3278 IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-104, No.

11, November 1985

Volt/Var Control on Distribution Systems with Lateral Branches
Using Shunt Capacitors and Voltage Regulators
Part I: The Overall Problem
J.J.Grainger, Senior Member, IEEE S.Civanlar, Student Member, IEEE
Department of Electrical and Compuiter Engineering
North Carolina State University
-Raleighl, NC 27695-7911
Abstract:
In this paper (Part I) and two companiotn papers (Part IH and Part reactive current flow along the distribution system.
III) the problem of volt/var control on general radial distribution The use of fixed and ON/OFF switched capacitors provides
systems is formulated, simplified and solved. The objective is to considerable reduction in power losses and improvement in the vol-
minimize the peak power and energy losses while keeping the vol- tage profile when the capacitors are controlled to respond to daily,
tage within specified limits under varying load conditions. The deci- weekly or seasonal changes in feeder reactive loads. However, capa-
ston variables to be optimally determined are (i) the locations, sizes citors alone may niot provide an acceptable degree of voltage con-
and the real-time control of the specified number of O.N/OFF trol especially in to-day's context of conservation voltage reduction
switched and fixed capacitors and (ii) the locations and real-time schemes. In order to provide smooth voltage profile within specified
control of the mirnimum number of voltage regulators. It is shown in bandwidth, it may be necessary to install feeder voltage regulators
this paper (Part I) that the regulator (volt) and the capacitor (var) in addition to the capacitors.
problem may be treated as two decoupled problems. Part II of this In this paper and its companion papers [22,23], we refer to the
set of three papers, conjoined with Part 1. provides the analytical "regulator problem" which concerns the determination of the loca-
tools by which optimal solutions for both problems may be deter- tions and minimum number of feeder regulators necessary to main-
mined. Application of the theory to representative radial systems is tain the voltage profile on a general radial distribution system
shown in Part III whhich also illustrates the economic benefits and within a prespecified bandwidth. In addition, the action of the regu-
numerical results achievable through both regulation and compensa- lators is to be such as to provide the best possible voltage profile
tion schemes. while maximally decreasing system losses; this is done by control-
INTRODUCTION ling the regulator tap positions under time varying feeder-load con-
Distribution automation (DA) schemes are in various stages of ditions. The distribution engineer is well aware of the interaction
development and demonstration on electric utility systems, both between voltage regulators and switched capacitors along the radial
large and small, across the nation. It is clear that the next few system. In this and the companion papers, we refer to the "capaci-
tor problem" which relates to determining the locations, sizes and
years will be a period for rapid technological and implementation
advances as more and more DA systems move towards commercial- the optimal control of the shunt capacitors to be installed on the
ization and widespread use. In to-day's context, distribution auto- system. Because of the interdependency between feeder voltages
mation is seen by the electric utility industry as an integral part of and capacitor outputs, the simultaneous consideration of the regu-
the hierarchical systems approach to the automatic generation con- lator problem and the capacitor problem is very complicated and to
trol, system protection, substation/feeder monitoring and control, the author's knowledge there is no previous significant work of an
and load management needs of an electric utility's system. The fac- analytic nature which treats the problem for voltage control and
tors motivating distribution automation, primarily economic in
loss minimization.
nature, are associated with to-day's emphasis on enhanced use of Another important contribution of this work concerns the
existing facilities and deferral of new construction. Additionally, modeling of the distribution systems encountered in practice. The
there are growing needs to ensure adequate reliability, improved complexity of the distribution system is clearly evident in Fig.I
control and quality of the service in the face of increased distribu- which shows the one line diagram of an existing 23 kV feeder on
tion system activity caused by customer-load management and the Carolina Power and Light Company system [24]. For such a
cogeneration impacts, among others. system there is a clear need to represent the lateral and sublateral
It is universally acknowledged that the voltage/reactive power branches which have been ignored in almost all previous studies. Of
control function (called here volt/var control) has a pivotal role to obvious interest is the need to reduce the enumeration problems
play within the DA schemes being developed. The rapidly escalat- relating to location of regulators and capacitors. In this set of three
papers it will be shown that lateral and sublateral branches can be
ing costs of generation facilities and energy production have incorporated with ease into the solution methodologies presented.
focussed attention on the need to minimize peak-hour demand and
energy losses over time. Reduction of demand and energy losses is Several authors have addressed the capacitor problem but the
of obvious interest to all electric utilities, with or without genera- work of only a few has considered the actual physical structure of
tion facilities, since direct/indirect demand and energy costs are the distribution systems. The first attempts to formulate the prob-
incurred without regard for corporate boundaries. Developments in lem for radial feeders were miade by Neagle and Sampson, Cook,
distribution automation via substation-based computers and Chang and others [1-71. These methodologies suffer from lack of
feeder-data acquisition systems permit the effective reduction of generality and consider an oversimplified model for the problem. In
system losses by the real-time control of the voltage profile and references [8-10], Grainger and Lee formulated the capacitor prob-
lem for the mnore general case where nonuniform wire sizes, any
given number of fixed and switched capacitors and a weighted cost
85 SM" 385-41 R Paner recomm:eraced and aooroveo function are considered.
oy the 1 Te us-iac'r and, Distribution Ccmriiittee The advantages of varying the capacitive vars in response to
of the IEEE Power Evr;ineerinc Soc,iety for oresernta-
tionr at tile 1DE/1E:/'PS 1985 S-orirte'- "eeticng, Vancouver, the load change have been recognized since the 1940's. Cuttino pro-
B.C.. Canada, July 14 - 19. 1t985. Manuscrinot sub- posed schemnes using a comnbination of discrete tapped capacitors,
rc-itted Seeotee,ner 5i, 1984; 'tade avai'lable for orint- synchronous condensors and voltage regulators to achieve an
irn Por 1 30. 1985. effective control over power losses and voltage [11,121.

0018-9510/85/1100-3278$01.00©1985 IEEE
 3279
Intrinsically associated with delivery of customer load on the pri-
nmary distribution system, there are demand (kilowatt) losses
which, over a period of time, reflect energy (kilowatthour) losses.
Such losses, frorm the viewpoint of the u'pstream systenm back
towards generation, cannot be distinguished fromn systemi load. The
capacity required to meet the demand losses (accounting for peak
responsibility and diversity factors) may rnecessitate capital expen-
ditures while production costs are certainly incurred in satisfying
the energy losses. Each company will have its own method for
establishing the present worth of a kiloWatt of capacity (denioted
below by K ) and the levelized cost of' a kilowatthour of energy
(denoted below by he) Today's production cost programs facili-
tate such calculations for costs avoided through capacitive compen-
sation loss reduction schemes. The mlethodology presented in this
set of papers is general in the respect that the values for K arid
K. can be chosen by the distribution engineer in a manrier p
appropriate to a company's practices. The cost per kilovar of capa-
citance, denoted here by Kc, is of course a function of the capaci-
tor bank size. Matheniatically, the problem can be stated as fol-
lows:
MAXIMIZE
n
S = Kp (LPd LP ) Ke (LEd LEq)- C C
i=l (I)

rMs
L \ such that
0 d 1 2 3 4 5 6 179 10 u
Vmin C rc (-) C Vmax (2)
Fig.1 The one line diagram of the CP&L 23 kV distributiron system.
0 7. T; i-t,2,...,n
where
Recently, the control problenm has been riodeled for the nonsimul-
taneously ON/OFF switched capacitors in [t3-14]. Also, more LPd, LPq rhe peak power loss reductions due to the respective
eflective controls are suagested hy assurinlg continuous kvar varia- real and imaginary current componenlts, because of
tions to achieve exactly desired degree of control 115-171. The prac- having capacitors and voltage regulators.
tical realization of the continuous controls using discrete-tapped LEd, LEq The energy reductions due to the respective real and
capacitors is rigorously modeled in [181. In all of' these references, imaginary current components, hecause of having
however, the distribution network is representedi by a single ra'dial capacitors and voltage reglllators.
path.
An attempt to place, size and control switched capacitors on
Vniam Vmin
The maximum and minimum voltage limits.
more general systems is made in [19]. but the procedures are mainly
based on heuristics. The rnethods of [)201, developed to solve the Virc(r ) The voltage at bus i of the regulated and compen-
same problem, require that groups of capacitors be switched sated feeder at time T.
together. Furthermore, the method involves considerable amount of Kp, Ke Present worth equivalent coniversion factors.
enumeration when the number of capacitors is large. Kc (1C)10Y The cost of installation of the 'th capacitor with a
rating of Ico
This set of three papers formulates the voltage regulator and
the capacitor problems for general radial distribution systerns with rn m The number of capacitors and the number of system
lateral branches. Part I describes the problem globally, and, using busses, respectively.
physically justifiable assumptions, shows that the two problems can
be solved using a decoupled model. In thte second paper, Part II, T Time on the basis of the load duration curve represen-
both problems are discussed in detail using reasonably simple solu- tation.
tion methods. Illustratory examples with interesting numerical T The design period.
results are provided in Part III. Power Loss Rteduction
OVERALL OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM The power loss reduction at time 7, P(T), efiected throuigh
thc use of 'n capacitors and(i n.0, voltage regulJators, arises tromri the
Faced with a complex, evolving distribution system such as real (i.e. d-axis) an(l reactive (i.e. (q-axis) power loss reductioni com-
shown in Fig.1, the distribution engineer seeks to know ponients which we characterize hy
(i) where to locate, how to size and then how to control the n P(T) = Pd (T) tzqi t
fixed and/or ON/OFF switched capacitors on the system such w here
that the rnet annu'al dollar savings, 8, from the capacity release li
and energy loss reduction are maximized while accounting for
the cost of capacitor installation (i.e. the capacitor problem) I( ) r N' f( (1(yi T)-([dc(q' 7)- I1ri(yi,T))2dyi(.1)
i I d
(ii) where to locate and how to control the minimum numiber
of feeder voltage regulators such that the voltage profile along
the feeder is within prespecified maximum and minimum limnits a1i(i
as load varies in time and the net annual savings function S is it
further maximized (i.e. the regulator problem) y X = i rc()i,
) re
t ---lI o
3280

Here The Linear Regulator Model

Fd (yi, T),F ,q
(Yi
The real and reactive current distributions on the
feeder without voltage regulators and capacitors (i.e.
bare feeder).
Fd tY T) Fq C(Yi,
The real and reactive load current distributions on
the capacitively compensated and regulated feeder.
Fcd t )7cq Yi ) ally very small for typical distribution systems. Furthermore,
The real and reactive capacitor current distributions
on the regulated feeder.
r The uniform equivalent resistance. Different section
resistances are normalized by the method given in
Reference [8].
s The number of lateral branches.
yi The distance measure along branch i. The zero point
is the beginning junction.
I: The lenzth of the ith branch. See Fig.2
The analytical expressions for the current distributions are
given in the Appendix assuming concentrated PQ loads conformally
varying according to the time variation a (T). A close look at
Eqs.(A.t) to (A.5) reveals that the computation of the current dis-
tribuitions for the feeder, before and after the application of the
capacitors and the voltage regulators, requires the knowledge of the
voltage profile under these two conditions. Thus, in order to
differentiate these cases the superscripts b and rc are used.
A voltage regulator is usually represented by a iT equivalent
network as shown in Fig.3. In general the relationship between the
unregulated voltage profile and the regulated voltage profile is non-
linear after an adjustment of the tap ratio and is determined by a
load-flow analysis. Particular to radial distribution systems a sim-
ple linear model can be used to approximate this relationship. The
basis of the linear model is as follows:
(i) The bus angles, relative to a substation reference, are usu-
the change in the tap ratio causes negligibly small changes in
the bus angle values. Thus the angles of the regulated bus vol-
tages can be reasonably assumed to satisfy the requirements of
the VP-Model [21].
(ii) The bus voltage magnitudes on the primary side of the
regulator are essentially unchanged whereas those on the
secondary (i.e. regulated) side change linearly with tap ratio
when a regulator model as shown in Fig.3 is used.
1 :t
b

(bi+ bi

,/

F'ig.3 The 17 equivalent representation for the Voltage regulator

Consider that there are nf voltage regulators sequentially installed

along the radial system with the ith one located at btus bi having
a tap setting of ti, Fig.4. The regulated and unregulated voltage
magnitudes of bus i, at time T on the capacitively compensated sys-
tem, are denoted by Vrc(7) and Vi(T) respectively. Based on the
linear regulator model, the regulated bus voltages in terms of the
Fig.2 The notation, indicated on a distriblution system with lateral unregulated voltages and the tap ratio can be expressed as follows:
branches (i) For all busses i on the primary side of the first regulator
VrC(T) =Vi (T) (8)
The Peak Power and Energy Loss Reductions (ii) For all busses i between say the k th and (k+1) th regula-
tors along the same radial path
The peak power loss reduction can be found from Eq.(3) as k
follows: (9)
virC(-,) =
Tr ti.(IT) Vi( )
LPd + LPq = Pd(T) + Pq(T) (6)
and the energy loss reduction is then given by It remains to examine the effects of the current injections from
T the two shunt admittances of the regulator on the real and reactive
current distributions. Denoting the currents injected through the
LEd + LEq = f(Pd(T) + Pq(7) )dT (7)
shunt admittances by Ir and Ir as shown in Fig.3, we then can
0
find from Eqs.(8) and (9) that
where T and T are cumulative times corresponding to the load
duration curve. I = -I (10)
Thus the net current injected through the shunt admittances of the
DECOUPLED PROBLEM REPRESENTATION
regulator is essentially zero. It follows, therefore, that the effect of
The optimization problem described above is extremely comi- the regulator on the real and reactive load current distributions
plicated owing to the voltage coupling. In what follows the model Frc(.) and Frc(.), can be expressed in terms of the voltage change
is simplified using practically feasible assumptions which are as in Eqs.(8) and (9). Furthermore, the regulator itself is considered
confirmed numerically in Part III. lossless.
 3281
Under the assumption given by Eq.(1l), the reactive load current
distribution is given by,
Frc(y.,,)= F,(yj)a(T) (17)
where
QJ,
(18)
je-S(yt) V0"
1 :tt ' I :t
nv
and Q is the peak reactive power at bus j, while S(yi) is the set
41 E ~/ containing the indices of all busses that are needed to compute the
b1 current distribution at distance yi along branch i.
Remark
What remains undefined in the problem posed by Eq.ff14) is the
time variation of the capacitor current distribution, Fcq(yij)_ In
Part II [22] the so-called capacitor control subproblem is essentially
the determination of this time variation in an optimal manner such
Fig.4 The numbering scheme for the regulators. that the power loss reduction due to the reactive current flow along
the system is maximized at each time 7. Because of Eq.(11),
The control action of the voltage regulators is to keep the voltage Fc<7(Yij) can be expressed in terms of the time varying currents
profile within tight limits. In the most practical cases, the actual of the n capacitors denoted by I (-1), i 1,2,...n as will be
operational voltage V0P at any bus i will be controlled such that, shown in Part Il, where
at any time T, Ici (T) = QCi (T)2/ VoP (19)
V'; rce.) = V0P ,Vmin V°P C Vmax (11) and QC' is the nominal kvar rating of the ith capacitor. A more
detailed analysis of the problem is left to Part II.
Just as shown in Reference 21, tb- real component of the capacitive
current distribution is negligibly Mkfathematically, THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR PROBLEM
Ftq(i >> Fr(Y ) (1 2) This problem is the determination of the number and loca-
tions of the voltage regulators such that the following cost function
The numerical results in Part III of this set of papers [293] illustrate is maximized:
the appropriateiness of the approximations indicated above.
The cost function given in Eq.(1) can be written in the follow- Sd= KLPd + KeLEd (20)
ing form under the voltage constraints of
S = Sd + Sq (13) Vrnin (T) max (21)
where Sd and Sq, respectively, are the parts of the cost functiorn
0 -' --= T; i=1,2,..m
due to the d- and q-axis components.
The basis of the decoupling of the regulator and the capacitor Based on (12), LPd and LEd can be approximated as follows:
problems is constitute(d by Eqs.(11), (12), and the linear regulator l
It-
model as described above. The decoupled model decomposes the LPd = r f(Fd(yi,T)2-F (yi,T)`)dY (22)
overall problem into two problems, narnely maximization °f Sd in i=l
terms of the variables of the voltage regulator problem, and rimax-
imization of S q in terms of the variables of the capacitor problem. T
The new equivaleht problem which has two decoupled subproblems L LEd=
= r J:f f F b(Yi
J zr)9 _ *'drc -iT,)") dyi dTd (2 3)
is outlined in what follows, and the solution methodologies for each 0 i=1 0

problem is given in Part II [22].

Remark
The optimal design of the regulators require the information about
THE CAPACITOR PROBLEM the real-time control of the regulator taps, which are implicitly
This problem is the determination of the locations, sizes and involved in the regulated voltages Vi c(T). The optimal control of
the optimal control of the n-capacitors such that the following is the regulator taps to mininmize the power losses within the specified
miaxiinized voltage limits is the problem to be solved before the design problem
n by assuming the regulators are already located on the system. The
Sq -K LPq + Ke LEq - (14) so-called optimal regulator tap control problem in Part It [22]
i deals with determination of the regulator tap-variations in time to
where minimize Pd('r).
The block diagram of the decoupled model is shown in Fig.5.
Notice that the interaction between the two problems mentioned
above is basically because of the voltage coupling. However. having
1 0
the regulated voltage profile almost constant around a V0o, allows
(15) decoupling, of the capacitor and regulator problems. With this
decoupling the capacitor problem stands alone. On the other hand,
and the regulator problem is coupled to the capacitor problem because
T
s of the need for the unregulated voltage which can only be com-
LEq = rf E (q F[c,(y ))2)dy.d- puted if the capacitor information (namely, the locations, sizes and
the control) is known. Fortunately, this coupliing is weak; the net
0 i=-1 0
reactive current is negligible compared to the real current flow on
the system which has optimal capacitive compensation. Thus, as
3282
shown in [21], the voltage on the system can be calculated using
only the information about the locations of the capacitors. By the DECOUPLED PROBLEM
use of the VP-Model of [21], the voltages can be calculated without
the exact knowledge of the control of capacitors at each instant of THE CAPACITOR PROBLEM
time. As depicted in Fig.5 the use of VP-voltages as representative
of the unregulated voltage profile decouples the two problems. MINI[MIZE Sq
WITH RESPECT TO THE LOCATIONS, SIZES AND
THE CONTROL OF THE CAPACITORS.

OVERALL PROBLEM
VOLTAGE PROFILE AT V0P
MINIMIZE Sd + Sq
SUCH THAT
yrmin vc(- max VP-VOLTAGE PROFILE
WITH RESPECT TO TIIE VARIABLES OF
(i) THE CAPACITOR PROBLEM
THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR PROBLEM
(ii)THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR PROBLEM
MINIMIZE Sd
SUCH THAT
DECOUPLED PROBLEM Vmin < Vrc(T) <
Vmax
WITH RESPECT TO THE THE LOCATIONS
THE CAPACITOR PROBLEM AND THE CONTROL OF THE VOLTAGE
MINIMIZE Sq REGULATORS
Fig.6 The block diagram of the Decoupled Model
WITHI RESPECT TO THE LOCATIONS, SIZES
AND THE CONTROL OF THE CAPACITORS.
APPENDIX
UNREGULATED REGULATED The real and reactive current distributions Fd (Yi,), and
VOLTAGES VOLTAGES(VOP) Fq (yi,7) along any branch i and at time 7 can be found in general
form as follows:
THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR PROBLEM Pj()cos 6I(T) + Q (7)sin1 (7) (A.l)
d(Yi-T) = E Vr (, ) -

j S(y1)
MINIMIZE Sd and
SUCH THAT P, COSj(Tf A.2)
(-'I) sin. 6aj(-'Qj (T)cos
Vmin < Virc() . Vmax Fq(YI7T)= jES(y1)
E IX.{xA t.~ ~ ~(
WITH RESPECT TO THE THE LOCATIONS AND where
THE CONTROL OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATORS The bus angle at the jth bus at time T
Vj(T) The voltage magnitude at bus j at time 7
Fig.5 The block diagram of the problem P1(T) Real load at the jth bus at time T
Q1(T) Reactive load at the 3th bus at time T
Since the real and reactive powers are conforimally varying accord-
ing to a(X), we can substitute the following into Eqs.(A.1) and
(A.2) and simplify the expression.
Pj(7) = P a(7); Q (T)= Q a(7) (A.3)
CONCLUSIONS The real and reactive capacitor currenit distributions due to n time
In this paper the general formulation of the volt/var design prob- varying (switched) capacitors can be found from,
lem which involves the optimal real-time control of the ON/OFF
switched capacitors and voltage regulators is given. The formula-
Fcd(Yi,7) =
, QcjSinf)cj(7)Vcj-() (A.4)
jeS(lJt)
tion is simplified through physically justifiable approximations. It is
shown that the resultant formnulation (decouples the volt and var and
problems. The two decoupled problems are expressed as two
independent optimization problems. The solution of the problems is
Fcq(Yi ,T) = E QcjCOSjT(7)Vcj(7) (A.5)
given in Part II of this paper set and numerical results along with
jES(y,)
economic cost/benefit considerations are set forth in Part [II. where Qcj is the nominal kvar output of the Ith capacitor. The
superscripts b and rc will apply wherever they are suitable.

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