‫ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﮐﺎﺫﺏ‪:‬ﺭﻭﻳﮑﺮﺩ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﻲ‬

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‫ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﮐﺎﺫﺏ‪:‬ﺭﻭﻳﮑﺮﺩ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﻲ‬

‫ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ )‪ (Demarcation‬ﺩﺭ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﻪ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﻪ ﻭ ﮐﻲ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺧﻄﻲ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﻋﻠﻢ‬

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‫ﺗﺮﺳﻴﻢ ﮐﻨﻴﻢ‪.‬ﻣﺮﺯﻫﺎﻳﻲ ﮐﻪ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻً ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮﻋﻠﻢ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭﻋﻠﻢ ﮐﺎﺫﺏ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭﺩﻳﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ ﮐﺪﺍﻣﻨﺪ؟‬
‫ﻳﮏ ﺷﮑﻞ ﮐﻠﻲ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻳﮏ ﻗﺮﻥ ﮔﻔﺘﮕﻮﻱ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ‪،‬‬
‫ﺳﺌﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﻳﻨﮑﻪ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻋﻠﻢ ﮐﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﺎً ﺣﻞ ﻧﺸﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﻟﻴﮑﻦ ﺗﻮﺍﻓﻖ ﮐﻠﻲ ﺭﻭﻱ ﺑﺮﺧﻲ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬

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‫● ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭ ﺩﻳﻦ‪ :‬ﺩﻭ ﺟﺪﺍ ﺍﻓﺘﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ﺟﺪﻳﺪﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻣﺸﮑﻞ ﺑﻪ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﺮﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﮐﻪ ﻣﺬﻫﺐ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺗﺎ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ‬
‫ﺯﻳﺎﺩﻱ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﻼﻝ ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ‪ ۴۷۸۱‬ﻣﻮﺭﺥ ﺑﺰﺭﮒ ﻋﻠﻢ‪ ،‬ﺟﺎﻥ ﻭﻳﻠﻴﺎﻡ ﺩﺭﺍﭘﺮ ‪ " ) Draper William (John‬ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭﺩﻳﻦ" ﺭﺍ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﮐﺮﺩ ﮐﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻫﻤﻪ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﭽﻪ ﺷﮑﻞ ﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﺗﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﺑﺎ ﺩﻳﻦ ﺗﺼﻮﻳﺮ ﮐﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺗﺼﻮﻳﺮ ﻧﺎﻭﺍﻗﻌﻲ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ ﺑﺪﺳﺖ ﮐﺴﺎﻧﻲ ﻧﻈﻴﺮ ﺍﻧﺪﺭﻭ ﺩﻳﮑﺴﻮﻥ ‪ Dickson) (Androw‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺍﺵ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
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‫"ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﭽﻪ ﺍﻱ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻨﮓ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭ ﺧﺪﺍﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺴﻴﺤﻴﺖ" ﺑﺴﻂ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺩﺍﺭﭘﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﺎﻣﻴﺎﻧﻪ ﺍﻱ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﺍﻓﺴﺎﻧﻪ ﺁﻣﻴﺨﺘﻪ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻲ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺩﻳﻦ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﭘﻴﭽﻴﺪﻩ ﺗﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭﻱ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ ﺑﺸﺪﺕ‬
‫ﻣﺬﻫﺒﻲ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻭ ﻣﺬﻫﺐ ﺍﻏﻠﺐ ﻣﺤﺮﮎ ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ﻭ ﻣﺴﺌﻮﻭﻝ ﺣﺮﮐﺖ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻟﻴﮑﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻭﺍﺧﺮ ﻗﺮﻥ‬
‫ﻧﻮﺯﺩﻩ ﻋﺎﻣﻪ ﺑﺘﺪﺭﻳﺞ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭﺩﻳﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﺪﻧﺪ ﮐﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻀﻴﻪ ﺑﺎ ﮐﺎﺭﻫﺎﻱ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺰ ﺩﺍﺭﻭﻳﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺯﻣﻴﻨﻪ ﺗﮑﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﻭﺝ ﺭﺳﻴﺪ‪ .‬ﭘﻴﺶ ﺯﻣﻴﻨﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺎﺗﻲ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺪﺍﻳﻲ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ " ﻣﻨﺸﺎﺀ ﮔﻮﻧﻪ ﻫﺎ" ﻱ ﺩﺍﺭﻭﻳﻦ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ‬
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‫ﺩﺍﺷﺖ‪ ،‬ﻟﻴﮑﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺑﻮﺩ ﮐﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺭﻭﺯﻧﺎﻣﻪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ ﺷﮏ ﺭﺍ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﮐﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺑﻬﺎﻧﻪ ﻫﺎﻳﻲ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺗﻨﺶ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻱ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻳﻦ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺷﺪ‪( .‬ﺣﺎﻟﺘﻲ ﮐﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﺎً ﻫﻨﻮﺯ ﻫﻢ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ)‪.‬‬
‫● ﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻴﻮﻳﺴﻢ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ‪positivism) (Logical‬‬
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‫ﻓﻬﻢ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻠﻢ ﮐﻪ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﭼﻴﺰﻱ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺌﻮﺍﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ﮐﻪ ﭼﻪ ﭼﻴﺰﻱ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺩﻭ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻤﺎﻳﺰ ﻣﻲ ﺩﻫﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﺯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻦ ﮐﺴﺎﻧﻲ ﮐﻪ ﭘﺎﺳﺦ ﺩﺍﺩﻧﺪ ﺍﻋﻀﺎﻱ ﺣﻠﻘﻪ ﻭﻳﻦ ‪ circle) (Vienna‬ﺑﻮﺩﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺟﺎﻳﮕﺎﻩ‬
‫ﻓﻠﺴﻔﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﮐﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻮﻳﺴﻢ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﻳﮏ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺘﻲ ﺭﺍﺑﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻲ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﮐﻪ‬
‫ﺻﺮﻓﺎً ﺟﻤﻼﺗﻲ ﮐﻪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻲ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺟﻤﻼﺗﻲ ﮐﻪ ﺑﺪﻳﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻴﺎﻣﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪ(ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺟﻤﻼﺕ ﻣﺘﺎ ﻓﻴﺰﻳﮑﻲ) ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺘﺎً ﺑﻲ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ‪(.‬ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ )‪Verification‬‬
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‫ﮐﺎﺭﻝ ﭘﻮﭘﺮ ‪ Popper) (Karl‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﮐﺮﺩ ﮐﻪ ﻓﻴﻠﺴﻮﻑ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺣﻠﻘﻪ ﻭﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺧﻠﻂ ﮐﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻭ‬
‫ﻳﮏ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ :‬ﻣﻌﻨﺎﮔﺮﺍﻳﻲ )‪ (verificationism‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻳﺪﮔﺎﻩ‪ ،‬ﭘﻮﭘﺮ ﺗﺎﮐﻴﺪ ﮐﺮﺩ ﮐﻪ ﻳﮏ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭﻟﻲ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﻧﺒﺎﺷﺪ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻌﻨﻲ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﺮﺯﺑﻨﺪﻱ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻳﮑﻲ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ‪.‬‬
‫● ﺍﺑﻄﺎﻝ ﮔﺮﺍﻳﻲ )‪(Falsificationism‬‬
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‫ﭘﻮﭘﺮ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺣﺪ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﻣﺮﮐﺰﻱ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﻪ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻣﻲ ﺩﺍﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﺠﺎﻱ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺍﻭ ﺍﺑﻄﺎﻝ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﻱ(‬
‫)‪ Falsificationism‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻌﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺗﻤﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﻳﮏ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﻣﻄﺮﺡ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﮔﺮ‬
‫ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﺍﺑﻄﺎﻝ ﭘﺬﻳﺮ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﺍﮔﺮ ﻧﺒﺎﺷﺪ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻭ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺧﻂ ﻭﺍﺿﺤﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺑﮑﺸﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭﻱ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺻﻞ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ‬
‫ﮐﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﺗﺎ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺑﺮﺧﻲ ﺭﺷﺘﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺳﺌﻮﺍﻝ ﺑﺒﺮﻧﺪ(ﺗﮑﺎﻣﻞ ﻭ ﮐﻴﻬﺎﻥ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ) ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ ﭘﻮﭘﺮ ﺍﻗﺒﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﻱ ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﮐﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻘﺪﻫﺎﻱ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﻱ ﮐﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻥ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﺷﺪ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻴﺖ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻟﻴﮑﻦ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻄﻮﺭ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺟﻤﻼﺕ ﺍﺑﻄﺎﻝ ﭘﺬﻳﺮ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﻧﻘﺶ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﭘﻮﭘﺮﻱ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺧﻴﻠﻲ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻣﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﺍﺭﺯﺷﻤﻨﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺬﻑ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﺭﻭﺷﻲ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺗﺸﺨﻴﺺ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﺯ ﺑﻲ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺩﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
‫● ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﻭ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﭘﺎﺭﺍﺩﺍﻳﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻮﻣﺎﺱ ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ‪ Kuhun) (Thomas‬ﻳﮏ ﻣﻮﺭﺥ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺁﻣﺮﻳﮑﺎﻳﻲ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﮔﺬﺍﺭ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﻪ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺍﻭ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﺎﺁﻧﭽﻪ ﭘﺴﺎ ﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻴﻮﻳﺴﻢ ‪ ) positivism (Post‬ﻳﺎ ﭘﺴﺎ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻳﻲ ‪ ) (Postempirisism‬ﻧﺎﻣﻴﺪﻩ ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺷﻮﺩ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻣﻲ ﺩﺍﻧﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﮐﺘﺎﺑﺶ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ " ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎﺭ ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺑﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ " ﮐﻪ ﺩﺭ ‪ ۲۶۹۱‬ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺮﺁﻳﻨﺪ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺩﺳﺘﻪ ﺗﻼﺷﻬﺎ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﮐﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻧﺮﻣﺎﻝ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺧﺎﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ )‪ (Extraordinary‬ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﻧﺎﻣﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
 ‫ﻓﺮﺁﻳﻨﺪ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻧﺮﻣﺎﻝ ﺁﻥ ﭼﻴﺰﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺭﻭﻥ ﻳﮏ ﭘﺎﺭﺍﺩﺍﻳﻢ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻣﻲ ﺩﻫﻨﺪ ﻭ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻗﺎﻟﺐ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺑﻄﺎﻝ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﻱ ﮐﺎﺭﻝ ﭘﻮﭘﺮﻭ ﺍﻳﺪﻩ ﺭﻭﺵ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﮐﺎﺭ ﺭﺍ ﮐﻮﻫﻦ "ﺣﻞ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ"‬
‫ﻣﻲ ﻧﺎﻣﺪ‪ :‬ﮐﺎﺭ ﮐﺮﺩﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﺯﻫﺎﻱ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻭ ﻧﻈﺮﮔﺎﻫﻬﺎﻱ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺍﻳﻨﮑﻪ ﭼﻪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﻭ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺸﺎﺗﻲ ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻣﺆﺛﺮ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻳﺎ ﻧﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﻟﻴﮑﻦ ﻃﻲ ﻓﺮﺁﻳﻨﺪ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻧﺮﻣﺎﻝ ‪ ،‬ﻃﺒﻖ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﻧﺎﻫﻨﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻧﺎﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺘﻲ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﮐﺎﻓﻲ ﻧﺎﻫﻨﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﻫﺎ ﺟﻤﻊ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ﻭ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ ﻳﮏ ﺣﻴﻄﻪ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﭼﺸﻤﮕﻴﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻴﺎﺑﻨﺪ (ﺍﻏﻠﺐ ﺑﺎ ﻳﮏ ﻗﻀﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻧﺘﺰﺍﻋﻲ) "ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﺑﺤﺮﺍﻥ" ﺑﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻲ ﺁﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺑﺮﺧﻲ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ ﺷﺮﻭﻉ ﺑﻪ ﺷﺮﮐﺖ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺧﺎﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ‪.‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﭘﺎﺭﺍﺩﺍﻳﻢ ﻗﺪﻳﻢ ﻣﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻃﻲ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ "ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ‬
‫ﭘﺎﺭﺍﺩﺍﻳﻢ"‪ ،‬ﭘﺎﺭﺍﺩﺍﻳﻢ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺑﻌﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﻧﺮﻡ ﻣﻲ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﮐﺎﺭﻫﺎﻱ ﻗﺒﻠﻲ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ ﻭ ﭘﺎﺭﺍﺩﺍﻳﻢ ﻗﺒﻠﻲ ﺑﻪ ﮐﺘﺎﺑﻬﺎﻱ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻣﻲ ﭘﻴﻮﻧﺪﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﮐﻼﺳﻴﮏ ﺁﻥ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﭘﺎﺭﺍﺩﺍﻳﻢ ﻓﻴﺰﻳﮏ ﻣﺎﮐﺴﻮﻟﻲ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﻮﻧﻲ ﺑﻪ ﻓﻴﺰﻳﮏ ﺍﻧﻴﺸﺘﻦ ﮐﻮﺍﻧﺘﻮﻣﻲ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻭﺍﺋﻞ ﻗﺮﻥ ‪ ۰۲‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﺷﮑﺴﺖ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺻﺮﻓﺎً ﺑﺮﭘﺎﻳﻪ ﺍﺑﻄﺎﻝ ﮐﺮﺩﻥ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﻫﻴﭻ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﺣﺘﻲ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﺍﻱ ﮐﻪ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺑﺪﻫﺪ ﺩﻭﺍﻡ ﻧﺨﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﻫﻤﻪ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻳﻬﺎ ﻧﺎﻫﻨﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪zi‬‬
‫ﻓﺮﺍﻳﻨﺪﻱ ﮐﻪ ﻃﺒﻖ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﻃﻲ ﺁﻥ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﻳﮏ ﭘﺎﺭﺍﺩﺍﻳﻢ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻲ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﺩ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺣﺪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﮐﺎﺫﺏ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﻣﺪﻝ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﺑﻄﺎﻝ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﻱ ﭘﻮﭘﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺭﺩ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﭘﺬﻳﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻥ ﻳﮏ ﭘﺎﺭﺍﺩﺍﻳﻢ ﺑﺪﻟﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺎﻳﻲ ﺑﺮﺗﺮ ﺣﻞ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻧﺮﻣﺎﻝ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻠﻢ ﮐﺎﺫﺏ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻧﺎﺗﻮﺍﻧﻲ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻦ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺩﺭ ﻳﮏ ﭘﺎﺭﺍﺩﺍﻳﻢ ﺍﻳﻨﭽﻨﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﮐﺮﺩ‪.‬‬

‫‪ka‬‬
‫● ﻻﮐﺎﺗﻮﺵ(‪ )sotakaL‬ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﻭ ﭘﻮﭘﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻤﺮ ﻻﮐﺎﺗﻮﺵ ‪ Lakatos) (Imre‬ﻳﮑﻲ ﺍﺯ ﻓﻼﺳﻔﻪ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻣﻬﻢ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻭ ﻫﻤﺮﺍﻫﻲ ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﭘﻮﭘﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻲ ﺁﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﻧﻈﺮﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺍﻓﻖ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻻﮐﺎﺗﻮﺵ ﻭ ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻄﻮﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﮐﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫▪ ﻋﻴﻨﻲ ﻭ ﺫﻫﻨﻲ‪ :‬ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺫﻫﻨﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺭﺳﺪ ‪ .‬ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﻣﺒﺘﻨﻲ ﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ‬
‫‪ar‬‬ ‫ﭼﻪ ﺑﮑﻨﻨﺪ ﻭ ﭼﻪ ﺑﺎﻭﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ (ﺭﻭﺍﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ)‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻋﻮﺽ ﻻﮐﺎﺗﻮﺵ ﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺑﺎﻭﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﻳﮏ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺣﺘﻲ ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﻘﺒﻮﻟﻴﺖ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭ ﻇﺎﻫﺮ ﺩﺭﺳﺘﻲ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬ﺑﺎﻭﺭ ﺻﺎﻑ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺯﻣﻴﻦ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﮑﺲ ﻣﻤﮑﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺭﺯﺵ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻲ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭ ﮐﺴﻲ ﺑﺎﻭﺭﺵ ﻧﮑﻨﺪ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﮐﻮﭘﺮﻧﻴﮏ ﻭ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ ﺗﮑﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﺍﺭﻭﻳﻦ‪.‬‬
‫‪M‬‬
‫▪ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﻳﺎ ﻣﻨﻄﻖ‪ :‬ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺗﻮﺍﻓﻖ ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﻭ ﻻﮐﺎﺗﻮﺵ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﺁﻳﺎ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺩﺭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﻳﺎ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﮐﺎﺫﺏ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺟﻤﻼﺕ ﺑﺤﺚ ﮐﻨﺪ ﻳﺎ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﺤﺚ ﮐﻨﺪ ﮐﻪ ﮐﺪﺍﻡ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ﻳﺎ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ؟‬
‫ﻻﮐﺎﺗﻮﺵ ﻳﮏ ﻧﺌﻮﭘﻮﭘﺮﻱ ﺑﻮﺩ ﮐﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺑﺴﺘﺮﻱ ﺭﺷﺪ ﮐﺮﺩ ﮐﻪ ﮐﻪ ﻣﻨﻄﻖ ﺍﺑﺰﺍﺭ ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﻪ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻭﻟﻲ ﮐﻮﻫﻦ‬
‫‪ze‬‬

‫ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻋﻼﻗﻤﻨﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ‪.‬‬

‫▪ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻭ ﺩﻳﻦ‪ :‬ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺩﻳﻦ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﻭﻟﻲ ﻻﮐﺎﺗﻮﺵ ﻗﺎﺋﻞ ﺑﻪ ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﻗﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ‪ .‬ﮐﻮﻫﻦ ﻭ‬
‫ﻻﮐﺎﺗﻮﺵ ﻫﺮ ﺩﻭ ﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪﻧﺪ ﮐﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺩﺍﻧﺶ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﻋﻠﻢ ﮐﺎﺫﺏ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺷﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﻣﺮﺯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﮐﺎﺫﺏ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺘﺪ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﻭ ﻧﻪ ﺻﺮﻓﺎً ﺁﻧﭽﻪ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻲ ﮔﻮﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺑﺎﺏ ﻧﻈﺮ ﭘﻮﭘﺮ‪ ،‬ﻻﮐﺎﺗﻮﺵ ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﮐﻪ ﺍﺑﻄﺎﻝ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﻱ ﺑﻪ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺑﺮﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻭ‬
‫‪ia‬‬

‫ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﺑﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﮐﻪ ﭘﻮﭘﺮ ﺑﺪﻧﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ ﻳﮏ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺶ ﻳﺎ ﻳﮏ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﺧﺎﺹ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ ﮐﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺍﺑﻄﺎﻝ ﮐﻨﺪﻭ ﻭﻗﺘﻲ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﻋﻠﻢ ﮐﺎﺫﺏ ﻣﻲ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﺪ ﮐﻪ ﻧﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﺍﺑﻄﺎﻝ ﮐﻨﻨﺪﻩ «ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻮﻩ ﺍﻱ» ﺭﺍ ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﭘﻮﭘﺮ ﺟﻤﻼﺕ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﮐﺎﺫﺏ ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺍﻕ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺩﻫﺪ ﺑﻠﮑﻪ ﺭﻭﺵ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺭﻭﺵ ﻏﻴﺮﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺍﻕ‬
‫ﻣﻲ ﺩﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪N‬‬

‫ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻨﮑﻪ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﭘﻮﭘﺮ ﺑﺮﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻤﺮﮐﺰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺑﺎﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﻏﻠﻂ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺯﻳﺮﺍﺳﺮﺳﺨﺘﻲ )‪(Tenacity‬‬
‫ﭼﺸﻤﮕﻴﺮ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺎﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪.‬ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ ﮔﺎﻩ ﻓﺮﺿﻴﻪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻧﺠﺎﺕ ﺑﺨﺶ ﺍﺑﺪﺍﻉ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ ﻭ ﮔﺎﻩ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺍﻱ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﻧﺎﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﻴﺮﻧﺪ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺸﮑﻼﺕ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﻌﻄﻮﻑ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫● ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﺍﻱ ﺣﻞ ﻧﺸﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﭘﻴﭽﻴﺪﮔﻲ ﻣﺒﺤﺚ ﺷﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﮔﻔﺖ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻓﻼﺳﻔﻪ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻫﺮ ﮐﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻨﻈﺮﻱ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺴﺌﻠﻪ ﭘﺮﺩﺍﺧﺘﻪ ﺍﻧﺪ‬
‫ﻭﻟﻲ ﻫﻴﭽﮑﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﺘﻮﺍﻧﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﻧﺪ ﺣﻖ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺩﺍ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻨﺮﻭ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻦ ﻣﺤﮑﻲ ﮐﻪ ﺑﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﺎ ﺁﻥ ﺁﻧﭽﻪ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ‬
‫ﻧﻴﺴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺗﻤﻴﺰ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻫﻨﻮﺯ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﻼﺵ ﮐﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﻭﺍﻗﻊ ﻫﻨﻮﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻼﺵ ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺎﻻﺕ ﭘﻞ ﺗﺎﮔﺎﺭﺩ ‪ Thagard) (Paul‬ﻓﻴﻠﺴﻮﻑ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺩﻻﻳﻞ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻥ ﺳﺘﺎﺭﻩ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﻭ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻳﮕﺎﻩ ﻃﺐ ﺳﻮﺯﻧﻲ ﺍﺷﺎﺭﻩ ﮐﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﮐﻼﻡ ﺷﺎﻳﺪ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﭘﺮﺳﺸﻲ ﺩﺭ ﺫﻫﻦ ﺧﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﮐﻪ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺎﻫﻲ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺏ ﺩﺭ ﺟﻬﺎﻥ ﺑﻴﻨﻲ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﻴﺎﺑﺪ ﮐﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﺖ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﮑﺘﺮ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬

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