Building Services and Technology

Continuous Assessment 2
Portfolio of Calculations

Student Name: Stephen Duffy

ID Number: G00324453
Programme: B.S.c in Education (Design Graphics and
Construction)
Year: 4
Internal Examiner: Des Kelly
External Examiner: Mr. Tadhg O’ Sullivan
Submission Date: Monday 9th April 2018
 Light Calculations
1. Window Area Formula
𝐹𝑓
𝐸𝐼 = 𝐸𝐴 x f x n x
𝐹𝑏
window area(𝑚2 )
Lux Inside (lux) = lux outside (lux) x window factor (%) x efficiency coefficient (%) x floor area (𝑚2 )

 Lux inside = required level of light inside

 𝐸𝐴 = lux outside = standard overcast sky (ie 5000 lx) unless stated
otherwise
 F = window factor = the reduction in incident light due to the fact that
the window is in the vertical plane. This reduction is typically assumed to
be in the region of 50% and so, is given a constant value of 0.5 for
calculations.
 N = efficiency coefficient = the reduction in incident light due to factors
relating to the glazing (e.g. transmittance, cleanliness, reflection). For
calculations, this is given a constant value of 40% or 0.4.

Window Area Calculation – Worked Example

Question
A room measuring 5m by 4m, with an unobstructed view, requires an
illumination of 150 lux. Determine, using the degree of efficiency method, the
approximate area of the glazing required.
𝐹𝑓
𝐸𝐼 = 𝐸𝐴 x f x n x
𝐹𝑏
𝐹𝑓
150 = 5000 x 0.5 x 0.4 x
5𝑥4
𝐹𝑓
150 = 1000 x
20
𝐹𝑓
0.15 =
20

0.15 x 20 = 𝐹𝑓
𝐹𝑓 = 3𝑚2
 2. Luminous Flux Formula
F = I x 4π
Luminous flux (lm) = Intensity of source (cd) x 4π

Luminous Flux - Worked Example

Question
A lamp emits a total luminous flux of 1000 lm in all directions.
Calculate the luminous intensity of this light source and
round to the nearest candela.
Solution
F = I x 4π
1000 = I x 4π
1000
=I
4𝜋

I = 79.577 cd
I = 80 cd

3. Luminous Flux Formula II

F=Ixw
Luminous flux (lm) = Intensity of source (cd) X Solid flux angle/steradian

Luminous Flux II - Worked Example

Question
A point source of light has an intensity of 410 cd and radiates in all directions
uniformly. Calculate the quantity of flux flowing into a hemisphere.
Solution
F=Ixw
F = 410 x 2π
F = 2576.1059 lm

4. Illuminance Formula
𝐹
E=
𝐴
E = Illuminance of surface (Lux)
F = Luminous flux (lumen)
A = Area (𝑚2 )

5. Illumination Formula
𝐼
E=
𝑑2
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑐𝑑)
Illumination (Ix) =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)2

Illumination – Worked Example

Question
A lamp has an intensity of 400 cd and acts as a point source. Calculate the
illuminance produced on the surfaces at the following positions a) 1.5m and b)
3m from the lamp.
Solution
𝐼 𝐼
E= E=
𝑑2 𝑑2
400 400
E= E=
(1.5)2 (3)2

E = 177.77Ix E = 44.44lx
 6. Daylight Factor Formula
𝐸
DF = ( 𝐼 ) x 100% Daylight Factor = (
𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
) x 100%
𝐸𝐴 𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

Daylight Factor – Worked Example

Question
A light meter was used to measure the light on the top surface of a Technical
Graphics table. The illuminance measured was found to be 550 lux. The
external illuminance was also measured and was found to be 8,500 lux.
Calculate the percentage Daylight Factor.
Solution
𝐸
DF = ( 𝐼 ) x 100%
𝐸𝐴
550
DF = ( ) x 100%
8500

DF = 0.0647 x 100%
DF = 6.5%
 Heat Calculations
7. Thermal Resistivity/Conductivity Formula
Thermal Conductivity is a
measure of the rate at which
heat is conducted through a
material under very specific
conditions.

Thermal resistivity is a measure of the opposition to

heat transfer offered by a particular component in a
building element.
1 1
r= Resistivity (m°K/W) =
𝑘 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑊/𝑚𝐶)

Thermal Resistivity/Conductivity – Worked Example 1

Question
Clay brickwork on the exterior leaf of a building has thermal conductivity of
0.77 W/mk find its resistivity.
Solution
1
r=
𝑘
1
r=
0.77

r = 1.298 m°K/w

Thermal Resistivity/Conductivity – Worked Example 2

Question
External render of a building has thermal resistivity of 2.17 m°K/w find its
conductivity.
Solution
1
r=
𝑘
 1
2.17 =
𝑘
1
k=
2.17

k = 0.46 W/mk

8. Thermal Resistance Formulas

R=rxT Resistance (m²°c/W) = Resistivity x Thickness
𝑇 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
R= Resistance (m²°c/W) =
𝑘 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 +𝑅2 + 𝑅3 Total Resistance = Resistance 1 + Resistance 2…

Thermal Resistance – Worked Example 1

Question
A solid concrete wall has resistivity of 6.25 m°K/w and a thickness of 22.5cm
find its thermal resistance.
Solution
R=rxT
R = 6.25 x 0.225
R = 0.26775 m²°c/W

Thermal Resistance – Worked Example 2

Question
The internal plaster of the wall above is 13mm thick and has a 0.16 W/mk
conductivity rating, find its resistance.
Solution
𝑇
R=
𝑘
0.013
R=
0.16

R = 0.08125 m²°c/W
Thermal Resistance – Worked Example 3
Question
The external render of the same wall mentioned above has a resistance of
0.03472 m²°c/W, the internal surface has resistance of 0.122 and the external
surface has resistance of 0.048. Find the total resistance of the wall using all
elements.
Solution
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 +𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +𝑅4 + 𝑅5
𝑅𝑇 = 0.26775 + 0.08125 + 0.03472 + 0.122 + 0.048
𝑅𝑇 = 0.55372 m²°c/W

9. U-value Formula
1 1
U= U-value (W/𝑚2 𝐾) =
𝑅𝑇 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑚²°𝑐/𝑊)

U-value – Worked Example

Question
Using the total resistance found in the previous example find the U-value of
the wall.
Solution
1
U=
𝑅𝑇
1
U=
0.55372

U = 1.806 W/𝑚2 𝐾
U = 1.8 W/𝑚2 𝐾 (This does not comply with the 2011 regulations displayed below)

Current (2011) Building Regulations (TGDL page17)

Building Element Maximum acceptable U-value (W/𝑚2 𝑘)
Roof (pitched with horizontal insulation) 0.16
Roof (pitched with parallel insulation) 0.16
Roof (flat) 0.2
Wall 0.21
Floor 0.21
Window/Door/Rooflight 1.6

Adjusting U-value – Worked Example

Question
An uninsulated cavity wall has a U-value of 0.85W/𝑚2 𝐾. What the minimum
thickness of insulation board with a thermal conductance of 0.025W/mk, must
be added to achieve a U-value which complies with current regulations?
Solution
1 𝑇
U= R= 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 +𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅𝑇 𝑘

0.21W/𝑚2 𝑘 = Desired U-value

1
0.21 =
𝑅𝑇

𝑅𝑇 = 4.76190 m²°c/W = Total resistance needed.

0.85W/𝑚2 𝑘 = Current U-value

1
0.85 =
𝑅𝑇

𝑅𝑇 = 1.17647 m²°c/W = Current resistance of wall.

4.76190 – 1.17647 = 3.58543 m²°c/W Resistance needed from insulation.
 𝑇
R=
𝑘
𝑇
3.58543 =
0.025

T = 0.0896m of insulation needed.

10. Combined Heat Routes/Thermal Bridge

Formulas
When different materials are used in a wall, a different method of calculation
is required to find the U-value of the wall. E.g. the timber frame below. There
is more than one path for heat to travel through (insulation and timber stud).
In this case we need a more
accurate calculation to find
the U-value.
It works by taking the mean
of the two values:

The first value is calculated by treating each heat flow path separately, as seen
below.

The second is calculated by combining the materials, as seen below.

Upper limit resistance
1
𝑅𝑈 = 𝐹 𝐹
[( 1 )+( 2 )]
𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑅𝑈 = Upper limit resistance

𝐹1 = the fractional area of heat flow through Path 1 (i.e. the percentage make-
up of that material)
𝐹2 = the fractional area of heat flow through Path 2
𝑅1 = the total resistance of Path 1
𝑅2 = the total resistance of Path 2
Lower limit resistance
1
𝑅𝑏 = 𝐹 𝐹
[( 1 )+( 𝑠 )]
𝑅1 𝑅𝑠

𝑅𝑙 = Lower limit resistance

𝐹1 = the fractional area of heat flow through Path 1
𝐹𝑠 = the fractional area of heat flow through Path 2
𝑅1 = the resistance of Path 1 (insulation)
𝑅𝑠 = the resistance of Path 2 (bridge)
Once the upper and lower resistance values are got, they are put into the
formula below to find the average and the total resistance of the building
element.
𝑅𝑈 +𝑅𝑙
𝑅𝑇 =
2
Worked Example
 a. Calculate the U-value for a timber frame wall using the following data:
b. See if it complies with regulations
Timber studs are at 400mm centres.
Element Conductivity Resistivity Thickness Resistance
W/mK mK/W m 𝑚2 K/W
External
- - - 0.53
Surface
Brick 0.77 1.3 0.1 0.129
Cavity - - - 0.176
Ply Sheathing 0.13 7.69 0.012 0.092
Insulation 0.024 41.67 0.15 6.25
Studs 0.13 7.69 0.15 1.153
Plasterboard 0.25 4 0.013 0.052
Internal
- - - 0.123
Surface
We must find an upper and lower resistance to find the total resistance.
First, we must find the resistance of the two paths.
Insulation Path Stud Path
Element Resistance Element Resistance
External Surface 0.53 External Surface 0.53
Brick 0.129 Brick 0.129
Cavity 0.176 Cavity 0.176
Ply Sheathing 0.092 Ply Sheathing 0.092
Insulation 6.25 Studs 1.153
Plasterboard 0.052 Plasterboard 0.052
Internal Surface 0.123 Internal Surface 0.123
Total 6.87 Total 1.78

1
𝑅𝑈 = 𝐹 𝐹
[( 1 )+( 2 )]
𝑅1 𝑅2

1
𝑅𝑈 = 0.875 0.125
[( 6.87 )+( 1.78 )]

1
𝑅𝑈 =
0.197

𝑅𝑈 = 5.08
Next, we need to find the lower resistance.
1
𝑅𝑏 = 𝐹 𝐹
[( 1 )+( 𝑠 )]
𝑅1 𝑅𝑠

1
𝑅𝑏 = 0.875 0.125
[( 6.25 )+(1.153)]

1
𝑅𝑏 =
0.248

𝑅𝑏 = 4.03
We must now get the total resistance including this figure for insulation and
studs combined.
Element Resistance
External Surface 0.53
Brick 0.129
Cavity 0.176
Ply Sheathing 0.092
Bridge Section 6.25
Plasterboard 0.052
Internal Surface 0.123
Total 4.62

Now that we have our upper and lower resistance values we can put them into
the 𝑅𝑇 formula.
𝑅𝑈 +𝑅𝑙
𝑅𝑇 =
2
5.08+4.62
𝑅𝑇 =
2

𝑅𝑇 = 4.88 𝑚2 K/W
1
U=
4.88

U = 0.205W/𝑚2 𝑘
As this U-value is less than the maximum acceptable U-value of 0.21W/𝑚2 𝑘.
It does comply with the 2011 regulations.
 11. Rate of heat loss formula
Rate of heat loss = T x 𝑇𝑑 x A
RHL (W) = Thermal transmittance (U-value) x Difference in temp x Area

Rate of heat loss – Worked Example

Question
An external wall of a house measures 10m by 2.5m, has a U-value of
0.85W/𝑚2 𝑘. The temperature outside is 8°C and the desired inside
temperature is 22°C. Calculate the rate of heat loss through the wall.
Solution
T x 𝑇𝑑 x A
0.85 x 14 x (10x2.5)
RHL = 297.5W

12. Heating Costs Formula

T x R x A x P x Td Time x U−value x Area x Price x Temp diff
1000C 1000 x Calorific value of fuel

Heating Costs – Worked Example

Question
An external wall with an area of 150𝑚2 and a U-value of 1.25W/𝑚2 𝑘 is to be
heated for 8hours per day for 40 weeks in the year. Calculate how much it
would cost if the price of oil is 65 cents per litre with a calorific value of
35,500kj/litre. The average outside temp is 6°C and the average in door temp is
18°C.
Solution
T = 60 x 60 x 8 x 7 x 40 = 8064000 seconds
R = 1.25 A = 150 P = 0.65 euro
𝑇𝑑 = 18 – 6 = 12 C = 35,500kj
T x R x A x P x Td
1000C
8,064,000 x 1.25 x 150 x .65 x 12 11,793,600,000
= = €332.21
1000(35,500) 35,500,000

Sound Calculations
13. Measurement of Sound
Sound Power (P)(Watt): Rate at which sound energy is produced at the source.
Sound Intensity (I)(W/𝑴𝟐 ): Rate at which sound is received over a given
surface.
𝑃
I=
4𝜋𝑟 2
Sound Pressure (p)(Pascal): Average variation in atmosphere caused by the
sound.

14. Absorption Value Formula

Absorption (A) = Area (𝑚2 ) x Absorption Coefficient
Absorption Value – Worked Example
Question
Calculate the total absorption of a hall by filling in the table below.
Surface Area (𝑚2 ) Absorption Absorption
Coefficient
Plaster on Solid 612 0.03 18.35
Plasterboard on 650 0.12 78
ceiling
Wood block floor 650 0.06 39
Curtain 68 0.5 34
Total Absorption 169.35

15. Reverberation Time (Sabine’s) Formula

0.16𝑉 0.16 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑚
T= Reverberation Time =
𝐴 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑚
Reverberation Time – Worked Example
Question
Using your given answer above, calculate the reverberation time for the hall
with a volume of 3440𝑚3 .
Solution
0.16𝑉
T=
𝐴
0.16(3440)
T=
169.35

T = 3.25 seconds.

Electricity Calculations
16. Wattage Calculation
P=IxV Watts (W) = Voltage (V) x Current (Amps)

Wattage Calculation – Worked Example

Question
How much power is supplied to a belt sander that draws 15 amps using 120
volts?
Solution
P=IxV
P = 15 x 120
P = 1800 W

17. Power Usage Calculation

Kwh = AR x T kwh = Appliance Rating x Time

Power Usage – Worked Example

Question
Calculate the number of units used if an electric heater rated at 2 kilowatts is
left on for 6 hours. Then find out how much it would cost at 8.81 cent per kWh.
Solution
KWh = AR x T
kWh = 2 x 6
kWh = 12kWh
Cost = 12 x 8.81
Cost = 105.72
Cost = €1.06

References
Mr. Des Kelly’s lecture slides.
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