MODULE 3 – POROSITY

OBJECTIVES
• Define porosity

• Understand the nature of different types of porosities and the types

of porosities intrinsic to sedimentary rocks.

• Describe the depositional, chemical and other factors that affect

porosity.

• Define sorting and understand its implication in reservoir studies.

• Calculate effective porosity from the results of various pore volume

test.
 INTRODUCTION
Rock grains are never regular in shape, which results in many spaces
(pores) left between them. Even if the grains are perfect spheres, they
could not be packed together perfectly - like the cubes - no matter
how we try.

Therefore, the body of the rock is not entirely solid, rather a fraction of
it is actually space. The spaces between the grains are called pores
and the total volume of pores (Vt) in a sample of rock is called its pore
volume (Vp). The net volume of the grains is called the grain volume
(Vg).
 POROSITY DEFINITION

• The porosity of a rock is the fraction of the volume of space (The

space includes all pores, cracks, vugs, inter- and intra-crystalline
spaces) between the solid particles of the rock to the total rock
volume.

• The porosity is conventionally given the symbol φ, and is expressed

either as a fraction varying between 0 and 1, or as a percentage
varying between 0% and 100%. Sometimes porosity is expressed in
‘porosity units’, which are the same as percent (i.e., 100 porosity
units (pu) = 100%).

• However, the fractional form is ALWAYS used in calculations.

 POROSITY DEFINITION

The total volume of a sample – termed the bulk volume – is the

sum of both the grain volume, , and the pore volume, .

Where,
: bulk volume, cm3
This leads to a basic rock property called the porosity, which is
defined as the fraction of the bulk volume of a sample that is
pore space. In mathematical terms, it can be expressed as on
slide 6.
 POROSITY EQUATION

Porosity is calculated using the relationship

where:

Where:
Vpore = pore volume
Vbulk = bulk rock volume
Vmatrix = volume of solid particles composing the rock
matrix
Wdry = total dry weight of the rock
ρmatrix = mean density of the matrix minerals.
POROSITY ILLUSTRATION
 APPLICATION OF
POROSITY EQUATION

• Question 1

Suppose a rectangular reservoir is 10 miles long, 3 miles

wide and 100 feet thick; and suppose the porosity of a
rock sample obtained from the reservoir is 22%. Calculate
pore volume, Vp.

Hint: 1mile = 5280 ft

SOLUTION
 POROSITY VARIES!!
Porosity is seldom constant within a reservoir; it varies with
location and depth. To compute the average porosity, a
simple weighted-mean formula is applied:

φ = (Σ φi Vbi) / Vb
where
φ : average porosity of whole reservoir
φi : average porosity of a given section (i) in the reservoir
Vbi : bulk volume of section (i)
 The contour map below depicts
porosity variation within a reservoir. The lines
connect points of equal porosity. If the reservoir is 10
miles long, 3 miles wide, and 100 feet thick, its average
porosity is estimated as follows:
There are 4 sections within the reservoir, the area and average porosity
of each are computed to be:
Section Area (ft2) Avg. Porosity (%)
1 155,399,147 12.5
2 277,261,208 17.5
3 122,322,723 22.5
4 14,303,684 25.0

Question 2: Calculate the avg. porosity of

the whole reservoir !
SOLUTION 2
 POROSITY CLASSIFICATION
Porosity may be classified as:

• Total porosity - all pores, interconnected and isolated

• Effective porosity – interconnected pores only!

Therefore, it is important to note that effective porosity will

be less than or equal to total porosity depending on the
amount of isolated pores in the rock.
OTHER Φ CLASSIFICATION
 TYPES OF POROSITY
(a)Well sorted sedimentary deposit with a high porosity,
(b)Poorly sorted sedimentary deposit with a low porosity,
(c) Well sorted sedimentary deposit consisting of pebbles that are porous, so
whole deposit has a high porosity,
(d)Well sorted sedimentary deposit whose porosity has been reduced by the
precipitation of minerals i.e. cementation in the interstices,
(e) Soluble rock made porous by solution
(f) Crystalline rock made porous by fracturing.
After Meinzer (1923)
 NOTE!!

It should be noted that the porosity does not give any

information concerning pore sizes, their distribution, and their
degree of connectivity. Thus, rocks of the same porosity can
have widely different physical properties.

An example of this might be a carbonate rock and a

sandstone. Each could have a porosity of 0.2, but carbonate
pores are often very unconnected resulting in its permeability
being much lower than that of the sandstone.
 CONTROLS ON POROSITY

• The initial (pre-diagenesis) porosity is affected by three major

microstructural parameters. These are (1) grain size, (2) grain
packing, (3) particle shape, and the distribution of grain sizes.

• However, the initial porosity is rarely that found in real rocks, as

these have subsequently been affected by secondary controls
on porosity such as compaction / burial and geochemical
diagenetic processes. This section briefly reviews these controls.
 GRAIN PACKING
Grain Packing describes the arrangement of the sand grains relative
to one another.

The theoretical porosities for various grain packing arrangements can

be calculated. The theoretical maximum porosity for a cubic packed
rock made of spherical grains of a uniform size is 0.4764, and is
independent of grain size. The maximum porosity of other packing
arrangements is shown in Table 2.1(slide 19).

It is important to mention that the porosity of a pack of uniform

spheres is independent of the grain size as the grain diameter cancels
out during the calculation.
 GRAIN PACKING
ARRANGEMENTS

Percentages are the maximum porosity for the different packing arrangements.
 EXAMPLE OF POROSITY
CALCULATIONS BASED ON
PACKING ARRANGEMENTS
The calculations of these ideal
porosities is relatively simple. For
example, taking the cubic
arrangement of identical spheres of
radius, r, occupying a cubic unit cell
of length, L, as shown in the image.
The following calculation is possible.
 The bulk volume of the cell Vbulk = L3
Number of spheres in the cell, n = (L/2r)3
Hence the volume of the matrix,

(4 nπ r3)
Vmatrix =
3
(L/2r)3 (4π r3)
=
3
(π L3)
=
6
The porosity can now be calculated using the basic equation

φ= =

( )
φ= = (1- π) / 6 = 0.4764
It was observed that the value calculated was independent of
the sphere size.

Most of the other values on Slide 19 can be calculated

similarly, although with a little more difficulty as a result of their
different packing geometries.

There are 6 different ways that identical spheres can be

packed, and these are shown on Slide 19.
 GRAIN SIZE
• The ordered cubic packing of identical spheres leads to a porosity that is
grain size independent. This is also true for the other ordered packing
lattices, but not true for the random arrangement of spheres.

• In real depositional environments, ordered packing are not formed

because they are energetically unstable, and the grains become
randomly distributed.

• The equilibrium porosity of a porous material composed of a random

packing of spherical grains is dependent upon the stability given to the
rock by frictional and cohesive forces operating between individual
grains. These forces are proportional to the exposed surface area of the
grains. The specific surface area (exposed grain surface area per unit
solid volume) is inversely proportional to grain size.
 GRAIN SIZE (CONTINUED)
• This indicates that, when all other factors are equal, a given weight
of coarse grains will be stabilized at a lower porosity than the same
weight of finer grains. For a sedimentary rock composed of a given
single grain size this general rule is borne out in the figure on slide 25.
• It can be seen that the increase in porosity only becomes
significant at grain sizes lower than 100 mm, and for some recent
sediments porosities up to 0.8 have been measured.
• As grain size increases past 100 mm, the frictional forces decrease
and the porosity decreases until a limit is reached that represents
random frictionless packing, which occurs at 0.399 porosity, and is
independent of grain size.

• No further loss of porosity is possible for randomly packed spheres,

unless the grains undergo irreversible deformation due to dissolution
recrystallization, fracture, or plastic flow, and all such decreases in
porosity are termed compaction.
 RELATION
BETWEEN
POROSITY,
GRAIN SIZE AND
GRAIN SHAPE
Grain size chart and characteristics.
 GRAIN SIZE
(SORTING)
• Sorting is the gradation of grains.

• If small particles of silt or clays are mixed with larger sand

grains, the effective (intercommunicating) porosity will be
considerably reduced. Sorting depends on at least four
major factors:

1. size range of material,

2. type of deposition,

3. current characteristics, and

4. the duration of the sedimentary process.

 GRAIN SHAPE
• Several studies have been carried out on random
packings of non-spherical grains, and in all cases the
resulting porosities are larger than those for spheres.
Table 2.4 shows data for various shapes, where the
porosity is for the frictionless limit.

• Grain shape is usually an initial indicator of the

depositional environment and transportation.
GRAIN SHAPE
& SPHERICITY
 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Real rocks contain a distribution of grain sizes, and often the grain size
distribution is multi-modal. The best way of understanding the effect is
to consider the variable admixture of grains of two sizes. The porosity
of the mixture of grain sizes is reduced below that for 100% of each
size.
There are two mechanisms at work here. First imagine a rock with two
grain sizes, one of which has 1/100th the diameter of the other. The
first mechanism applies when there are sufficient of the larger grains
to make up the broad skeleton of the rock matrix. Here, the addition
of the smaller particles reduces the porosity of the rock because they
can fit into the interstices between the larger particles.
The second mechanism is valid when the broad skeleton of the rock
matrix is composed of the smaller grains. There small grains will have a
pore space between them. Clearly, if some volume of these grains
are removed and replaced with a single solid larger grain, the
porosity will be reduced because both the small grains and their
associated porosity have been replaced with solid material.
 SECONDARY CONTROLS ON
POROSITY
Porosity is also controlled by a huge range of secondary
processes that result in compaction and dilatation. These can
be categorized into

1. Mechanical processes, such as stress compaction, plastic

deformation, brittle deformation, fracture evolution etc.,
and

2. Geochemical processes, such as dissolution, re-

precipitation, volume reductions upon mineralogical
changes etc.
 THE RANGE OF POROSITY
VALUES IN NATURE
In recently deposited, unconsolidated sediments, such as those that
you might find on the floor of a lake, porosity may be very high
(values up to 80% have been recorded). However, more common
materials, such as loose sands, can have porosities as high as 45%
that are either extremely unstable or stabilized by cements.
High porosities can also occur when the porosity is due to dissolution
(secondary porosity), particularly in carbonates. In the case of
carbonates the total porosity may be very high, but their permeability
can be very low as the pores and vugs that make up the pore
structure are unconnected.
Similarly, porosities can be very low. In massive fractured carbonates
it can commonly be as low as 1%, and igneous and metamorphic
rocks almost always have porosities less that 1%. Sandstones,
generally, lie in the range 5% to 20%. Table 2.6 (on slide 23) gives
approximate ranges of porosities for some common lithologies.
THE RANGE OF POROSITY
VALUES IN ROCKS
 MEASUREMENTS OF
POROSITY
Estimates of reservoir porosity can be obtained from several sources
both direct and indirect.

Direct methods: Direct measurements are conducted on samples of

the reservoir rock recovered during drilling of wells. These samples
could be rock fragments (cuttings) that are brought up to the
surface by the drilling mud or samples cut during coring operations,
which are called cores.
Core samples are more desirable since they are relatively larger and
more uniform, and their depth is known precisely. Small pieces,
called core plugs, are usually cut from the cores for use in various
tests. The plugs or cuttings are first cleaned with solvents to remove
their fluid content of oil and water and then dried.
 DIRECT METHODS (CONTINUED)
To determine porosity of a sample, all that is needed is to estimate two of the
three parameters in equation
= +
We will start with the bulk volume since it is usually the easiest to determine.

Bulk volume estimation: If the sample is regular in shape, e.g., a cylindrical core
plug, then is computed from its length and cross-sectional area.
=

where = the core plug cross-sectional area in cm2 and

L = the core plug length in cm.

If the sample is irregular in shape, e.g., a cutting, then is estimated by

submerging it in water and measuring the volume of water it displaces (Fig.a on
slide 36). To prevent water from entering the sample's pores, the sample is first
coated with a thin layer of wax or varnish. The volume of the coating must
obviously be subtracted later; this volume is determined from the mass of the
coating and the density of the coating material. Mass of the coating is obtained
from the difference in the mass of the sample before and after coating.
MEASURING OF VOLUME BY
SUBMERGING
 BULK VOLUME EXAMPLE
An irregular piece of sandstone is 35.25 grams in mass.
When coated with varnish, its mass increased to 36.55
grams.
Compute the rock porosity if the coated sample displaces
15.7 ml of water when fully submerged.
ρg = 2.65 g/cm3,
ρw = 1.00 g/cm3,
ρv = 1.80 g/cm3.
BULK VOLUME SOLUTION
 GRAIN VOLUME ESTIMATION
If the rock is predominantly composed of one mineral, e.g.
quartz, then the mass of the clean and dry sample, ms,
divided by the density of the mineral, ρg, equals the total
volume of the grains
Vg = ms / ρg
If the rock is composed of many minerals whose types and
volume fractions are known, an average grain density, ρg
must then be estimated as follows:

ρg = Σ vi ρgi
where
vi : volume fraction of mineral i
ρgi : density of mineral i, g/cm3
Sometimes the rock's mineral composition is unknown. We can still
determine by liquid displacement.
An uncoated sample is submerged in water or another suitable liquid
and left for a sufficient time to ensure that all the pore space has
been filled. Then, while suspended in the liquid by a string, the sample
is weighed (Fig.b on slide 36).
The difference in the sample’s weight before and after submerging is
equal to the weight of liquid displaced, whose volume must be equal
to the grain volume. For this procedure to be effective, all the air
present within the sample must be displaced by the liquid, which is
rather impossible as some air will be trapped within the smaller pores.
And even if complete air displacement is achieved, only the
connected pore space will be filled leading to a value larger than
the true one. It should be noted, then, that while Equ. = !/" results
in computing the absolute porosity, the liquid displacement
procedure results in the effective porosity.
 EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION (2)

The varnish coating on the sample of Slide 37 was removed

and the sample was submerged in water. When air bubbling
stopped, the sample was weighed while suspended in water.
It weighed 21300 dynes.
Assuming that you don't know the rock composition,
compute the rock porosity.

Note: 1 gram = 980 dynes

SOLUTION 2
 PORE VOLUME
DETERMINATION
Estimating requires simple procedures and, usually, available
equipment. On the other hand, direct measurement of the pore
volume provides a more accurate porosity value. However, this
requires some additional instruments.
A simple method starts with weighing the sample in air followed by
placing the sample in a vacuum flask (Fig.a slide 44) for a few hours.
Water is then introduced into the flask gradually until the sample is
completely submerged (Fig.b slide 44).
The sample is then removed from the flask, shaken to remove excess
water and then weighed quickly. The increase in the mass of the
sample is equal to the mass of water introduced into the sample,
and the volume of the water is equal to the connected pore
volume.
Care must be taken to minimize water evaporation; and if the rock
contains clay minerals that absorb water, another liquid – oil,
mercury, or KCl brine – must be used instead. But the process is the
same.
LIQUID SATURATION METHOD – PORE VOLUME
 PORE VOLUME METHOD
APPLICATION

A sandstone core plug is 1 inch in diameter, 2 inches long,

and has a mass of 56.6 grams. When completely
saturated with water, its mass increases to 60.9 grams.
Compute the rock porosity.

Note: 1inch = 2.54 cm

SOLUTION 3
 THE GAS EXPANSION
METHOD
Another method utilizes gas expansion to fill the pore space of the
sample, and it requires a special instrument called a porosimeter (Fig.
On slide 48).

In this method, the sample is first placed in a chamber and placed

under vacuum to remove all air within it. Then gas, usually helium, is
allowed to expand from a container of known volume and initial
pressure into the chamber.

By application of Boyle’s law, the final volume of the gas is computed

from its final pressure. The increase in the gas volume is equal to the
connected pore volume of the sample plus the dead volume in the
chamber and tubing.
POROSIMETER
SCHEMATIC
 INDIRECT METHODS

Indirect methods of estimating porosity rely on measurement

of other rock and fluid properties. These measurements are
carried out in the well employing special instruments as part
of well logging operations.

Therefore, no core samples are needed and the porosity is

estimated for the rock as it exists in the reservoir. Two of the
most common well logs are discussed below.
 SONIC (ACOUSTIC) LOG
In this log, the instrument - the sonde - generates sound waves, which travel through
the reservoir - in the vicinity of the well bore - and are detected by the sonde upon
their return. The time lapse between generation and detection – travel time - is
recorded continuously versus the depth of the instrument. Since travel time is related to
porosity by

∆tlog = φ ∆tf + (1 - ϕ)∆tma

where

∆tlog : sound travel time in the reservoir as measured by the log, µs

∆tma : sound travel time in the grain material of the reservoir, µs

∆tf : sound travel time in the fluids of the reservoir, µs

and since ∆tma and ∆tf are usually known for the reservoir, the porosity can be
estimated at all depths.
 THE FORMATION DENSITY LOG
Another logging sonde emits gamma rays, which mostly pass through the
reservoir rock and fluids, but some are scattered back into the well bore and are
detected by the sonde. The fraction of scattered gamma rays is used to compute
the bulk density - rock and fluids - of the reservoir, which is related to porosity by
ρlog = ϕ ρf + (1 - ϕ)ρma
where
ρlog : bulk density of the reservoir as measured by the log, g/cm3
ρma : density of the grain material of the reservoir, g/cm3
ρf : density of the fluids of the reservoir, g/cm3

Since laboratory values of the porosity are more reliable, these are used to
correct log-estimated values at the same depth(s) of the core sample(s), and
then the same correction is applied to the entire thickness of the reservoir. It
should be noted that both logs provide estimates of the absolute porosity.
 QUESTION 4

A sonic log measured travel time of 58 µs for a formation. If

the formation is primarily limestone (46 µs) and contains oil
only (190 µs), compute the rock porosity.
SOLUTION
MORE SAMPLE 54

CALCULATIONS OF
POROSITY
 EXAMPLE #1

A clean and dry core sample weighing 425 g was 100%

saturated with a 1.07 specific gravity (y) brine. The new
weight is 453 g. The core sample is 12 cm long and 4 cm in
diameter. Calculate the porosity of the rock sample.

55
 SOLUTION
The bulk volume of the core sample is:
= $ 2 & 12 = 150.80

• The pore volume is:

• Using porosity Equation, the porosity of the core is:

56
 EXAMPLE #2
Calculate the initial oil-in-place (N) of an oil reservoir if A =
1,600 acres, h = 32 ft, @ = 22%, Si, = 20%, and Boi = 1.23
bbl/STB.

Where N is given by equation:

57
 58

ASSIGNMENT 2
DUE DATE: 2ND OCTOBER 2017
Question 1:
CALCULATE the porosity of a formation composed of uniform spherical
grains of radius 100µm in a cubic packing arrangement.

Question 2:
CALCULATE the porosity of the formation if it were composed of
uniform spherical grains of radius 10µm in a cubic arrangement
instead. Comment on your result.

Question 3:
Using the fluid saturation method, the following data was obtained:
• weight of clean dry sample: 39.522 g,
• evacuated core saturated with water = 43.797g,
• density of water: 1.01g/cc,
• weight of sample when immersed in water = 24.393 g.
Determine the porosity and comment on what type of porosity was
obtained.
Question 4:
Calculate the weight of 1m3 sandstone with 14% porosity, assuming a
sand grain density of 2.65 g/cm3.

Question 5:
A dry and clean core sample 1 inch in diameter and 4 inches long
weighs 120 grams. Mineral analysis shows that the grains are 80% (by
volume) calcite and 20% anhydrite. Estimate the sample's porosity. (ρca
= 2.71 g/cm3, ρan = 2.98 g/cm3)

Question 6:
A core plug 1 inch in diameter and 2 inches long is placed in the
chamber of a gas expansion porosimeter whose container is 20cm3
large. The initial and final pressure are 28 and 23 psi respectively.
Ignoring the dead volume of the apparatus, what is the porosity of the
sample?
Question 7:
A cylindrical core, 2.54 cm long and 2.54 cm in diameter has a
porosity of 22%. It is saturated with oil and water, where the oil
content is 1.5cm3. Calculate the pore volume of the core.

Question 8:
Using the information from Question 7, determine the oil and
water saturations of the core.

Question 9:
A clean and dry core sample weighing 493 g was 100%
saturated with a 1.06 specific gravity (γ) brine. The new weight is
550 g. The core sample is 16 cm long and 7 cm in diameter.
Calculate the porosity of the rock sample.
Question 10.
An experiment has been performed to determine the porosity of an
irregularly shaped core sample. The clean weigh sample was
weighed in air. It was then evacuated and fully saturated with an oil
with a density of 0.85 g/cc and then weighed again in air. Afterward,
the saturated sample was weighed when it was fully immersed in the
oil. Here are the results of the experiment.
Weight of dry sample in air = 42.40 g
Weight of the saturated sample in air = 45.49 g
Weight of the saturated saturated sample immersed in the oil = 28.80
g
a. Calculate the porosity of the core.
b. Is there enough information from this experiemnt to determine the
minerology of the sample? If yes, what is it? Please justify your
answer with appropiate arguments.