2000 International Pipeline Conference — Volume 2
ASME 2000
A PIPELINE DENT ASSESSMENT MODEL CONSIDERING LOCALISED EFFECTS
A. DINOVITZER111, A. BHATIAP1, R. WALKER111, R. LAZOR[1]
[1] Fleet Technology Limited, Kanata, Ontario, Canada
[2] Enbridge Pipelines Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
ABSTRACT
The Canadian Pipeline Design Standard (CSA Z662)
[1] requires the repair of smooth dents with depths
exceeding 6% of the pipeline's outside diameter. This limit
on dent depth is reduced in the presence of additional
localised effects such as pipe wall gouges, corrosion or
planar flaws. Furthermore, it has been observed that pipe
wall metal loss, planar flaws and weld seam interaction with
dents can significantly reduce the service life of a dented
pipe segment. A previously developed pipeline dent
assessment model, based on the actual dent profile and in-
service pressure history applied to non-linear pipe finite
element model with a fracture mechanics crack growth
algorithm, has been used to explore the consequences of
these localised effects. The effects of corrosion (uniform or
local pitting), weld seams (including their weld toe stress
concentration effects and residual stress fields), planar flaws
(cracks) and gouges on the service life of a dent are
reviewed in this investigation. The performance of the
model is demonstrated based on its agreement with field
observations. The dent assessment model application and
validation processes has indicated that the model presented
here can be reliably used to predict the service life of dented
pipelines in the presence of various localised effects.
INTRODUCTION
Failures in transmission pipelines are most often the
result of mechanical damage, due to third party activities,
mishandling during construction, pipeline bedding material
consolidation, or ground movement. Damage usually takes
the form of a dent with an associated gouge.
Normal pressure changes associated with pipeline
operation result in recurring partial re-rounding of the
dented pipe towards its original shape, which in turn
produces cyclic bending stresses. These cyclic stresses,
accentuated by other local effects such as gouges, corrosion
or weld seams contribute to crack growth by fatigue.
A significant effort has been expended in trying to
better understand problems associated with dents and
gouges, including experimental and theoretical work to
develop guidelines for the evaluation of pipeline dents.
Fowler et. al. (1995) [2] showed that plain (in the absence of
other local effects) smooth dents with depths less than 5%
of the pipe diameter should not pose a serious hazard,
assuming the cyclic pressure is not extreme. The Canadian
pipeline design standard Z662-96, allows dents in pipes up
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IPC2000-188
to 6% of their diameter. Nonetheless, leaks have been
known to occur at dents with depths less than 3% of pipe
diameter.
Much of the experimental and theoretical work
associated with the development of dent assessment
techniques or guidelines has been based on smooth,
symmetrical dents, and/or two dimensional dents, which are
a significant idealisation of dents observed in the field. For
this reason, a dent assessment technique capable of
estimating the residual safe service life of a deformed
(dented) pipe section based on the actual dent profile and
service conditions has been developed.
This paper represents the results of several studies
undertaken by Enbridge Pipelines Inc. towards the
assessment of dents and should not necessarily be assumed
to be appropriate for other companies.
MODEL OVERVIEW
The goal in the development of this model was to
produce a practical technique capable of predicting the
service life of a dented pipe segment. To this end, a dent
assessment model (FTL 1997 and Dinovitzer et. al. 1999)
[3,4] has been developed incorporating the actual dent
profile, line pressure history, non-linear finite element
analysis, and fracture mechanics.
The automated pipeline dent assessment approach and
input data are described pictorially in Figure 1. The
application of this approach relies strictly on well-defined
parameters including:
• pipe characteristics (e.g., dimensions and mechanical
properties),
• a dent description which may consist of a 3-dimensional
dent profile from in-line inspection,
• details of pre-existing localised effects such as planar
flaws (e.g., cracks), volumetric flaws (e.g., corrosion)
and weld seams, and
• a description of the operating conditions including the
pipeline fluid pressure or load history as well as the
indentor contact condition.
Since, in some cases, all of the above information may
not be available, representative data based on field
experience, engineering judgement and modelling studies is
used as inputs to the analysis.
Copyright © 2000 by ASME
 Dent Description localised Effects

} "1 • Planar Flaws

(crack)

Volumetric Flaws
(corrosion)

Welds
W F Ttidemor Contact

Freq.

Pressure Change

Operjtinn-jl Ki-iiavjour
>;*• V- ass

Fatigue Crack Growth

- Fracture Mechanics

• C (AKf

Residual Life
^ssesment.
Figure 1: Dent Assessment Model Overview

Once this information is provided to the assessment
model, a non-linear finite element model is generated. The
surface of the pipe model is deformed to comply with the
user-provided dent profile. The deformed pipe geometry is
then subjected to a representative pressure history to
calculate the mean and cyclic stresses resulting from the
user-defined line pressure history. This stress data is used
in a linear elastic fracture mechanics technique to track the
growth of a fatigue crack through the thickness of the pipe
wall. The results provide a prediction of the residual safe
operating life of a dented pipe segment, enabling the
operator to make an informed maintenance decision.

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 FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
In the fracture mechanics approach used in the dent
assessment model, fatigue crack growth (da/dN, crack
extension per load cycle) as a function of the the change in
stress intensity factor (AK) or stress range (Ao), for a given
stress cycle is expressed as:
— = CAKm = c(A<t Y-fiaf (1)
dN
where C and m are crack growth material constants, a is the
crack length and Y is a function of the crack geometry
(Paris et. al 1961) [5],
The change in tensile stress range is used directly in the
crack growth expression. The C and m values relate to the
slope of the linear portion of the curve, while the mean
stress influences the threshold stress intensity value (AK th ).
The threshold stress intensity value defines the lowest stress
intensity value which will result in fatigue crack growth, as
shown pictorially in Figure 2.
da
dn Time achieve the weld residual stress field. The iso-thermal loads
Crack growth relationships
for increasing mean stress
AK
Figure 2: Mean Stress Effect on Crack Growth Rate
The following sections address each of the inputs to the dent
assessment model.
CONSIDERATION OF WELD EFFECTS
The dent assessment model seeks to develop a realistic
simulation of the denting process and operational behaviour
of the pipe. In recognition of the fact that the fatigue life of
a dent is sensitive to the condition of the pipe surface,
localised effects were incorporated into the dent assessment
model (FTL 1998) [6], Any discontinuity in the pipe
surface (i.e., weld, crack or corrosion pit) acts as a notch and
thus a stress concentration, accelerating the crack initiation
and growth processes. In addition to the stress
concentration effects at a weld toe, the residual stress fields
associated with a weld seam can affect the fatigue life of the
dented line pipe.
Weld Residual Stresses
Welds can reduce the fatigue life of dented linepipe
based on their inherent residual stress fields. Tensile
residual stresses can effect structural fatigue lives by:
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• increasing tensile, crack extending, stress ranges in
locations of a reversing stress state, and
• causing fluctuating stress states to occur about increased
mean stress levels which has been shown to reduce
fatigue lives.
The latter having a less pronounced effect than the former.
Weld residual stress fields are developed due to weld
shrinkage and base material restraint. In a pipeline girth
weld, for example, weld shrinkage in both the longitudinal
and transverse directions, develops self-equilibrating pipe
wall bending and shear stresses, based on deformations
similar to that shown below. The relative significance of the
longitudinal versus the transverse residual stresses will
depend on the location of the weld seam within the dent
profile.
Axial (Trans.) frr.-r^
Contraction I Contraction
Figure 3: Girth Weld Induced Pipe Deformation
The residual stress field is incorporated into the finite
element model through the application of thermal loads
(cooling) prior to the application of the dent. Inclined
temperature reductions, as shown in Figure 4, are used to
are inclined to allow higher thermal loads to be applied at
the weld cap, where the greatest shrinkage is expected.
Pipe Wall
Girth Weld
Centreline
-113°C -210°C -285°C
-75°C -158°C -255°C -300°C
Figure 4: Residual Stress Simulating Thermal Loads
The finite element model used in the dent assessment
process consists of eight noded elements, with layered shell
elements in the weld zone in order to apply the desired
thermal loads in the through-thickness direction.
An example of the weld residual stresses for a girth
weld in a 760 x 6.3 mm (30 x 0.25 in.) X52 pipe developed
using the finite element model are shown in Figures 5 and 6.
Also shown are the results of analytical calculations of the
axial and circumferential residual stress distributions in
terms of bending and axial stresses components calculated
by Leggat (1970) [7]for the same pipe geometry and
material properties. The two figures show good agreement
of the longitudinal and hoop residual stresses predicted by
the finite element and the Leggat analytical models.
 Weld Stress Concentration
Any discontinuity in the geometry of a structure
under load will cause a stress concentration. The
reinforcement of girth weld cap and root passes introduce
discontinuities into the otherwise smooth pipe surface.
Likely the largest source of uncertainty in the fatigue
assessment of welds is due to the weld toe profile, as it has a
large effect on the fatigue crack initiation life.
The stress concentrating effect of butt welds has been
related to the geometry of the weld toe by a variety of
researchers (IIW 1995) [8] as follows:
K — Kw Kte (2)
K w = 1+ 0.5121 (JU - 0)0'572 (B/p) 0469
Kte = 1 + 3 e / B

where B is the thickness, p is the weld toe radius and e the

Distance From Weld Center [mm] misalignment. The stress concentrating effect of typical
weld profiles for automated gas metal arc girth welds, as
shown in Figure 7, is calculated as being approximately 3.5.
Figure 5: Analytical and FE Axial (Long.) Residual
Similar stress concentration effects are observed with
Stresses
manual shielded metal arc welds.
This stress concentration factor (K) is applied directly
FEA Inner Hoop
to the cyclic stress to increase the applied stress as follows:
"B" Analytic Inner Hoop
— F E A Outer Hoop ACT = ( c w - cjmin) K [<Tmin > 0] (3)
— A n a l y t i c Outer Hoop Aa = ( < w -0) K [a min < 0]

-200

Distance From Weld Center [mm]

Figure 6: Analytical and FE Hoop Residual Stresses

Wall Thickness (B) 16 mm 12 mm 10 mm

Toe Angle (0) 149 deg. (2.601 rad) 145 deg. (2.531 rad) 140 deg. (2.443 rad)
Toe Radius (p) 0.5 mm 0.5 mm 0.5 mm
Misalignment (e) 1.6 mm 1.2 mm I mm
Weld Toe SCF (Kw) 2.83 2.71 2.70
Alignment SCF (Kw) 1.3 1.3 1.3
Stress Cone. (K) 3.6S 3.52 3.51
Figure 7: Typical GMAW Weld Profiles and Associated Stress Concentration Factors

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 Effect of Welds on Dent Fatigue Life
Several cases using the dent geometry shown in Figure
8 were examined to demonstrate the dent assessment
model's treatment of the effects of welds on dent fatigue
life. Since the dent assessment model only considers crack
growth, an initial flaw must be defined. In these examples,
a 0.5mm deep and 1mm long flaw was used. As the dent
being considered is sharp, one would expect some sort of a
gouge or score mark to be present on the outer surface of the
pipe. In addition, gouge surface hardening and resulting
cracking has been observed in practice which would be
consistent with the assumed initial flaws.
Figure 8: Example Dent Geometry
The analysis included a medium quality girth weld
(weld toe SCF of 3.5) located at one of the three positions
relative to the dent as shown in Figure 9. In estimating the
residual stress fields, it was assumed that the dent was
formed after welding; any other assumption would suggest
that damaged pipe had been welded.
Location 1
Location 2
Pipe Long. Axis
Location 3
Figure 9: Location of Girth Welds Within Dent
Figure 10 presents the fatigue crack growth history for
the three weld seam locations coincident with the dent
depicted in Figure 9. These results indicate that a weld can
have a significant effect on the predicted fatigue life,
however, the location of the weld relative to the dent does
affect the magnitude of the effect. A more thorough range
of models is required before any generalisations can be
made. In addition, it is noted, that the geometry of the weld
toe, which is a function of the welder/welding process, can
also significantly affect the life of the dented girth weld.
The most severe effect on the fatigue life, identified in these
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examples was a service life reduction of approximately 35
fold due to the presence of the weld.
/ /
0.6
IF I /
u
Q.
Q
0.4 —No Weld
•— Location 1
0.2 A-Location 2
o Location 3
0
0 100 200 300
Years to 95% Through Crack
Figure 10: Fatigue Lives of Welded and Plain
Dented Pipe
CONSIDERATION OF CORROSION
The dent assessment model considers the effects of a
corrosive environment on the service life of the dent,
including both the changes in wall thickness and its effects
on the local stress distribution, and the interacting effects of
corrosion and fatigue damage accumulation.
Wall Thickness Reduction
Local reductions in pipe wall thickness, as a result of
corrosion, are incorporated in the finite element model to
model the accentuated applied load effects (e.g., stress and
displacements). The increased local flexibility of the pipe
wall results in higher stress fluctuations per unit pressure
change and thus increases the fatigue crack growth rate.
The dent assessment model was developed to
incorporate the effects of corrosion degradation on the
fatigue life of dented pipes. The corrosion degradation is
described in a similar fashion as the dent geometry by
applying a grid of discrete wall thickness measurements to
the finite element model. This information is applied
directly or through interpolation, accommodating differing
deformation and thickness data collection rates, to the nodes
of the finite element model. In this way, the wastage
information may be used to describe both general and
pitting corrosion.
Stress Redistribution
When the dent is formed and re-rounds for the first
time, the pipe wall experiences a significant amount of
plastic deformation. A residual stress distribution is
developed throughout the pipe's affected area as a result of
the deformed pipe wall trying to return towards its original
shape while being restrained by the adjacent areas which are
not deformed in a similar fashion. The resultant stress
distribution is self-equilibrating.
 With the progression of corrosion damage, the residual particular, environments containing hydrogen sulphide gas
stress field must redistribute in order to maintain display a marked increase in fatigue crack growth rates over
equilibrium. Locked in weld residual stresses or dent a range of stress intensity. This is shown in Figure 12 for
formation residual stresses are reassessed analytically in the HT50 steel subjected to 400 ppm H2S gas cycled at a
crack growth region of the dent assessment model to ensure frequency of 0.17 Hz. An increase in the fatigue crack
that equilibrium is maintained. growth rate occurs at stress intensity ranges (AK) greater
than approximately 16 MPaVm. This crack growth rate
Corrosion Fatigue
increase corresponds to a transition to brittle cleavage due to
Corrosion fatigue includes the effects of both corrosion
crack tip hydrogen embrittlement (Yamada et. al., 1992)
and cyclic stress on the advancement of the crack front. In
addition to the cyclic stress, all of the factors that affect
[10].
corrosion (e.g., temperature, solution chemistry, coatings 10*
and CP) can influence the fatigue crack growth rate. HTJOfTMCP). fl-0.029
O'.AIR. 25HZ
Corrosion fatigue is of interest since, in many cases, the • i Sour crude oil (HiS400ppm). 0.17Hz
mechanical damage causing the dent also damages the pipe
coating system.
Since corrosion is a thermodynamically driven process
requiring a sufficient period of time for the dissolution and
the repassivation of the surface layer, the frequency of
loading affects the corrosion fatigue crack growth rate.
Generally increasing the frequency decreases the crack
growth rate as shown in Figure 11 (Sprawls, 1987) [9],
Increased holding times at peak loads can also result in
increased crack growth rates due to the exposure of un-
oxidized material at the crack tip.
S t r e s s intensity r a n g e {AK), ksiVin.

10 20 BO
it=
o A m b i e n t air, 10 Hz
• 3 . 5 % N a C I , 10 Hz - 10"
o 3.5% NaCI, 5 Hz

20 50 200
AK(MPa-vffi)

Figure 12: Fatigue Crack Growth Rates for Steel

in H2S Gas
The corrosion fatigue crack growth mechanism is
modelled in the dent assessment model in terms of the
growth rate in a non-corrosive environment augmented by
environmentally assisted effects. In a fracture mechanics
approach, total crack growth rate (da/dN)T is expressed as:

' da'\
dN J j ~ , d N j f U fJEAC
N
_da_ | is the total corrosion fatigue crack
40 60 80 where growth rate
dN J j
S t r e s s intensity r a n g e (&(Q, M P a V m
da_ is the fatigue crack growth rate in
Figure 11: Fatigue Crack Growth Rates in a Corrosive air (reference environment)
Solution at Various Testing Frequencies dN

The chemical composition, temperature, concentration is the environmentally assisted

i i x l l crack growth rate for a given AK
of the damaging species, pH, electrochemical potential and
* f^EAC
the viscosity all influence corrosion fatigue rate. In

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 While the reference fatigue crack growth data is well in
hand, the environmentally assisted portion of the crack
growth rate is not as well understood. In particular,
experimentally derived environmentally assisted crack
growth data is not readily available for all loading
frequency, environment and material combinations.
Therefore, corrosion effects are typically incorporated in the
dent assessment model as a loss of pipe wall thickness and
stress redistribution.
induced applied stress ranges. It was noted that the order of
the denting and corrosion damage only has a minor effect on
the residual or service stresses. In general, corrosion that
manifests after dent formation is less damaging than that
existing before dent formation. However, the difference in
fatigue life is on the order of 1% and can therefore be safely
neglected.

Effect of Corrosion on Dent Fatigue Life

The effects of corrosion depth (e.g., wastage), form
(e.g., general vs. localised) and relative timing of the
corrosion and dent formation have been studied. The
idealised localised corrosion profile was considered in two
locations, at the dent shoulder (Location 1, LI) and at the
centre of the dent (Location 2, L2), as shown in Figure 13.

Figure 14: Dent Crack Growth Critical Locations

Figure 15 plots the crack depth time history for six

Figure 13: Localised Corrosion Location
In all investigated cases, the effect of a smooth
corrosion profile and a dent on the service life of a pipeline,
the same point on the shoulder of the dent (Node 493 in
Figure 14) was the most critical in terms of fatigue life.
The presence of either localised or uniform corrosion
increases both the magnitude of the compressive residual
stresses at the critical location (Node 493) and the pressure
1
damage scenarios to demonstrate the difference in fatigue
crack growth rate in the presence of different forms and
amounts of corrosion coincident with a dent. The figure
includes the dent behaviour without corrosion as a baseline
for any comparison. The relative crack size at any time is
roughly the same (e.g., range of crack sizes at 100 years is
0.2 to 0.3 and 0.6 to 0.9 at 250 years) making interpretation
of Figure 15 easier. In the case analysed, the dent's fatigue
life far exceeds the probable life of the pipeline, due in part
to the operating pressure history and the relatively benign
nature of the dent. It is noted that it is not expected that the
pipeline will operate for 300 years as other operational
considerations or limit states will reduce its service life.

50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Duration of Service [y]
Figure 15: Fatigue Life of Corroded Dents

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 The dent assessment model results in Figure 15 REFERENCES
demonstrate that uniform corrosion is a more severe form of 1. CSA "Z662-99, Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems",
damage than the local corrosion profiles used in this study. Appendix C Limit States Design, Canadian Standards
Corrosion Location 2 is shown to cause a greater reduction Association, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada.
in fatigue life than Location 1 (LI), which again indicates
2. Fowler, J.R., Alexander, C.R., Kovach, P.J., Connelly,
that the critical location in the dent is at the dent shoulder.
L.M., 1995, "Fatigue Life of Pipelines with Dents and
The centre of the dent moves as a unit causing the cyclic re-
Gouges Subjected to Cyclic Internal Pressure", PD Vol.
rounding to focus its damage around the periphery of the
69, Pipeline Engineering, ASME.
dent. The uniform corrosion case reduces the stiffness of
the pipe wall and allows additional motion, thus reducing 3. Fleet Technology Limited, "Pipe Dent ECA Process
the fatigue life of the dented material. Figure 15 also Development", report prepared for Interprovincial Pipe
indicates that the fatigue life of the dent may be reduced by Line Inc., Nov. 1997.
up to 30% by corrosion wastage of 20% of the wall
thickness. 4. Dinovitzer, A., Lazor, R., Walker, R., 1999, "A
Pipeline Dent Assessment Model", OMAE'99.
5. Paris,P.C., Gomez,M.P., Anderson,W.E., 1961, "A
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Rational Analytic Theory of Fatigue", The Trend in
A pipeline dent assessment model has been developed
Engineering, 13, pp.9-14.
that can estimate the operating life of a dented pipeline and
was extended to include corrosion and weld seam localised 6. Fleet Technology Limited, "Pipe Dent ECA Process
effects. The applications of this model to dent/weld Extension", report prepared for Enbridge Pipe Line
interaction: Inc., Nov. 1998.
• support the codified damage limits that preclude the
7. Leggat, R.H., 1970, "Residual Stresses at Girth Welds in
interaction of dents and weld seams, since weld/dent
Pipes", Welding in Energy Related Projects.
interaction can significantly reduce dent fatigue life;
• however, the fatigue life of a dent interacting with a weld 8. IIW, "Recommendations on Fatigue of Welded
is a function of dent geometry, weld location within the Components", International Institute of Welding (IIW),
dent and line pressure history, and therefore, may not be 1995.
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9. Sprawls, Donald, 1987, "Evaluation of Corrosion
When corrosion damage is superimposed on a dent feature
Fatigue", Volume 13, Corrosion Metals Handbook, 9th
the application of the dent assessment model suggests that:
Edition, ASM International.
• corrosion damage can reduce the fatigue life of a dent,
• uniform corrosion is more damaging that localised 10. Yamada, Sakai, Fushimi and Yajima, 1992, "Fatigue
corrosion of the same depth, and Strength of HT50 Steel Plates in Sour Crude Oil",
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introduction of corrosion damage, relative to the denting
process, does not significantly affect the analysis results.
Overall, the results of this project indicate that the
modeling procedure is reasonable for predicting the life of
dented pipes that include both girth welds and corrosion. A
preliminary review suggests that the effects of corrosion and
welds investigated thus far follow the general trends inferred
from experience and laboratory tests. However, the
quantitative validity of the results should be validated based
on comparisons with full-scale test results.

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