Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of

Plane Mechanisms Study Notes for Mechanical

Engineering
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Velocity Analysis in Mechanism

 Let a rigid link OA, of length r rotate about a fixed point O with a uniform
angular velocity rad/s in a counter-clockwise direction OA turns through a
small angle δθ in a small interval of time δt. Then, A will travel along the
arcAA’ as shown in figure.
∴ Velocity of A relative to O

∴ In the limits, when

Thus, velocity of A is ωr and is perpendicular to OA.

Velocity of Intermediate Point

 If represent the velocity of B with respect to O, then

i.e., b divides the velocity vector in the same ratio as B divides the link. The
magnitude of the linear velocity of a point on the rotating body at a particular
instant is proportional to its distance fromt the axis of rotation.

Velocity Images of Four Link Mechanism

 Figure shows a four link mechanism (quadric cycle mechanism) ABCD in

which AD is fixed link and BC is the coupler. AB is the driver rotating at an
 angular speed of ω rad/s in the clockwise direction if it is a crank or moving
at angular velocity ω at this instant if it is rocker.

Velocity Images of Slider-Crank Mechanism

 Consider a slider-crank mechanism in which OA is the crank moving with

uniform angular velocity ω rad/s in the clockwise direction. At point B, a
slider moves on the fixed guide G.

From the given configuration, the coupler AB has angular velocity in the counter-

clockwise direction. The magnitude being .

Velocity of Rubbing

 Let us take two links of a turning pair, a pin is fixed to one of the links
whereas a hole is provided in the other to fit the pin. When joined the
surface of the hole of one link will rub on the surface of pin of the other link.
The velocity of rubbing of the two surfaces will depend upon the angular
velocity of a link relative to the other.
Pin at A

 The pin at A joins links AD and AB. AD being fixed, the velocity of rubbing
will depend upon the angular velocity of AB only.
 Velocity of rubbing = ra ω

where, ra = radius of pin at A

Pin at B
ω ba = ω ab = ω (clockwise)

(counter-clockwise)

 rb = Radius of pin at B

Velocity of rubbing = rb (ω ab + ω bc)

Pin at C
ω bc = ω cb (counter-clockwise)

ω dc = ω cd (clockwise)

rc = Radius of pin at C

Velocity of rubbing = rc (ω bc + ω dc )

Pin at D
where, rd = radius of pin at D

Velocity of rubbing = rd ω cd

Instantaneous Centre of Velocity (I-centre)

 The instantaneous centre of velocity can be defined as a point which has

no velocity with respect to the fixed link.
 Suppose there are two link 1 and link 2
 Link 1 may not be fixed. Rigid body 2 is shown to be in plane motion with
respect to the link 1.
 In case of fixed link, (link 2) velocity of the point A and B are proportional
toPA and PB respectively. So, instantaneously, the rigid body can be
thought of as being momentarily in pure rotation about the point P. The

velocity of any point C on the body at this instant is given by in a

direction perpendicular to P C. This point P is called the instantaneously
centre of velocity and its instantaneously velocity is zero.
  If both links 1 and 2 are in motion, we can define a relative instantaneous
centre P 12 to be a point on 2 having zero relative velocity with respect to a
coincident point on 1. Consequently, the relative motion of 2 with respect to
1 be appears to be pure rotation about P 12 . So P 21 and P 12 are identical.

Centro

 Instantaneous centre is also called centro. So, two coincident points

belonging to two bodies having relative motion with the properties.
 They have the same velocities.
 They form a point in one of the rigid bodies about which the other rotates
and vice-versa. Which is perhaps true for only an instant.

Primary Centro One which can be easily located by a mere observation of the
mechanism.

Secondary Centro Centros that cannot be easily located.

Instantaneous Centre of Acceleration

 It is defined as a point on a link having zero relative acceleration with

respect to a coincident point on the other link and is different from the
instantaneous centre of velocity.

Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem of Three Centre

 It state that if three bodies are in relative motion with respect to one
another, the three relative instantaneous centers of velocity ar collinear.

P 12 - Instantaneous centre of fixed ground 1 and body 2.

P 13 - Instantaneous centre of fixed ground 1 and body 3.
P 23 - Instantaneous centre of body 2 and body 3.

Number of Centros in a Mechanism

 For a mechanism of n links, the number of centros (Instantaneous

centre) Nis

Number of Lines of Centros

 The number of lines of centros L for a mechanism with n links is

Acceleration Analysis in Mechanism

 The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is known as acceleration

and acts in the direction of the change in velocity. Velocity can changed by
only changing its magnitude or its direction. Let a link OA, of length r, rotate
in a circular path in the clockwise direction as shown in figure. It has an
instantaneously angular velocity ω and an angular acceleration α in the
same direction i.e., the angular velocity increases in the clockwise
direction.
Tangential acceleration of A relative O is defined as

Centripetal or radial acceleration of A relative to O is defined as

Total acceleration (net acceleration)

There are three cases occurred in the net acceleration as given below

Case I When α = 0 ⇒ ω = constant

So, net acceleration

Case II When ω = 0 ⇒ A has linear motion as
Net acceleration
Case III: When α is negative or the link OA decelerates, tangential acceleration
will be negative or its direction will be as shown in figure.

Corial’s Acceleration Component

Consider a link AR rotates about a fixed point A on it. P is a point on a slider on
the link.

Here, ω = Angular velocity of the link

α = Angular acceleration of the link

v = Linear velocity of the slider on the link

f =Linear acceleration of the slider on the link

r = Radial distance of point P on the slider.

Key Points
Direction of coriol’s acceleration component (2ω.v) is perpendicular to AR Coriol’s
component is positive if

 The link AR rotate clockwise and the slider moves radially outward.
 The link rotate counter clockwise and the slider moves radially inwards.
Acceleration of slider (f) is positive if
  Slider has a deceleration while moving in the inward direction.
 Slider has acceleration while moving in the outward direction.

 Acceleration of P | | to AR = acceleration of slider –

centripetal acceleration
 Acceleration of P ⊥ to AR. = Coriol’s acceleration +
tangential acceleration
 Let Q be a point on the link AR immediately beneath the point P at the
instant, then
 Acceleration of P = acceleration of P | | to AR + acceleration of P ⊥ to AR

= acceleration of P relative to Q + Acceleration of Q relative to A + Coriols

acceleration component

Dynamic Analysis of Linkages Study Notes for

Mechanical Engineering
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Linkages are the basic building blocks of all mechanisms. All common forms of
mechanisms (cams, gears, belts, chains) are in fact variations on a common
theme of linkages. Linkages are made up of links and joints.

 Links: rigid member having nodes.

 Node: attachment points.
 Binary link: 2 nodes
 Ternary link: 3 nodes
 Quaternary link: 4 nodes
 Joint: connection between two or more links (at their nodes) which allows
motion; (Joints also called kinematic pairs)
Joints can be classified in several ways:

1. By the type of contact between the elements, line, point, or surface.

2. By the number of degrees of freedom allowed at the joint.
3. By the type of physical closure of the joint: either force or form closed.
4. By the number of links joined (order of the joint).

A more useful means to classify joints (pairs) is by the number of degrees of

freedom that they allow between the two elements joined. A joint with more than
one freedom may also be a higher pair.

 Joint order = number of links-1

Dynamic Force Analysis

 D'Alembert's Principle and Inertia Forces: An important principle, known

as d'Alembert's principle, can be derived from Newton's second law. In
words, d'Alembert's principle states that the reverse -effective forces and
 torques and the external forces and torques on a body together give statical
equilibrium.

F +(-ma G ) = 0

TeG +(-I G α) = 0

 The terms in parentheses in above equations are called the reverse -

effective force and the reverse-effective torque, respectively. These
quantities are also referred to as inertia force and inertia torque. Thus, we
define the inertia force F, as

Fi = -ma G

 This reflects the fact that a body resists any change in its velocity by an
inertia force proportional to the mass of the body and its acceleration. The
inertia force acts through the center of mass G of the body. The inertia
torque or inertia couple C, is given by:

C i = -I G α

As indicated, the inertia torque is a pure torque or couple.

 Where ∑F refers here to the summation of external forces and, therefore, is

the resultant external force, and ∑T eG is the summation of external
moments, or resultant external moment, about the center of mass G.
 Thus, the dynamic analysis problem is reduced in form to a static force and
moment balance where inertia effects are treated in the same manner as
external forces and torques.
 In particular for the case of assumed mechanism motion, the inertia forces
and couples can be determined completely and thereafter treated as known
mechanism loads.
  Furthermore, D'Alembert's principle facilitates moment summation about
any arbitrary point P in the body, if we remember that the moment due to
inertia force F, must be included in the summation. Hence,

∑T P = ∑TeP + C i + R PG × F t = 0

 Where ∑TP is the summation of moments, including inertia moments, about

point P. ∑TeP is the summation of external moments about P, C, is the
inertia couple, is the inertia force, and R PG is a vector from point P to
point C.

For a body in plane motion in the xy plane with all external forces in that plane.

 Where a Gx and a Gy are the x and y components of a G . These are three scalar
equations, where the sign convention for torques and angular accelerations
is based on a right-hand xyz coordinate system; that is. Counterclockwise
is positive and clockwise is negative. The general moment summation
about arbitrary point P,
Where RPGx and RPGy are the x and y components of position vector RPG . This
expression for dynamic moment equilibrium will be useful in the analyses to be
presented in the following sections of this chapter.

 Equivalent Offset Inertia Force: For purposes of graphical plane force

analysis, it is convenient to define what is known as the equivalent offset
inertia force. This is a single force that accounts for both translational
inertia and rotational inertia corresponding to the plane motion of a rigid
body.
o Figure A shows a rigid body with planar motion represented by
center of mass acceleration a C and angular acceleration α. The
inertia force and inertia torque associated with this motion are also
shown. The inertia torque -lG α can be expressed as a couple
consisting of forces Qand (- Q) separated by perpendicular

(A)

(B)

(C)
(D)

 Figure (A) Derivation of the equivalent offset inertia force associated with
planer motion of a rigid body.
 Figure(B) Replacement of the inertia torque by a couple.
 Figure(C) The strategic choice of a couple.
 Figure(D) The single force is equivalent to the combination of a force and a
torque in figure (A)

Distance h, as shown in Figure B. The necessary conditions for the couple to be

equivalent to the inertia torque are that the sense and magnitude be the same.
Therefore, in this case, the sense of the couple must be clockwise and the
magnitudes of Q and h must satisfy the relationship

Otherwise, the couple is arbitrary and there are an infinite number of p ossibilities
that will work. Furthermore, the couple can be placed anywhere in the plane.
Figure C shows a special case of the couple, where force vector Q is equal
to ma G and acts through the center of mass. Force (- Q) must then be placed as
shown to produce a clockwise sense and at a distance;

Force Q will cancel with the inertia force Fi = - ma G , leaving the single equivalent
offset force, which has the following characteristics:

1. The magnitude of the force is | ma G |.

2. The direction of the force is opposite to that of acceleration α.
 3. The perpendicular offset distance from the center of mass to the line
of action of the force .
4. The force is offset from the center of mass so as to produce a moment
about the center of mass that is opposite in sense to acceleration a.

The usefulness of this approach for graphical force analysis will be demonstrated
in the following section. It should be emphasized, however, that this approach is
usually unnecessary in analytical solutions.. Including the original inertia force
and inertia torque, can be applied directly.

 Dynamic Analysis of the Four-Bar Linkage:

o The analysis of a four-bar linkage will effectively illustrate most of the
ideas that have been presented; furthermore, the extension to other
mechanism types should become clear from the analysis of this
mechanism.
 Dynamic Analysis of the Slider-Crank Mechanism:
o Dynamic forces are a very important consideration in the design of
slider crank mechanisms for use in machines such as internal
combustion engines and reciprocating compressors.
o Following such a process a kinematics analysis is first performed
from which expressions are developed for the inertia force and inertia
torque for each of the moving members, These quantities may then
be converted to equivalent offset inertia forces for graphical analysis
or they may be retained in the form of forces and torques for
analytical solution.
o Following figure is a schematic diagram of a slider crank mechanism,
showing the crank 1, the connecting rod 2, and the piston 3, all of
which are assumed to be rigid. The center of mass locations are
designated by letter G, and the members have masses m, and
moments of inertia I Gi , i = 1, 2, 3.
o The following analysis will consider the relationships of the inertia
forces and torques to the bearing reactions and the drive torque on
 the crank, at an arbitrary mechanism position given by crank angle φ
Friction will be neglected.

For the piston (moment equation not included):

(Dynamic-force analysis of a slider crank mechanism)

(Free-body diagrams of the moving members of linkages)

 For the connecting rod (moments about point B):

  For the crank (moments about point O 1 ):

 Where T is the input torque on the crank. This set of equations embodies
both of the dynamic-force analysis approaches described in Newton's
Laws. However, its form is best suited for the case of known mechanism
motion, as illustrated by the following example.

Cams Study Notes for Mechanical Engineering

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Cam: A cam is a mechanical member used to impart desired motion

(displacement) to a follower by direct contact (either point or line contact). A cam
may be rotating or reciprocating whereas the follower ma y be rotating,
reciprocating or oscillating.

 Cam mechanisms belong to higher pair mechanism.

 A driver member known as cam.
 A driven member called the follower.
 A frame is one which supports the cam and guides the follower.

Definitions Related to Cam: The following terminologies are used to draw cam
profile

 Base Circle: The base circle is the smallest circle (with its centre at the
cam centre) that can be drawn tangential to the cam profile.
 Trace Point: A trace point is a theoretical point on the follower, its motion
describing the movement of the follower.
e.g., for a knife edge follower, the trace point is at the knife edge.

 Pitch Curve: It is the curve drawn by the trace point assuming that
the cam is fixed and the trace point of the follower rotates around
the cam.
 Pressure Angle:It represents the steepness of the cam profile. The angle
between the direction of the follower movement and the normal to the pitch
curve at any point is referred to as the pressure angle.

Key Points

 For a roller follower, the trace point is at the roller centre.

 For a flat-face follower, it is at the point of contact between the follower and
cam surface when the contact is along the base circle of the cam.
 During a complete rotation, the pressure angle varies from its maximum t o
its minimum value.
  The greater the pressure angle, the higher will be side thrust and
consequently the changes of the translating follower jamming in its guide
will increase.
 It is not desirable to increase the pressure angle.

Pitch Point and Circle

 A pitch point corresponds to the point of maximum pressure angle and a

circle drawn with its centre at the cam centre; to pass through the pitch
point is known as the pitch circle.

Prime Circle

 The prime circle is the smallest circle that can be drawn so as to be

tangential to the pitch curve.
Follower Displacement Diagram

The following terms are used with reference to the angular motion of the cam
 Angle of Ascent (ϕ a ): It is the angle through which the cam turns during
the time the follower rises.
 Angle of Dwell (f) Angle of dwell is the angle through which the cam turns
while the follower remains stationery at the highest or the lowest position.

 Angle of Descent (ϕ d ): Angle of descent is the angle through which the

cam turns while follower returns to the initial position.
 Angle of Action Angle of action is the total angle moved by the cam during
the time between the beginning of rise and the end of return of the follower.
 In a specific interval of time, acceleration must be given to consider the
velocity.
 The dynamic effect of acceleration limit the speed and effect of jerk (rate of
change of acceleration) produce vibrations of the system.
 The angle made by follower to the surface of cam at the point of contact
cannot be reduced from a certain value. So, it exerts minimum lateral
pressure on the bearing.
 The size of the base circle controls the pressure angle.
Cam with Specified Contours
Followings are the various types of cams, which are symmetrical cams or
specified contour cams.

 Tangent Cam (with roller follower)

A tangent cam is symmetrical about the centre line.

Where rc = least radius of cam

rn = Radius of nose

rr = Radius of roller

r = Distance between the cam and nose centre.

 Roller on the Flank

The maximum and minimum velocity can be calculated. When the location of
roller on the flank as

where, rc = least radius of cam

rn = Radius of nose

rr = Radius of roller

r = Distance between the cam and nose centre.

Let be angle turned by the cam from the beginning of the follower motion.

At θ = β, (β be the angle turned by the cam when the roller loss the flank)

V min = 0 At θ = 0

 Acceleration
  Roller on the Nose

∴ l = rn + rr

and n = r c + rr
 Circular Arc (convex) Cam (with flat-faced follower)
 Follower Touching Circular Flank
Acceleration
  Follower on the Nose

v is maximum when the follower just touches the nose of the cam.
f = -ω 2 r cos(α-θ)

Circular Arc (Convex) Cam (with roller follower)

Follower on the flank

 Gears and Gear Trains Study Notes for Mechanical
Engineering
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Gears and Gear Trains

 Gears is a positive drive which transmits exact velocity ratio from one shaft
to another shaft, gear drive is used when the distance between driver and
follower is very less, when two or more gears are made to mesh with each
other to transmit power from one shaft to another, the combination is
calledgear trains.
Gears

 Gears are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another or between a
shaft and slide. It is a higher pair mechanism. Gear use to intermediate link
or connector and transmit the motion by direct contact.

Gear Terminology

 Circular Pitch (p): It is a distance measured along the

circumference of the pitch circle from a point on one tooth to the
corresponding point on the adjacent tooth.

where, p = circular pitch

d = pitch diameter

T = number of teeth
  Diametrical Pitch (P)

It is the number of teeth per unit length of the pitch circle diameter in inches.

 Module (m)

It is the ratio of pitch diameter in mm to the number of teeth. The term is used SI
units in place of diametrical pitch.

 Gear Ratio (G)

It is the ratio of the number of teeth on the gear to that on the pinion.
where, T = number of teeth on the gear

t = number of teeth on the pinion

 Velocity Ratio

The velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of the angular velocity of the follower to
the angular velocity of the driver gear.

 Addendum Circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a normal

section of the gear.
 Dedendum Circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a
normal section of the gear.
 Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum
circle.
 Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle,

Standard Proportions for 20° Full Depth System

The following standard proportions are used in 20° full depth system

 Standard Proportions
o Addendum h a = m
o Clearance C = 0.25 m
o Whole depth h = 2.25 m
o Tooth space = 1.5700 m
o Dedendum hf = 1.25 m
o Working depth hk = 2m
o Tooth thickness (s) = 1.5708 m
o Fillet radius = 0.4 m
 Form of Teeth: The form of teeth in a gear system can be as follows.
 Conjugate Teeth: Two curves of any arbitrary shape that fulfill the law of
gearing can be used as the profiles of teeth. Such a gear The profiles of
tooths which are generally used given as
 Cycloidal Profile Teeth: As cycloid is the locus of a point on the
circumference of a circle that rolls without slipping on a fixed straight line In
this type, the faces of the teeth are epicycloids and the flanks the
hypocycloids.
 Epicycloid Teeth: An epicycloid is the locus of point on the circumference
of a circle that rolls without slipping on a fixed straight line.

Arc PK = arc KJG

  Hypocycloid Teeth

A hypocycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle that rolls

without slipping inside the circumference of another circle
Arc AC = Arc CD

 Involute Profile Teeth

An involute is defined as the locus of a point on a straight line which rolls without
slipping on the circumference of a circle. From figure at the start the tracing point
is at A as the rolls on the circumference of the circle, the path ABC traced out by
the point A is the involute.

D is regarded as the instantaneous centre of rotation of B. The motion of B is

perpendicular to BD. Since, BD is tangent to the base circle, the normal to the
involute is a tangent to the base circle.

Comparison between Cycloidal Teeth and Involute Teeth

 Cyclodial Teeth
o Pressure angle maximum at beginning of engagement, then reduce
to zero at pitch point and again maximum at end of engagement.
o Less smooth running of gears.
o Involve double curve, epicycloid and hypocycloid for the teeth
o Costier manufacturing
o Exact centre distance is reuired to transmit a constant velocity ratio.
o Phenomenon of interference does not occur at all.
o Spreading flank teeth and strong.
o Convex flank always has contact with a concave face resulting in
less wear.
 Involute Teeth
o Pressure angle is constant throughtout the engagement of teeth.
o Smooth running of gears.
o Involve single curve
o Cheaper manufacturing
 o A little variation in centre distance does not effect the velocity ratio
o Interference can occur if the condition of minimum number of teeth
on a gear is not followed.
o Raidal flank teeth and weaker compare to cycloidal.
o Two convex surfaces are in contact and thus there is more wear.
 Methods of Gear Manufacturing
o Casting, blanking, machining.
o For power transmitting gears (made of steel), the following methods
generally used are milling, rack generation, hobbing, fellow gear
shaper method.
o For good accuracy and surface finish following finishing process are
used grinding, lapping, sharing, barnishing.

The followings are the parameters used in manufacturing of gears as

 Path of Contact (CD)

According to the figure, the path of the contact is given by the relation
where, r = pitch circle radius of pinion

R = pitch circle radius of wheel

ra = addendum circle radius of pinion

Ra = Addendum circle radius of wheel

 Arc of Contact
From the figure, the arc of the contact as given by

Number of teeth within the

arc
(p = circular pitch)

Angle of action δ p = arc of contact

 Interference in Involute Gear

o Meshing of two non-conjugate (non-involute) teeth is known as
interference because the two teeth do not slide properly and thus
rough action and binding occurs.
o For equal addenda of the wheel and pinion, the addendum radius of
the wheel decides whether the interference will occur or not.
 Minimum Number of Teeth
o Maximum value of the addendum radius of wheel to avoid
interference can be upto BE
  Addendum value of wheel

where, G = gear ratio=

T and t are number of teeth on the wheel and pinion respectively.

When addendum is equal to one module a ω = 1

 Interference between Rack and Pinion

The interference between rack and pinion is shown in the figure.

To avoid interference GE ≥ a r m
For standard
addendum,

To eliminate interference, there are following methods

1. By using more teeth on gears (however, it can make gear noiser).

2. By larger pressure angle.
3. By using gears with shorter teeth.
4. To eliminate the undercutting or interference, the pinion addendum may be
enlarged until the addendum circle of the pinion passes through the
interference point of gear.

 Undercutting

When gear teeth are produced such that interference is eliminated then this effect
is called undercutting.

Long and Short addendum System

In the long and short addendum system, there is no change in pitch circle and
consequently not in pressure angle. The pinion addendum enlarge until the
addendum circle of the pinion passes through the point of gear.
In long and short addendum system, recess action is obtained more than
approach action.

 Gear Train
A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit motion from one shaft to
another. Gear trains are used to speed up or stepped down the speed of driven
shaft. The following are main types of gear trains.

 Simple Gear Train

Series of gears, capable of receiving and transmitting motion from one gear to
another is called a simple gear train.

 Train value

 Speed ratio

The intermediate gears have no effect on the speed ratio and therefore they are
known as idlers.

 Compound Gear Train

When a series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more gears
rotate about an axis with the same angular velocity.
  Train
value

 Reverted Gear Train

If the axis of first and last wheel of a compound gear coincide, it is called
asreverted gear train.

 Train valve,
 If r is the pitch circle radius of a gear

r1 r2 = r3 + r4
 Planetary or Epicyclic Gear Train
o A gear train having a relative motion of axes is called a planetary or
an epicyclic gear train. In an epicyclic train, the axis of at least one of
the gears also moves relative to the frame.
o If the arm a is fixed the wheels S and P constitute a simple train.
However if the wheel S is fixed so that arm a can rotate about the
 axis of S. The P would be moved around S therefore it is an epicyclic
train.

 In general, gear trains have 2 degree of freedom.

  Torque in epicyclic Trains

Let NS, Na , Np , and N A be the speeds and T S, T a , Tp , and T A the external transmitted
by S, a, P and A

∑T = 0
TS + Ta + Tp + TA = 0
Since planet P can rotate on its our pin fixed to a but is not connected to anything
outside.
Tp = 0

TS + Ta + T A = 0

Assuming no loss in power transistor

∑Tω = 0

TS NS + TaN a + T AN A = 0
If efficiency η to deliver power to S.
  Tabular Method

In tabular method, we apply following procedure

Assume gear makes m revolution and arm makes n revolution. Consider

clockwise rotation is positive and anticlockwise rotation is negative.
Analysis of Tabular Method
On the basis of given condition, we can determine the values m and n. For
example, if gear A is at rust, then

and arm is given +k revolution, then

n = k …(ii)
 By solving Equations: (i) and (ii), we can find the values of m and n. Once we find
out m and n then number of revolutions and direction of gear B can be determined
as:

Flywheels and Governors Study Notes for Mechanical

Engineering
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Flywheel

 A flywheel is used to control the variations in speed during each cycle of an

operation. A flywheel acts as a reservoir of energy which stores energy
during the period when the supply of energy is more than the requirement
and releases the energy during the period when the supply energy is less
than the requirement.

Maximum fluctuation of energy (e),

where,

 ω max and ω min are the maximum and minimum angular speed respectively.
 E = kinematic energy of the flywheel at mean speed.

The equation of motion for the angular oscillation of the flywheel.

where, MR is resisting moment

Flywheel in Punching Press

 Generally, flywheel is used to reduce fluctuation of speed where the load

on the crank shaft constant while the applied torque varies.
 However, the flywheel can also be used to reduce fluctuation of speed
when the torque is constant but load varies during the cycle e.g., in
punching press in riveting machine.
  Let E be energy required for one punch energy supplied to crank shaft from

the motor during punching

 The valance energy require for punching

 If t = thickness of job
 v = velocity of tool
 s = stroke of the punch (2r)
 Maximum fluctuation of energy,

Governors

 The function of a governor is to maintain or regulate the speed of an engine

within specified limits whenever there is variation of load.
  Flywheel and governor both are used to maintain the speed of an engine
but the difference between governor and flywheel is that governor maintain
the speed due to variation over a number of revolution while flywheel
maintain the speed of engine due to variation each revolution (cyclic
variation).

Types of Governors
The broad classification of governors is given below.

 Centrifugal Governor
o In this type of governor, the action of governor depends upon the
centrifugal effects produced by the masses of two balls.
o The balls are operated by actual change of engine speed in case of
centrifugal governor.
 Inertia Governor
o In this type of governor, positions of the balls are effected by the
forces set up by an angular acceleration or deceleration of the given
spindle in addition to centrifugal forces on the balls.
o The balls are operated by the rate of change of speed. So,
response of inertial governors is faster than that of centrifugal
types.

Types of Centrifugal Governor

The centrifugal governors are the following types as given below

 Pendulum Type Watt Governor (simple conical governor)

Assume sleeve is frictionless and link is massless.

m = mass of each ball

w = weight of each mass (mg)

T = tension in the arm

r = radial distance of ball centre and spindle axis.
So, height of each ball

N = Speed in rpm
Height h is independent of mass of ball. As the speed increases, sensitivity
decreases.
  Porter Type Governor

Porter governor can be shown as

where, g = 9.8 m/s 2 , N = rpm, h = rpm

M = mass of sleeve

m = mass of each ball

f = force of friction at the sleeve

from figure,
  Proell Type Governor

Proell governor can be shown below

Taking r’ = r

 Hartness Governor
In this type, balls are controlled by a spring as shown in figure. By neglecting
obliquity effects of the arms of the ball crank levers (assume θ small)

a 1 = a 2 = a, b 1 = b, c 1 = c 2 = 0

Centrifugal force F=mr ω 2

Spring force = Fs
Let s = Stiffness of the spring,

h = Moment of the sleeve

 Wilson Hartness Governor

This type of governor can be shown below

Let, s = stiffness of each of main spring

sa = stiffness of auxiliary spring

 Net main spring force

 Net auxiliary spring force

 If obliquity effects are neglected,

 Pickering Governor
o Let, m = mass fixed to each spring
o e = distance between spindle axis and centre of mass when the
governor is at rest
o ω = angular speed of the sleeve
o f = deflection of the centre of the leaf spring for spindle speed ω

Centrifugal force F = m(e+f) ω2

Where, E = modulus of elasticity of the spring material

I = moment of inertia of the cross-section of the spring about neutral axis

 Inertial Governor
o This type of governor is a rotating governor. The inertial governor
can be shown in the figure
o r = radial distance OG
o ω = angular velocity of the disc
o v = tangential velocity of G
o Centrifugal force of the rotating mass
If the engine shaft is accelerated due to increase in speed, the ball mass does not
get accelerated at the same amount on account of its inertia, the in ertia force
being equal to

Torque on the arm

Sensitiveness of a Governor

 The governor is said to be sensitive when it readily responds to a small

change of speed.
 Sensitiveness of a governor is defined as the ratio of difference between
the maximum and minimum speeds to the mean equilibrium speed.

where, N = mean speed

N1 = minimum speed corresponding to full load conditions

N2 = maximum speed corresponding to no load conditions.

Huning

 Sensitiveness of a governor is a desirable quality. However, if a governor is

too sensitive, it may fluctuate continuously. This phenomenon of fluctuation
is known as hunting.

Isochronism
  If a governor is at equilibrium only for a particular speed, it is called
isochronous governor, for which we can say that an isochronous governor
is infinitely sensitive.

Stability

 A governor is said to be stable if it brings the speed of the engine to the

required value and there is not much hunting. Obviously, the stability and
sensitivity are two opposite characteristics.

Effort and Power of a Governor

 The effort of the governor is the mean force acting on the sleeve to raise or
lower it for a given change of speed capacity.

 The power of governor is defined as the work done at the sleeve for a given
percentage change of speed.

Power = mean effort × lift of sleeve

Controlling Force

 When the balls of a governor rotate in their circular path, the centrifugal
force on each ball tends to move in outwards. This is resisted by an
equal and opposite forces acting radially inwards and is known as
the Controlling force.

∴ Controlling force,
 The controlling force is provided by the weight of the sleeve and balls as in
Porter governor and by the spring and weight as in Hartness governor (or
spring controlled governor).
 When the graph between the controlling force (F C) as ordinate and radius of
rotation of the balls (r) as abscissa is drawn, then the graph obtained is
known as controlling force diagram.
 Key Points

 Controlling force curve for spring loaded governor as shown below

 Controlling force curve is parabolic curve in case of dead weight governor.

 Controlling force curve is straight line in case of spring loaded governor.

Balancing of Reciprocating and Rotating Masses Study

Notes for Mechanical Engineering
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Balancing
  Balancing is defined as the process of designing a machine in which
unbalance force is minimum. The rotating and reciprocating parts of a high
speed engine if are not properly balanced, the dynamic forces will be setup.

Balancing of rotating Masses

 If the centre of mass of rotating machines does not lie on the axis of
rotation, the inertia force is given by F 1 = mω 2 e

where, m = mass of the machine

ω = angular speed of the machine

e = eccentricity i.e., the distance from the centre of mass to the axis of rotation.

Internal and external Balancing

 Let a shaft carry an unbalanced mass m1 with the centre of mass located at
distance e from the axis of rotation. The shaft can be completely balancing
by adding a mass m1 at a distance e 1 from the axis of rotation diametrically
opposite to m so that,
 mω 2 e = m1 ω 2 e 1

(where, = speed of rotation of the shaft)

me = m1 e 1

 In this case RA = 0, R B = 0

The shaft will also be free from dynamic bending stress. This situation is referred
to as internal balancing.
The dynamic reactions R A and R B can be reduced to zero, by adding two
balancing masses m1 and m2 at distances e 1 and e 2 respectively from the shaft in
the same axial plane as m but on the opposite side of the axis of rotation.

m e = m 1 e 1 + m2 e 2

mea = m1 e 1 a 1 + m2 e 2 a
  This situation is referred as external balancing where the entire length
of the shaft is not from dynamic bending stresses.

Static Balancing

 If a shaft carries a number of unbalanced masses such that the centre of

mass of the system is said to be statically balanced.
 Statically balancing is defined as below
Dynamic Balancing
  A system of rotating masses in dynamic balance when there does not exist
any resultant centrifugal force as well as resultant couple.

Balancing of Several Masses in Different Planes

  Let there be a rotor revolving with a uniform angular velocity
ω, m1 , m2 andm3 are the masses attached to the rotor at
radii r 1 , r 2 and r3 respectively. The masses m1 , m2 and m3 rotate in planes 1,
2, 3 respectively. In order to complete balancing, Let introduce two counter
masses and at radii and respectively.

Balancing Forces

 According to figure, the balancing forces are defined as

Balancing Couples

 Let be placed in reference plane and be l2 from reference plane

  By complex method,

and

Balancing of Reciprocating Mass

 This diagram shows the condition of the balancing of reciprocating mass

Force required to accelerate mass is

Primary Balancing of Reciprocating Mass

 If c is the fraction of the reciprocating mass, primary force balanced by the

mass

= cmr ω 2 cos θ

 Primary force unbalanced by the mass

= (1-c)mr ω 2 cos θ
  Vertical component of centrifugal force which remains unbalanced

= cmr ω 2 sin θ

 Resultant unbalanced force at any instant

The resultant unbalanced force is minimum when

Secondary Balancing of Reciprocating Mass

 The secondary balancing of reciprocating mass is defined as the given

below.

 Secondary force
 Primary forces must balance i.e., primary force polygon is enclosed.
 Primary couples must balance i.e., primary couple polygon is enclosed.
 Secondary forces must balance i.e., secondary force polygon is enclosed.
 Secondary couples must balance i.e., secondary couple polygon is
enclosed.

Balancing of Inline Engine

 The in-line engine is a multi-cylinder engine in which the line of stroke of all
reciprocating parts are placed parallel to each other. The net force acting
on inline is equal to zero. For this, the line of action of the forces must be
same, or in other words, the centre of mass of the system lie on the line.
 Primary force = mr ω 2 [cos θ + cos(180°+θ)]=0
 Primary couple = mr ω 2 l cos θ

Maximum value at θ = 0° and 180°

  Secondary force

Maximum value at θ = 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°

 Primary couple
Balancing of V-Engines

Consider a symmetrical two cylinder V-engine as shown in figure.

 Primary Force
o Total primary force along x-axis = 2 mr ω 2 cos 2 α cos θ
o Total primary force along z-axis = 2 mr ω 2 sin 2 α cos θ
o Resultant primary force

In case of 2α = 90°
tanβ = tanθ
and resultant force = mr ω 2 i.e., β=θ or it acts along the crank and it can be
complete balance volume by diametrically opposite mass such that mr rr = mr.

For a given value of α, the resultant primary force is maximum when θ is 0 o .

Secondary Force

 Total secondary force along x-axis

 Total secondary force along z-axis

  Resultant secondary force

 If 2α = 90° or α = 45°

Secondary force
tanβ’ = ∞ ⇒ β’=90
This means that at α = 45 o , the force out along z-axis and is a harmonic force and
special methods are needed to balance it.

Balancing of Radial Engine

 Crank rotating in the direction of engine rotation is known as the direct

crank and imaginary crank rotating in the opposite direction is known
asreverse crank.
 OA = primary direct crank
 OA’ = primary reverse crank
 OC = secondary direct crank
 OC’ = secondary reverse crank

Component of centrifugal force due to rotating mass along the line of stroke are
given below

Due to mass at

Due to mass at
Thus total force along line of stroke = mr ω 2 cosθ

Which is equal to the primary force.

 Secondary accelerating force

Component of centrifugal force due to rotating mass along the line of stroke are
given below

 Due to mass at

 Due to mass at

 Total secondary force along line of stroke

Gyroscope Study Notes for Mechanical Engineering

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A gyroscope has three axes. First, a spin axis, which defines the gyroscope
strength or moment. Let us call the other two the primary axis and the secondary
axis. These three axis are orthogonal to each other.
The spin axis rotates around the vertical line. The primary axis rotates the whole
gyroscope in the plane of the page, and the secondary axis rotates the gyroscope
up-and-over into the page.

The spin axis is the source of the gyroscopic effect.

The primary axis is conceptually the input or driving axis, and the secondary the
output. Then if the gyroscope is spun on its spin axis, and a torque is applied to
the primary axis, the secondary axis will precess.
The primary axis appears infinitely stiff to the applied torque and does not give
under it. This is the generally recognised characteristic of gyroscopic behaviour.
When a mass ‘m’ moves in a straight line at velocity ‘v’ it exhibits linear
momentum (m.v ). It is trivial to predict that if it is constrained to travel in a radius
‘r’ it will produce an angular momentum (m.v.r).
However with the angular momentum an effect that could not have been predicted
turns up - gyroscopic behaviour.
The fact that in the larger world the two effects occur together and in simple
proportion to each other does not mean that this is always the case - gyroscopic
behaviour occurs without angular momentum in electron behaviour, even though
the terms ‘spin’ and ‘spin angular momentum’ are still used for historical reasons,
even though there is no direct evidence that the electron’s mass or charge spins
on its own axis. It may simply be that rotating an object exposes the gyroscopic
moments of the elementary particles that make it up, possibly through the
asymmetric relativistic effects created by the centripetal acceleration; some major
experimental work is required in this area.

Angular momentum has the form “kilogram-meters 2 per second”.

Gyroscopic moment has the form “Newton-meters per Hertz”, or torque required
to produce a precession rate of one Hertz.
Both have the dimensions ‘L 2 M/T’, which means only that they are related by a
simple scalar number.
Basic gyroscope equations: The strength of a gyroscopic effect is termed the
gyroscopic moment. I use the symbol ‘G’, in units “Newton-meters/Hertz”.
A higher moment requires more torque to precess at the same frequency, or for
the same torque precesses at a lower rate where a gyroscope receives torque on
the primary axis and precession on the secondary, no work is being done.
The torque ‘T P’ on the primary axis has no precession associated with it, while the
precession rate ‘vS ’ on the secondary axis is:
vS = T P / G
and has no torque associated with it. Since the rate of doing work on each axis is
the torque times the precession on that axis, it follows that in this simple case no
energy is involved.
Gyroscopes do not differentiate between primary and secondary axes - this is a
purely artificial definition of my own.

A torque on the secondary axis creates precession on the primary axis.

Simultaneous torque on both axis will result in simultaneous precession. In this
case each axes will have both torque (creating precession on the other axis) and
precession (created by torque on the other axis).

Then the rate of doing work ‘P P’ on the primary axis is:

P P = T P.v P / G

and on the secondary:

P S = T S.v S / G

Now by applying the conservation of energy:

PP = - P S

i.e. the work done on one axis must appear on the other.
First apply a forcing torque to the primary axis; at this stage in the argument
imagine that the primary axis presents no stiffness against the forcing torque.
The secondary axis would precess at an infinite frequency, but for a limiting
mechanism that comes into play; just as torque creates precession, so precession
creates torque.
So as the secondary axis precesses it creates a reverse torque T PF on the primary
axis:
T PF = -v S.G

The precession rate always runs at that point where T PF is exactly equal and
opposite to T P. At this point:
T PF = -v S.G

= - (T P / G).G
 = - TP
The reverse torque generated by the precession exactly opposes the applied
torque so that the net torque is zero. If it was more the work would be done by the
gyroscope. If it was less the primary axis would give way under the applied torque
and work would be done with no outlet for it. Both conditions violate conservation
of energy principles.
If the secondary axis is locked against rotation and the primary axis is driven, no
opposing torque will appear on the primary axis, it is free to rotate without
hindrance.
No work is transferred through the gyroscope; there is motion without torque on
the primary axis.
The secondary axis has no motion; it is locked but instead experiences a torque
T SF :
T SF = v P.G
Introduction of Vibrations
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Vibrations: Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point.
In its simplest form, vibration can be considered to be the oscillation or repetitive
motion of an object around an equilibrium position.

Vibrations or mechanical oscillations are of many types as given below

 Free Vibration (Natural vibration) Vibration over an interval of time during

which the system is free from excitation is known as free vibration.
 Damped and Undamped Vibration: Energy of a vibrating system is
gradually dissipated by friction and other resistance. If damping is present,
then the resulting vibration is damped vibration and when damping is
absent it is undamped vibration. The damped vibration can again be
classified as under-damped, critically-damped and over-damped system
depending on the damping ratio of the system
 Forced Vibration When a repeated force continuously acts on a system,
the vibrations are said to be forced.
 Linear Vibration: If all the basic components of a vibratory system ‐the
spring, the mass, and the damper, behave linearly, the resulting vibration is
 known as linear vibration. The differential equations that govern the
behaviour of vibratory linear systems are linear. Therefore, the principle of
superposition holds.
 Nonlinear vibration: vibration: If however, however, any of the basic
components behave nonlinearly, the
 vibration is called ‘nonlinear vibration’. The differential equations that
govern the behaviour of vibratory non‐linear systems are non-linear.
Therefore, the principle of superposition does not hold.
 Deterministic Vibration: If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or
motion) acting on a vibratory system is known at any given time, the
excitation is called ‘deterministic’. The resulting vibration is known as
‘deterministic vibration’.
 Nondeterministic vibration: In some cases, the excitation is
non‐deterministic or random; the value of excitation at a given time cannot
be predicted. In these cases, a large collection of records of the excitation
may exhibit some statistical regularity. It is possible to estimate averages
such as the mean and mean square values of the excitation.
 Harmonic Vibration: Vibration in which the motion is a sinusoidal function
of time.
 Fundamental Vibration: Harmonic component of a vibration with the
lowest frequency.
 Steady State Vibration: When the particles of the body move in steady
state condition or continuing period vibration is called steady state
vibration.
 Transient Vibration: Vibratory motion of a system other than steady state.
 Longitudinal Vibration: Vibration parallel to the longitudinal axis of a
member
 Transverse Vibration: Vibration in a direction perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis or central plane of a member.
 Torsional Vibration: Vibration that involves torsion of a member.
Mode of Vibration: Configuration of points of a SHM is called the mode of
vibration.
Natural Frequency: Frequency of free simple harmonic vibration of an undamped
linear system.

Time Period: Time taken for one oscillation is called time period.
Simple Pendulum: If time period of the pendulum is 1s, then pendulum is called
simple pendulum.

Time period is given by

(for small amplitude sin θ ≈ θ)

[large amplitude (θ 0 )]
 If the time period of a simple pendulum is 2s, it is called second pendulum.
 If a simple pendulum is in a carriage which is accelerating with
accelerationa r then g eff = g-a
 If the acceleration a is upward

g eff = g+a

 If the acceleration a is downward g eff = g-a

 If the pendulum moves on edge which makes angle θ from horizontal.

 Simple pendulum consists of small sphere of mass m with

charge qsuspended by a thread of length l.
 Free and Forced Vibration Study Notes for Mechanical
Engineering
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Degree of Freedom: The minimum number of independent coordinates required to

determine completely the position of all parts of a system at any instant of time defines
the degree of freedom of the system. System with a finite number of degrees of freedom
are called discrete or lumped parameter system, and those with an infinite number of
degrees of freedom are called continuous or distributed systems.
Single degree of freedom: The number of degree of freedom of a mechanical
system is equal to the minimum number of independent co-ordinates required to
define completely the positions of all parts of the system at any instance of time.
Multi degree of freedom: A multi degree of freedom system is one for which 2 or
3 co-ordinates are required to define completely the positions of the system at
any instance of time.

Free vibration: When there is no external force acts on the body after giving an initial
displacement, then the body is said to be under free or natural vibration.

Forced vibration: When the body vibrates under the influence of external force the body
is said to be under forced vibration. The frequency of forced vibration is called forced
frequency.

Forced Vibrations with Damping

In this section, we will restrict our discussion to the case where the forcing function is a
sinusoid. Thus, we can make some general statements about the solution:

The equation of motion with damping will be given by:

Its solution will be of the form:

Notes:

 The homogeneous solution u h (t) → 0 as t → ∞, which is why it is called the

“transient solution.”
 The constants c1 and c2 of the transient solution are used to satisfy given initial
conditions.
 The particular solution u p (t) is all that remains after the transient solution dies
away, and is a steady oscillation at the same frequency of the driving function.
That is why it is called the “steady state solution,” or the “forced response.”
 The coefficients A and B must be determined by substitution into the different ial
equation.
 If we replace u p (t) = U(t) = Acos(ωt) + Bsin (ωt) with u p (t) = U(t) = Rcos(ωt-δ),

then , ,

and . (See scanned notes at end for derivation)

 Note that as ω → 0, .

 Note that when

 Note that as (mass is out of phase with drive).

 The amplitude of the steady state solution can be written as a function of all the
parameters of the system:
 Notice that is dimensionless (but proportional to the amplitude of the

motion), since is the distance a force of F 0 would stretch a spring with spring
constant k.

 Notice that is dimensionless...

  Note that as .
 Note that as ω → ∞, R → 0 (i.e., the drive is so fast that the system cannot
respond to it and so it remains stationary).
 The frequency that generates the largest amplitude response is:

Plugging this value of the frequency into the amplitude formula gives us:
If , then the maximum value of R occurs for ω = 0.

Resonance is the name for the phenomenon when the amplitude grows very large
because the damping is relatively small and the drive frequency is close to the undriven
frequency of oscillation of the system.

Forced Vibrations without Damping

The equation of motion of an undamped forced oscillator is:

When (non-resonant case), the solution is of the form:

When ω = ω 0 (resonant case), the solution is of the form:

Free Vibration of Undamped One Degree-of-Freedom Systems

Translation:

(a mass-spring system)

Solution:

Frequency:

Period:

Rotation:
(a pendulum)

Free Vibration of Damped One Degree-of-Freedom Systems

Damping factor:

c is the damping coefficient in the units of lbs per in/sec.

Solution:

The damped natural frequency is:

The system response when under-damped: ξ < 1

The system response when critically damped: ξ = 1

The system response when over-damped: ξ > 1

C1 and C 2 are the constants that are lengthy in closed-form. They can be found
numerically by the initial conditions.

Spring Block System

 Equivalent force constant (k) is given by

 If spring has a mass m s and a mass m is suspended from it,

  If block oscillated by massless spring.

 If spring cut new k e = 2k

Oscillation of a fluid column time period is given by

 The time period of the physical pendulum is given by

and a moment of inertia I=I G + ml 2

I G =mk 2 , k= Radius of gyration

I=m(k 2 +l2 )

(a)

(b)

(c)



Time period and natural Frequency

Geared torsional system can be shown in the figure

Note:

Harmonic Motion: Mass spring system .

Solution:
 : Natural frequency : Period of motion

Damped system:

Underdamped solution:

Where : damped natural frequency

and : Damping ratio.

Forced Vibration:

Or:

Harmonic excitation: F(t) = F0 sinωt Steady state response: x(t) = X

sin(ωt+φ)where and

Base excitation:

y(t) = Y sin ωt, response: x(t) = X sin(ωt+φ)

 : Transmissibility

Force transmitted to the base:

Rotating Unbalance:

Response: x(t) = X sin(ωt-φ)

Measuring devices:

Let z(t) = x(t)-y(t):

Motion of mass relative to the base.

If y(t) = Y cos ωt, equation becomes:

Solution: z(t) = Z cos(ωt-φ)

The device becomes an accelerometer for low frequencies (r<0.2) and a seismometer
(r>3) for high frequencies.

Periodic Excitation: A periodic function F(t) with period T can be expressed in Fourier
series as:
 Single DOF system:

where:

Non-periodic Forcing Single DOF system:

Impulse response function:

onvolution integral:

Energy loss in damping in one period:

In viscous damping: ΔE v = πωX 2 c

In Coulomb damping: ΔE c = 4μmgX

In structural damping: ΔE s = (πkβ)X 2

Effect of Damping Study Notes for Mechanical

Engineering
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Damping
Any influence which tends to dissipate the energy of a system. Single degree of
freedom system with viscous dampling can be shown in the figure below.

Damping Factor or Damping Ratio: It is the ratio of actual to critical damping

coefficient.
Dampling Coefficient of proportionality between the damping force and relative
velocity

 ξ = 1, the damping is known as critical under critical damping condition

Critical damping coefficient

 ξ > 1 i.e., the system is over damped

Motion is a periodic (non-oscillatory). In practice, no mechanical systems have

over damping.

 ξ < 1 i.e., system is underdamped.

 If the system oscillates with frequency

Damped frequency

(ωd is always less than ω n )

The above equation can be written as

X = constant

Linear frequency: Time period

where, C = actual damping coefficient

CC = critical damping coefficient

ωd = damped frequency
ξ = damping factor

ωn = natural frequency
Logarithmic Decrement: In an underdamped system, arithmetic ratio of two
successive oscillations is called logarithmic decrement (constant).

Since,

Logarithmic decrement,

or or In

Forced Vibration: Equation of forced vibration can be given as

In the case of steady state response first term zero (e -∞ = 0).

The amplitude of the steady state response is given by

Magnification Factor: Ratio of the amplitude of the steady state response to the
static deflection under the action force F0 is known as magnification factor.

Let frequency ratio

MF [Function H(ω)]

For small values of damping, the peak can be assumed to be at which define the
quality factor.
For the peak amplitudes occur at
 Vibration Isolation Study Notes for Mechanical
Engineering
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Importance of vibration isolation

 When an unbalanced machine is installed on the foundation, it produces

vibration in the foundation. So in order to prevent these vibrations or to
minimize the transmission of forces to the foundation, vibration isolation i s
important.

Methods of isolating the vibration

 High speed engines / machines mounted on foundation and supports cause

vibrations of excessive amplitude because of the unbalanced forces. It can
be minimized by providing “spring – damper” etc.
  The materials used for vibration isolation are rubber, felt cork, etc. these
are placed between the foundations and vibrating body.

Force Transmissibility

 Consider the machine mounted in springs as shown in fig. if the spring

used are helical and of steel, damping may be neglected, However, if leaf
springs or rubber and cork padding are used, damping case, spring force
can be considered to be of two parts-one proportional to displacement and
the other proportional to velocity. So our model of fig. can be used to
represent realistic conditions.
 Force transmitted to the foundations is by spring (KX) and by dashpot
(cωX) because these are the only connections. Spring force and damping
force vectors are at right angles. So the amplitude of force transmitted.
The ratio of the amplitude of the force transmitted to that of the exciting force is
called transmissibility of force and is

Which is non-dimensional quantity.

Transmissibility of motion

 Let us find the motion of the mass m in fig. when the support is given a
motion
 y = y0 sin ωt → (1)

 It is clear that because of the presence of damping the mass m will have a
displacement lagging behind that of the support.

Let its motion be

x = X sin (ωt - φ) → (2)

The equation of motion of mass m is
 mx+c(x-y)+K(x-y) = 0 →(3)
substituting for x, x and x from equation (2) and for y and y from equation (1),
equation (3) yields.
  Each one of the terms in equation represents a force. It may therefore be
represented by a rotating vector.

Plotting the vector gives the diagram of fig.

From the triangle of forces

By transforming the above equations to the non-dimensional form, the following
are obtained
Equation, giving the expression for transmissibility o motion is the same as
equation (7) giving the expression for force transmissibility.

Transmissibility

 Transmissibility is defined as the ratio of the force transmitted to the force

applied. It is measure of the effectiveness of the vibration isolating material.
Transmissibility

At resonance

When no damper is used ξ = 0

 Freuency response and phase relationship of single degree of freedom
system with base excitation transmissibility and phase relatively of a
system.
o At the response is same as the magnitude of the
excitation amplitude for the values of damping.
 o For the maximum experiences lower amplitude of
vibration than the base excitation.
o For damping is not useful, actually it
increases the amplitude for a given system.
o At resonance ω = ω n , the phase angle is not 90°.

A Single Degree of Freedom System Excited by Support Motion

H(ω) is maximum when

 Resonance Study Notes for Mechanical Engineering
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Resonance

 When the frequency of external force(driving frequency) is equal to the

natural frequency of a vibrating body, the amplitude of vibration becomes
excessively large. This phenomenon is known as resonance.
 If an object is being forced to vibrate at its natural
frequency, resonance will occur and you will observe large amplitude
vibrations. The resonant frequency is f o .
Effect of damping on resonance graph

 The amplitude of the resonance peak decreases and the peak occurs at a
lower frequency.
Phase and resonance

 The phase relationship between the driving oscillation and the the
oscillation of the object being driven is different at different frequencies.
 o Below resonance they are in phase with each other.
o At resonance the phase relationship is 90 o or π/2 rad.
o Above resonance the phase relationship is 180 o or π rad.
 All structures have a resonant frequency.
 If you impact the structure with enough force to make it move, it will vibrate
briefly at its natural frequency.
 A structure will have a resonant frequency in each of its 3 directional
planes (x, y and z, or as we call them, horizontal, vertical and axial).
 Resonance serves to amplify the vibration due to whatever vibration force
is present at (or near) that resonant frequency.
 It is important to note that resonance does not cause vibration, it amplifies
it.
 Resonance problems occur in two primary forms. They are:

Critical speeds

 It occurs when a component rotates at its own natural frequency.

o A "critical speed" is simply when the rotational speed (rpm) coincides
with the natural frequency of the rotor (cpm).
o The tiniest amount of residual unbalance (something that is always
present) is enough to cause huge amounts of vibration when rotating
at a critical.
o Rotors that are sped up or slowed down slowly are susceptible to this
(i.e. turbines). In these cases, the critical speed is usually well
known.

Structural resonances

 This is far more common than a critical speed problem. It becomes a

problem when some forcing frequency comes close (+/- 10%) to the
resonant (natural) frequency of a structure.
o The structure can be the machine housing itself or some nearby
structure such as a hand rail or I-beam.
 o The structure itself will vibrate excessively - do not confuse with a
critical speed.
o The "shape" of the structure's vibration is an important clue and is
known as a "mode shape".
o Testing for the structure's natural frequency is crucial (required) to
confirming a resonance problem.
 Resonance, once diagnosed, can be simple to correct. It can also be
extremely complex and difficult to correct.
 One method for determining a critical speed is a "Coast Down/Start Up
Plot".
 This plot consists of the 1x vibration amplitude being collected
simultaneously with a 1x rpm phase reading as the machine coasts to a
stop or goes from stopped to full running speed.
 This test requires a 1x rpm reference (from a photoeye or some other
speed tracking signal) in order to track the amplitude and phase at that
frequency.
 Two things are observed as the rotor passes through a critical:
o The 1x rpm amplitude will increase until the rotor reaches it's critical
and then decrease to the normal level as the speed continues to
change.
o Phase will shift 180° as the rotor passes through the critical. This is
due to the rotor changing from a rigid rotor (while operating below it's
critical) to a flexible rotor (while operating above it's critical
 If the measured response of the structure (i.e. it's resonant frequency) is
within about 10% of the forcing frequency (i.e. the rpm of the machine
although it can be at any frequency), resonance should be considered a
problem. The closer the two frequencies are, the more of a problem it is.

To correct a resonance problem, there are 4 methods:

 Stiffen the structure - This method raises the resonant frequency of the
structure.
  Add mass to the structure - This method lowers the resonant frequency.
 Change exciting frequency - Change the speed of the machine.
 Add a dynamic absorber to the structure - This method attaches the
equivalent of a tuning fork to the structure. This attachment is tuned to
have the same resonant frequency as the structure and sets up an out -of-
phase signal that has the effect of cancelling out (reducing) the signal
being generated by the structure. The dynamic absorber must be properly
sized to handle the forces being generated.

Critical Speeds of Shafts Study Notes for Mechanical

Engineering
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Critical Speed

 The critical speed essentially depends on

  Critical or whirling or whipping speed is the speed at which the shaft tends
to vibrate violently in transverse direction.
o The eccentricity of the C.G of the rotating masses from the axis of
rotation of the shaft.
o Diameter of the disc
o Span (length) of the shaft, and
o Type of supports connections at its ends.

For equilibrium,
ky = m(y+e) ω 2

y→∞, when ω n = ω

Critical speed,

where, ω = Angular velocity of shaft

k = stiffness of shaft

e = Initial eccentricity of centre of mass of rotor.

m = Mass of rotor

y = Additional of rotor due to centrifugal force

Dynamic force on the bearings,

Critical speed for Simple Shaft
  Bending Critical Speed: We can also write function as total displacement

rω = Re i(ωt-φ)

where,

Hence, dynamic magnifier and phase angle.

For an undamped rotor resonance occurs,

When ω = ω n

Also at resonance, φ = 90°

mω 2 a = cωR

Distance of the centre of gravity from the bearing axis or whirl amplitude
Critical Speed for Multi-mas System

 Bending Critical speed

o The synchronous whirl frequency increases with the rotational speed
linearly and can be represented 1 × rev excitation frequency,
whenever, this excitation line intersects the natural frequencies,
critical speeds occur.
Durkerley’s lower bound approximation,
Considering n degree of freedom,

Where influence coefficient

Rayleigh’s upper bound approximation,