o Semi-gelation Dynamite
2.3 Tertiary explosives or blasting agents
Tertiary explosives are the type of explosive that only burn and do
not explode but can be initiated by flame or spark and can change
from a solid to gaseous state. Examples are Mononitrotoleune,
Ammonium perchlorate, and Ammonium nitrate.
Ingredients of Explosives
1. Explosive bases - solid or a liquid which, upon application or heat
or shock, breaks down very rapidly into gaseous products, with an
accompanying release of heat energy. Ex: ammonium nitrate,
nitrocellulose, lead styphnate, nitroglycerin,
2. Combustibles - combines with excess oxygen in an explosive to
achieve oxygen balance, to prevent the formation of nitrous oxides
(toxic fumes), and to lower the heat of the explosion.
3. Antifreeze - used to lower the freezing point of the explosive. Ex:
Ethylene Glycol Dinitrate, Tetranitro Nitrate
4. Antacids - increase its long term storage life, and to reduce the
acidic value of the explosive base, particularly nitroglycerin (NG).
5. Absorbents - used in dynamite to hold the explosive base from
exudation, seepage, and settlement to the bottom of the cartridge
or container.
6. Oxygen carriers - Assure complete oxidation of the carbon in the
explosive mixture, which inhibits the formation of carbon
monoxide. Examples are potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate, nitric
acid, manganese dioxide, and liquid oxygen
Initiating Devices
1. Electric Blasting Cap
2. Electric Detonator
3. Exploding Bridgewire Detonators
4. Nodel Cords and Primadet
Manufacturing of Explosives (TNT explosives)
1. Raw Materials Feeding
Toluene, acids and sulphite solution are fed by means of the
metering pumps.
2. Nitration
The nitration of toluene to trinitrotoluene is carried out in the line
of eight reactors. The process runs in counter-flow of the first two
reactors the toluene is gradually nitrated, thus from the eights one
comes out acid crude TNT.
3. Purification
Crude acid TNT is purified in the line of five washers in counter Pyrotechnic Composition
current flow with the water, sulphite solution respectively. Stars – pellets of composition and when ignited, it produces a light or certain
4. Drying spark effect.
Purified TNT in emulsion with water is transferred to another 1. Oxidizing Agent
building where it is separated from water by means of the 2. Fuel
centrifugal separator in the washer. 3. Binders (Dextrine, nitrocellulose polyvinyl alcohol and Laminae)
5. Flaking 4. Retardants
The dried TNT flows from the drying unit to the drum crystallizer 5. Color Producing Chemicals
where the flakes are formed. ex: Red – Stronium salts and lithium salts
6. Packing Green – Barium
Yellow – Sodium
Pyrotechnics Blue - Copper
• Pyrotechnic industry is the manufacture of pyrotechnic articles
(firework) for entertainment, for technical and military use in Manufacturing Process in Pyrotechnics
signalling and illumination. 1. Preparation of Individual Components
• Pyrotechnics has lower reaction rate and less gas production. 2. Preparation of compositions
Pyrotechnics usually consist of a mixture of two ingredients: a fuel 3. Mixing
and an oxidizer. 4. Granulation
• The burning rates of pyrotechnics are affected by porosity, particle 5. Pressing/Loading
sizes, purity, homogeneity (degree of mixing), and stoichiometry 6. Testing
(fuel or oxidizer ratio).

Four major production categories

1. Sound Production
This pyrotechnic production is used in fireworks industry and
military simulators. Two types of sound produced are (1) short
duration like a grenade (2) long duration like shrill whistle.
2. Heat production
It is used for ignition mixtures, thermites, sparks, incendiaries, and
heat pellets for activated batteries.
3. Color and Light production
Primary purpose of many pyrotechnic production. Light producing
pyrotechnics can be made from flash powders and flares. Used in
military signals, and spectacular aerial fireworks.
4. Smoke production
Used in daytime signalling, troop and equipment obscuration,
amusement, and entertainment purposes. Smoke are made from
the condensation of vaporized material and the dispersion of solid
or liquid particles.

Firework Design