OTC 19160

Design Challenges Due to Wax on a Fast-Track Deepwater Project

Amir Alwazzan, SPE, Mark Utgard, SPE, AMEC Paragon, Inc., and Dalmo Barros, Petrobras America Inc.

Copyright 2008, Offshore Technology Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2008 Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 5–8 May 2008.

This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Offshore Technology Conference, its
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reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of OTC copyright.

Abstract
Flow assurance threats, such as hydrates, waxes, and asphaltenes, can be identified and controlled if oil and gas production
and transportation systems are designed accordingly and proper operating procedures are implemented. To this end,
prevention of wax deposition is a key component of good subsea deepwater system design. Wax deposition can form a
blockage and impede flow, causing weeks of lost production and an operating nightmare.

This paper discusses the challenges associated with the design of the Cottonwood deepwater subsea tieback in Gulf of
Mexico Garden Banks 244 (GB-244). The subsea infrastructure for Cottonwood consists of two wells at a depth of 2,118 ft
located in block GB-244 and connected via a flow line loop of two 6-inch, 17.4-mile lines running parallel to the host facility
located in East Cameron Block 373 (EC-373). An 8-inch, 20-mile export pipeline transports the condensate from EC-373 to a
platform in Garden Banks 72 (GB-72). Production from the field is predominantly natural gas with condensate and formation
water.

There was a lack of reliable fluid property data for the development, but potential wax deposition problems were expected
based on known operations experience with comparable neighboring fields. In addition, this project required a fast-track
subsea development project, creating challenges in design and implementation.

This paper highlights the flow assurance challenges that were studied to develop operational strategies to enable prevention
of wax deposition during initial production while maintaining the flexibility to accommodate modifications that might be
advisable after actual fluid property data is available for review. In short, this paper presents the wax-related measurements
and the effective strategies developed for wax control and remediation during start-up and ongoing operations.

Introduction
Flow assurance in subsea systems is one of the main issues in the design of deepwater field developments. Flow assurance
efforts focus on preventing solid deposits from blocking or restricting the rate of flow from the well. The principal solids of
concern are wax and hydrates. Scale and asphaltenes can also be a concern. For a given reservoir fluid, these solids
precipitate at certain combinations of pressure and temperature. Precipitated solids are often carried downstream slurried in
the fluid, but precipitated solids can also deposit on the walls of the production equipment, which ultimately causes high
pressure drops, plugging, and flow stoppage. Control of this deposition - via prevention and/or mitigation –is the essence of
flow assurance.

Wax in hydrocarbons is comprised primarily of paraffin, which is a white, odorless, tasteless, chemically inert compound
composed of saturated hydrocarbons. The linear paraffins are easily measured by high-temperature gas chromatograph
(HTGC). The HTGC technique measures the amount of each n-alkane in the sample. The sum of the n-alkanes greater than
20 carbons is reported as the n-paraffin or wax content of the hydrocarbon. In general, the amount of wax decreases with
decreasing API gravity. Wax varies in consistency from that of petroleum jelly to hard wax, with melting points from near
room temperature to over 210 oF. Wax has a density of around 50 lb/ft3 and a heat capacity of around 0.081 Btu/(ft.h.oF).

While wax may cause a number of problems in a production system, two critical issues require special attention: (1) gel
formation (precipitation) and (2) deposition. A hydrocarbon gel forms when wax precipitates from the oil and forms a three-
dimensional structure spanning the pipe. This condition does not occur while the fluid is flowing because the intermolecular
2 OTC 19160

structure is destroyed by shear forces as soon it is able to form. When the fluid stops flowing, however, wax particles will
interact and join together, potentially forming a network resulting in a gel structure if enough wax is out of solution. In a
pipe, wax deposition results in flow restrictions or possibly a complete blockage. Complete blockage of flow due to
deposition is rare. Slow buildup of wax layers in pipelines and flowlines is caused by the solidification of the paraffinic
fractions on the cold inner surface of the pipe wall. Wax deposition is expected during steady state operation in the flowline
where the production stream temperature is less than the wax appearance temperature (WAT). The deposition rate depends
mainly on the fluid characteristics, flowing and pipe wall temperatures, the heat flux through the pipeline and the shear stress
at the wall.

Multiphase gas condensate flowlines undergo wax deposition and build-up in ways much different from those found in crude
oils, either live or dead. One of the main reasons for this difference is that the liquid holdup in gas condensate flowlines tends
to cause wax crystals to accumulate. If the concentration of wax crystals becomes high, the liquid holdup becomes a viscous
“wax slush” that increasingly cannot be pushed out of the pipeline either via natural or induced slugging.

In addition to the issues discussed above and to the particular features of this project, the complexity of the production
process can cause problems. Risks strongly interact with each other. For example, equipment failures may stop the subsea
production system and possibly lead to major flow assurance risks. Therefore, engineers always need to have alternative
plans in case of unforeseen circumstances.

The field development discussed in this paper had a number of unique characteristics and features that posed challenges for
the project development, including:

• High WAT
• Lack of crucial information during the early design stage
• Relatively deep water
• Rough seabed combined with long tie-back distance
• Complex, multi-layer reservoirs, leading to uncertainty in reserves and rates, and, in some cases, the nature of
expected hydrocarbons
• Subsea flow line design using single or dual-connected pipelines
• Tight schedule (20 months from conceptual phase to first gas).

The sections below describe the methodologies used to identify and evaluate the severity of the problems posed by wax and
the concurrent system implications. Also described is the risk management methodology developed based on the general
framework provided and the project schedule and cost.

System Overview
The field is located in the United States Gulf of Mexico (GoM), at a water depth of about 2,118 ft and a reservoir depth of
18,205 ft MD. The system consists of dual 6-inch flow lines running parallel for 17.4 miles from the wells to the host
platform, (EC-373). The production system was designed for the two wells to produce 70,000 mmscfd gas, 150 stb/mmscf
condensate and 2 bbl/mmscf water. The reservoir pressure and temperature are 14,474 psia and 212 oF, respectively. The
wells’ shut-in tubing pressures (SITP) were anticipated to be high, and the flow lines were designed to a 13,145 psi maximum
allowable operating pressure.

The wells were completed using horizontal trees. The trees and the two 6-inch flow lines are connected via two pipeline end
terminals (PLET) linked to form a pigging loop. One main control umbilical is designed to link the host facility to the subsea
umbilical termination assembly (SUTA), which is controlled via an electric/hydraulic multiplexed control system operated
from a control room operator interface. The wells are equipped with digital hydraulic pressure transformation (DHPT)
sensors and the trees with production and annulus pressure sensors. All pressure and temperature sensor data are displayed at
the control room operator interface and saved for future reference. The production system is equipped with topside chemical
injection, umbilical, trees and well systems to provide paraffin and hydrate inhibitors, as will be discussed in the following
sections. Figure 1 shows the field layout.
OTC 19160 3

F/L A

F/L B

Fig. 1: Field layout overview

Wax Deposition Control and Management Strategy

Early Subsea Configuration Design
The lack of necessary information was one of the greatest technical challenges. The flow lines were generally designed for
steady state production conditions, in accordance with a base case production forecast, base case well temperature profile and
minimum ambient seabed temperature profile. In addition, one of the key line sizing criteria was to achieve a large degree of
operational flexibility, i.e., turndown flexibility in each of the two multiphase transport pipelines without mitigation actions
such as dynamic pigging.

Based on the preliminary information on the severity of the wax problem and considering other operational factors, a dual
pipeline system was selected as opposed to one single, large-diameter pipeline for the following reasons:

• Allows dynamic pigging by periodically increasing the production rate through one line at a time to sweep out
liquid.
• Facilitates the pigging-on-the-fly operation (as discussed in a following section).
• Enables production through only one line at low production rates.
• Facilitates sufficient turndown and ramp-up capability to meet operational and commercial requirements.
• Reduces liquid surge volumes (slug volumes) during transient operations.
• Increases production availability in case of blockage and increase flexibility to mitigate the possible blockage.

Fluids Sampling Program

In-situ reservoir fluid samples were taken at a depth of 18,205 ft MD at the reservoir pressure (14,474 psia) and a reservoir
temperature of 189-201 °F. The samples were obtained by Schlumberger in multi-port sample reservoir (MPSR) and modular
reservoir sample chamber (MRSC) down-hole samplers and subsequently transferred into cylinders after proper fluid
restoration. The samples consisted of gas condensate with liquid gravities ranging from 34.7 to 37.4 °API. The fluid is a rich
gas condensate with a yield of about 160 stb/mmscf or a gas-oil ratio of 6253-6474 scf/stb. In general, rich gas condensates in
the GoM are known to be waxy and do cause wax deposition problems that on occasion have resulted in plugged flow lines.
In two cases, the flow lines had to be abandoned.
4 OTC 19160

Initial investigation showed that the wax content of this field is high compared with most of the fields in the area. As a result,
the risk of poor flow line performance due to wax accumulation was deemed to be serious, and further investigations and
studies were recommended.

Wax Analyses
Three studies were carried out by three different parties during front-end engineering design (FEED) and detailed
engineering. Below is a brief discussion of each study’s methodologies, procedures and results.

1st Study
This study was carried out to determine the WAT. The collected samples were heated to 170oF at a pressure of 17,000 psig
and mechanically agitated for 24 hours prior to any sub-sampling. After pressure and temperature restoration, the subsurface
gas samples were transferred in single-phase to a pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) cell, where they were expanded to the
required test conditions of 1,300 psig at 68 °F. The 1,300 psig equilibrium condensate liquid was subjected to a flowing
temperature profile using a proprietary capillary flow system equipped with a small-bore (1/8") cold-drawn capillary tube,
high-accuracy pressure transducers and a high-precision resistance thermal detector (RTD), which were mounted in the
sample flow stream. The 1,300 psig condensate was charged to the capillary flow system (CFS) after pre-heating to 200 °F
and pressurizing to 5,000 psig. Once charged to the capillary, the capillary bath temperature was set to 150 °F and the
pressure reduced to approximately 2,000 psig. Sample flow was initiated at an approximate shear rate of 3,250 lbf/100ft2 (or
2.5 ml/min) to keep the sample in the laminar-inertial flow regime. The differential pressure was logged as the capillary bath
temperature was reduced in incremental steps, allowing the flow (dP) to stabilize at each step. Results of the flowing
temperature profile test indicated no detectable pour point temperature or gelling tendency. The wax appearance temperature
(WAT) of the 1,300 psig condensate was measured using a near infrared (NIR) closed cell. The wax appearance temperature
(WAT) of the 1,300 psig condensate liquid was determined to be 124 °F, and the NIR “absorbance” trace is shown in Figure
2.

Fig. 2: WAT @1,300 psig and NIR absorbance trace

Upon completion of the testing for the 1,300 psig condensate, a second liquid was created by further depletion of the 1,300
psig equilibrium condensate to 100 psig. The WAT of the 100 psig equilibrium liquid was measured by NIR and found to be
135 °F. The organic solids onset determined through NIR spectroscopy is shown in Figure 3.
OTC 19160 5

Fig. 3: Organic solids onset by NIR spectroscopy

Recalling that depressurizing the system to low pressures is the first step in mitigating hydrate blockage (if it occurs), the
results of this study highlight a new challenge as it recommends avoidance of depressurization below the 1,300 psig limit.

2nd Study
A live-oil isobaric near-infra-red (NIR) study was conducted to determine the WAT, construct the wax deposition envelope
(WDE), and determine several experimental points on this envelope. The following wax onset data were obtained: one
atmospheric NIR scan point, four isobaric NIR scans below dew point, and two isobaric NIR scans above dew point. The
WDE data for the live reservoir fluid at relevant conditions is shown in Figure 4.

Fig. 4: NIR WAT test

The WAT of the condensate was re-run with blowdown fluid from the sample. The data shown in Figure 5 below indicates a
WAT of 95 oF (dead liquid condensate).
6 OTC 19160

Fig. 5: NIR WAT Test at 1 Atmosphere of dead fluid

The highest temperature in the pressure-temperature (P-T) diagram shown in Figure 4 is 114 oF, occurring at 14,500 psia.
From the steady-state analyses (as discussed in the next section), it is obvious that the operating pressure and temperature will
be in the thermodynamic region (or sector) where wax precipitation and deposition would be expected. The shape of the
WDE, however, indicates that it would be possible to maintain the produced fluid outside and to the right by providing
adequate insulation and/or heating to the conduits carrying the fluid. These options were considered uneconomical, so the
challenge of potential wax deposition problems in the subsurface and surface facilities still remained.

3rd Study
The objectives of this experimental study were to conduct detailed characterization of the condensate and determine its WAT
and pour point. Figure 6 summarizes the results of the condensate characterization.

Fig. 6: Wax analysis

It can be seen that the characteristics of the condensate are typically paraffinic in nature. The detectable n-alkane carbon
number distribution was up to C56 in the condensate analysis content, determined by high temperature gas chromatography
(HTGC).

The WAT of the condensate was found to be 109.8 oF through cross polarized microscopy (CPM). The minimum and
maximum pour points were measured under atmospheric pressure using the ASTM D-5853 method and in accordance with
OTC 19160 7

the project field conditioning and treating temperature schemes. The pour points were found to be 0 oF and 5 oF, respectively
(expected to be lower under actual flow line operating conditions). The low congealing potential under operating
temperatures was confirmed by rheological study. This study was conducted to measure the viscosity trace of the condensate
as well as to confirm and graphically illustrate the viscosity reduction and pour point reduction performances that would be
achieved through paraffin inhibitor injection. The scans were run with parallel plate geometry at maximum stress values of
10 dynes/cm2 from 140°F to -4°F and at a 33.8 oF/minute cooling rate through the dynamic temperature ramp-test method.
The result of this study is shown in Figure 7.

Fig. 7: Viscosity vs. Temperature profile of the condensate

The semi-log plot of the condensate viscosity profile displays two break points, with the first one at about 109 oF, which is
the WAT, and the second one at 25 oF, which indicates the start of gel formation. The measured viscosity increases sharply
when the applied shear stress reaches the 10 dyne/cm2 limit. The second break point may reflect the pour point temperature
(just above congealing point) if the applied shear stress equals the shear induced by the gravity of the oil body in a pour point
measurement. In this case, the second break point does not match the pour point (5°F) because 10 dyne/cm2 is lower than the
gravity-induced shear. The evidence of formation of a very weak gel structure at 25°F, however, confirmed that congealing
oil is not a concern under the 40°F seabed operation conditions.

Since the pour points are much lower than the minimum operating temperature range (40 oF at seabed), production problems
related to high viscosity, congealing oil or pour point are not expected.

Paraffin deposition tests were conducted on a cold finger apparatus with untreated and chemically treated condensate.
Essentially, the cold finger device consists of a temperature-controlled metal probe that is inserted into samples of stirred
condensate for about 16 hours. The metal probe is set to a temperature below the condensate’s WAT so that paraffin will
deposit onto the cold metal surface. The weighed amount of paraffin deposited on probes after 16 hours of immersion in
untreated and chemically treated oils can be compared to provide a weight percent inhibition result. This result is essentially
the reduced amount of deposit, on a weight percent basis; that forms on a probe immersed in treated oil versus the amount of
deposit left by untreated crude oil. The initial cold finger testing was performed with the bulk condensate temperature
maintained at the condensate cloud point (110 ºF) and a cold finger temperature of 85 ºF. This test indicated a 25 ºF ΔT
driving force for deposition. These conditions were selected to simulate the initial region of the flow line where wax
deposition would begin, covering as long a section of flow line as possible without having an unreasonably large ΔT. This
portion of the flow line was simulated as it is typically the area in which wax deposition is the greatest. Stirring for the cold
finger apparatus was set at 1000 rpm.

The run at the higher temperature test conditions (the condensate temperature held at 110 oF and the cold finger at 85 oF)
resulted in a significant firm golden brown deposit – 318 g/m2. The run at the lower temperature test conditions (the
8 OTC 19160

condensate temperature held at 90 oF and the cold finger at 65 oF) produced a large amount of deposit – 2528 g/m2. This
deposit had a soft, congealed oil consistency. At the higher temperature conditions, the deposit had a melting point range of
149 °F to 167 °F. Under field production conditions with higher flow line shear forces and deposit aging occurring, flow line
wax deposition would be expected to form harder deposits over time. At the lower temperature conditions, the deposit had a
melting point range of 120 °F to 149 °F. A sample of the wax deposition after a low-temperature run is shown in Figure 8.

Fig. 8: Wax deposition on a cold finger

The three studies produced slightly different results. This is not uncommon in cases where each study involves different
techniques, methods, equipment and samples. The samples were collected during different phases of the completion
operation. This factor may be the main reason for the differences because of the percentage and nature of contamination in
each fluid sample.

All of the studies, however, resulted in a unified conclusion that this field’s condensate exhibits a severe wax deposition
tendency at flow line operating temperatures. Design calculations, considerations and assumptions must consider this reality
and must be formulated in a way that addresses this serious issue. The most conservative numbers must be considered in
order to design for the worst possible scenario.

Steady-State Analyses
The steady state modeling strategy involved modeling the thermal hydraulic performance of one 6-inch flow line at key
conditions in order to define the operating envelope. This study was carried out using the PIPESIM simulation program and
verified using the OLGA program. The robustness of the design, in terms of hydrate control, wax management, slugging,
blowdown, etc, was then tested against the various scenarios and changing conditions to ensure continual operability and,
where necessary, updating of flow assurance strategies. Figures 9, 10 and 11 show the results of the steady state modeling of
a single 6-inch flow line for the maximum flow rate of 35 mmscfd (Note: the simulation covers one well and the “Total
distance” in Figures 9, 10 and 11 refers to the distance from the reservoir to the host facility).
OTC 19160 9

210

190

170
Choke
SSCSSV
150

Temperature, F
130

110

90

70

50

30
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Total distance, miles

Fig. 9: Steady-state temperature profile

14000

SSCSSV
12000

SChoke
10000
Pressure, psia

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Total distance, miles

Fig. 10: Steady-state pressure profile

The results shown in Figure 9 reflect the consideration of convection heat transfer in the simulation (an elevated jumper and a
buried flow line in the seabed with the mudline located one inch above the centerline of the pipe). A drastic change in the
slope of the heat loss line appears to occur from 136 ºF downstream of the choke to the ambient temperature of 46 ºF within
less than a mile. Thus, the operating plan requires that paraffin inhibitor be injected.

Based on the static temperature gradient and as a precaution in case of any possible error in determining the actual WAT, the
surface-controlled subsurface valve (SCSSV) was designed to be set at a depth of 9,500 ft (MD). In addition, the simulation
results regarding liquid holdup variation across the system (Figure 11) aid in deciding where to locate the SCSSV and the
paraffin inhibitor injection port. The diagram shows that, during steady state operation, the SCSSV will be covered
completely by liquid.
10 OTC 19160

100

90

80
SSCSSV
70

Liquid holdup, %
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Total distance, miles

Fig. 11: Steady-state liquid holdup profile

Mitigation Programs
The design team concluded that wax accumulation was expected to be significant, and a program of paraffin inhibitor
application in conjunction with pigging operations was recommended to be considered, planned and designed. The use of a
combined paraffin inhibitor/pigging wax management strategy minimizes deferred production and enables easier pigging
operations through formation of softer deposit. The benefit of paraffin inhibitor application in such a case is to reduce the
frequency of pigging, thereby potentially saving deferred production costs.

A decision was made to set the paraffin inhibitor injection port at 18,162 ft MD underneath the SCSSV, which was
positioned at 9,500 ft MD. These positions were selected to allow sufficient time for the paraffin inhibitor to mix with the
condensate in order to protect the SCSSV, which would be submerged in liquid all the time (during steady state operation and
during prolonged periods of shutdown). The selected positions also ensured that all fluid above the SCSSV would be
inhibited and would not pose a threat during cold well start-up.

Paraffin inhibitor injection may not be sufficient to eliminate the problem of wax deposition when possible complications to
the subsea umbilical infrastructure might occur. Nevertheless, this strategy can assist in reducing the pigging frequency
because the inhibitor is injected below the SCSSV, where the temperature is above the WAT over the life cycle of the tie-
back.

The time required to pig the production flow lines and the amount of lost production during pigging operation are dependent
on operational and economical considerations. Two pigging studies were conducted: (1) traditional and (2) on-the-fly.
Traditional flow line pigging operation requires the system to be shut down prior to launching the pig; however, this strategy
results in significant loss of production if routine pigging is required. Therefore, to minimize this loss of production in cases
where routine pigging is required, “pigging on-the-fly” may be used. In this method, the flow lines are not shut down or
depressurized, and production continues to flow as the flow lines are displaced. The production rate during “pigging on-the-
fly” is reduced from peak flow conditions based on system capacity.

Production loss caused by traditional pigging operation in this case was calculated by multiplying the peak production rate of
70.0 mmscfd by the time required for the pigging operation. In this study, the range of expected pigging completion durations
was calculated based on the maximum and minimum pig velocities. The pig velocities were considered to range between 1.65
to 6.6 ft/sec. A pigging preparation time of approximately 1 hour at the start and 1 hour at the end of the pigging operation
was estimated. Pig velocities and positions are shown in Figure 12:
OTC 19160 11

Fig. 12: Pig velocity and position variations during the traditional pigging operation

In the pigging-on-the-fly operation, since production continues at a lower flow rate, lost production occurs, but not as much
as that occurring during traditional pigging operation. The procedure for conducting pigging on-the-fly consists of reducing
the flow rates from both wells, directing the flow toward one flow line, launching the pig in one line using gas compressor
and then using the produced gas to complete pigging the rest of the loop.

For the simulations investigated, the velocity may change drastically in the flow line, as shown in Figure 13:

Fig. 13: Pig velocity and position variations during the pigging-on-the-fly operation

Tables 1 and 2 below present the approximate calculated pigging durations and total delayed production for each of the
scenarios evaluated.

Table 1. Traditional pigging

Min Downtime Max Downtime
Depressurizing the flow line Not Required Not Required
Shutdown & “Pigging Prep time” 1 hour 1 hour
Pig the launching 6’’ flow line 4 hours @ 6.6 ft/s 15 hours @ 1.65 ft/s
Pig the return 6’’ flow line 4 hours @ 6.6 ft/s 15 hours @ 1.65 ft/s
Total Time 9 hours 31 hours
Total Delayed Production 25 mmscf 92 mmscf
12 OTC 19160

Table 2. Pigging on-the-fly

Min Downtime Max Downtime
Depressurizing the flow line Not Required Not Required
Flow rate Reduction & Pigging Preparation 1 hour 1 hour
time
Pig the launching 6’’ flow line 4 hours @ 6.6 ft /s 15 hours @ 1.65 ft /s
Pig the return 6’’ flow line 4 hours @ 6.6 ft /s 15 hours @ 1.65 ft /s
Total Time 9 hours 31 hours
Total Delayed Production 16 mmscf 58 mmscf

Table 3 lists the gas production rates that were considered in the calculation of the amount of production achieved during
pigging on-the-fly.
Table 3. Flow rates for pigging-on-the-fly
Operation Flow Rate through Flow rate through Total Rate
Launching line Return line (mmscfd) (mmscfd)
(mmscfd)
Flow rate Reduction & Pigging 0 12 12
Preparation time

Pig the first 6’’ flow line 0 12 12

Pig the second 6’’ flow line 35 10 except when 40
approaching the
platform, then 5

Transient studies were also conducted for the depressurization and restart operations. Table 4 below shows the results of the
restart operation.

Table 4. Results of the restart operation

Gas Flow rate, Pressure in the Initial temperature
mmscfd Flow line, psia downstream of the
o
choke, F
35 1,700 40
35 1,300 40
35 1,050 25
35 15 -16
15 1,700 29
15 1,300 20
15 1,050 -18
15 15 -28

It is obvious that restart should be made with the highest gas flow rate and with a pressure as close to 1,300 psia as possible
trapped in the flow line in order to yield the highest temperature downstream of the choke. If it is necessary to depressurize
the flow line to less than 1,300 psia, operating procedures require that the flow line first be repressurized to 1,300 psia.

Conclusions
Flow assurance threats can be identified and handled if they are discovered early and proper system design and operation
procedures are implemented. To select and deploy an appropriate flow assurance strategy, a fundamental understanding of
each solid’s characteristics is essential. Otherwise, minimizing capital and operating expenditures while minimizing risk is
difficult. To determine which problems may affect a given system, high-quality oil samples are needed for analysis and
testing. As a rule of thumb, always design for the worst possible case because early samples may not be representative of the
produced fluid due to contamination or slight fluid changes.

Like most of the fields in the GoM region, a number of unique characteristics contributed to the flow assurance challenges
associated with the Cottonwood field discussed in this paper.
OTC 19160 13

A systematic flow assurance analysis was performed both during Front End Engineering Design (FEED) and detailed
engineering. The following are key conclusions regarding the specific flow assurance challenges posed by potential wax
deposition in the Cottonwood production:
• Subsea system configuration was optimized based on available pressure requirements and the potential of wax
deposition.
• Results of three different studies revealed a potential for wax deposition issues.
• For Cottonwood, wax deposition is controlled primarily by chemical injection and periodic roundtrip pigging.
• The results of the simulation studies showed that pigging on-the-fly is more efficient than traditional pigging as there
is no need to shut down the wells and stop production. This conclusion may not be valid for other developments,
depending on the deliverability of each single flowline
• The results of the restart study indicated that well restarting would best be achieved with the highest gas flow rate
and with a pressure trapped in the flow lines.

Acknowledgment
The authors are indebted to Petrobras America Inc. for the permission to publish this paper. The authors also thank the staff of AMEC
Paragon Inc for their support. Special thanks go to Kenneth Arnold, David Arnold and Paul Shepherd for their contributions.